Common errors in the use of negative prefixes to nouns and adjective

HANOI PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY N02 FOREIGN LANGUAGES FALCULTY  LUONG THI MY THIEU COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF NEGATIVE PREFIXES TO NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT

HANOI PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY N02 FOREIGN LANGUAGES FALCULTY



LUONG THI MY THIEU

COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF NEGATIVE PREFIXES TO

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES (SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS

IN ENGLISH)

SUPERVISOR: NGUYEN VAN DEN, M.A

Hanoi, May 2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this chance to express my greatest gratitude to Mr Nguyen Van Den, M.A., my supervisor, for his patience in providing continuous and careful guidance as well as encouragement, indispensable suggestions and advice

Also, I would like to express my particular thanks to all my beloved lecturers, who always motivated and encouraged me to finish my thesis early Especially, I would like to show my sincere thanks to the junior students in class K35 in the Foreign Language Faculty, who helped me with my questionnaire

I am particularly grateful to all my friends for their precious assistance throughout the process of writing this thesis

Last but not least, I owe a debt of gratitude to my beloved family, for their whole – hearted encouragement and endless support

ABSTRACT

Negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives are a unique and interesting category of English grammar The number of negative prefixes is very large, and each prefix has its own characteristics as well as uses Therefore, they sometimes cause confusion to learners of English

As a result, students of English often make errors when they use negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives Therefore, this research work entails studying the uses of these negative prefixes and conducting a survey for error analysis

Based on the results of the survey, the types of errors and causes have been found Solutions to the problems have been suggested

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

Title: Common Errors in the Use of Negative Prefixes

to Nouns and Adjectives

I certify that no part of this thesis has been copied from any other person’s work without acknowledgements and that the thesis is originally written by me under the instructions from my supervisor

Date submitted: April, 24

Luong Thi My Thieu Nguyen Van Den, M.A

PART ONE INTRODUCTION Acknowledgments

Abstract

Statement of authorship

I RATI0NALE 1

II RESEARCH PRESUPPOSITION 2

III RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 2

IV RESEARCH SCOPE 2

V RESEARCH TASKS 3

VI RESEARCH METHODS 3

VII RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE 3

VIII RESEARCH DESIGN 4

PART TWO DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER ONE: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND I.1 LITERATURE REVIEW IN BRIEF 5

I.2 NEGATIVE PREFIXES TO NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 6

I.2.1 English word – formation 6

I.2.1.1 Definition of word – formation 7

I.2.1.2 Productivity of word – formation 7

I.2.1.3 Kinds of word – formation 8

I.2.1.3.1 Affixation 8

I.2.1.3.2 Compounding 8

I.2.1.3.3 Shortening 9

I.2.1.3.4 Conversion 9

I.2.1.3.5 Back – formation 10

I.2.1.3.6 Sound imitation 10

I.2.2 Affixation 11

I.2.2.1 Definition of an affixation 11

I.2.2.2 Common kinds of affixation 11

I.2.3 Prefixation 11

I.2.3.1 Definition of prefixation 11

I.2.3.2 Classification of English prefixes 12

I.2.3.2.1 Regarding etymology 12

I.2.3.2.2 Regarding uses 12

I.2.3.2.3 Regarding semantics 13

I.2.3.3 Definition of negative prefixes 13

I.2.3.3.1 Definition of negative prefixes to nouns 13

I.2.3.3.2 Definition of negative prefixes to adjectives 13

I.2.4 Common features of negative prefixes 14

I.2.4.1 Negative prefixes and parts of speech 14

I.2.4.2 English prefixes and stress on derivatives 14

I.2.4.3 Negative prefixes used mainly in medicine: anti-, contra-, counter-, dys-, ex-, extra-, mal-, de-, a- 14

I.2.4.4 Other features of negative prefixes 15

I.2.5 Kinds and uses of negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives 15

I.2.5.1 Basic negative prefixes 16

I.2.5.1.1 The prefix a- /(an-) 16

I.2.5.1.2 The prefix dis- 16

I.2.5.1.3 The prefix in-, ir-, il-, im- 17

I.2.5.1.4 The prefix non- 18

I.2.5.1.5 The prefix un- 19

I.2.5.2 Negative prefixes expressing diverse opinions 20

I.2.6 Differences among prefixes 23

I.2.6.1 Difference between un- and dis- 23

I.2.6.2 Difference between non- and un- 24

I.2.6.3 Difference between anti- and counter- 24

CHAPTER TWO: COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF NEGATIVE PREFIXES TO NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES II.1 SURVEY 25

II.1.1 Purpose of the survey 26

II.1.2 Population of the survey 26

II.1.3 Type of the survey 26

II.1.4 Construction of the survey 27

II.1.5 Preparation of the survey 27

II.1.5.1 Questionnaire items 27

II.1.5.2 Arrangement of the test items 28

II.1.6 Administration of the try-out 29

II.1.6.1 Preparation of the try-out 29

II.1.6.2 Try-out 29

II.1.7 Method of data analysis 30

II.1.8 Results of the survey 30

II.2 ERRORS: TYPES AND CAUSES 32

II.2.1 Errors in the distinction of meanings between un- and dis- 32

II.2.2 Errors in the distinction of words whose initial letters are the same as negative prefixes but whose meanings are different 33

II.2.2.1 Errors in the distinction of the prefix un- with negative meaning and un- with the meaning of do the verse 33

II.2.2.2 Errors in the distinction of the prefixes in- and im- with negative meaning and those referring to place or movement 34

II.2.2.3 Errors in the distinction of the prefixes a- and an- with negative

meaning and those with the meaning of being in a particular condition or

way; or the meaning of being in, to, at or on something 35

II.2.2.4 Errors in the distinction of prefixes in-, im- with negative meaning and in- with the meaning of emphasis 36

II.2.2.5 Errors in the distinction of the prefix non- with negative meaning and non- with the meaning of nine 37

II.2.3 Errors in the addition of the prefix in- to certain adjectives having suffix -ed and ing 37

II.2.4 Errors in the identification of part of speech of words having negative prefixes 38

II.2.5 Errors in the determination of different spelling forms of the negative prefix in- to various roots 39

II.2.6 Errors in the determination of negative prefixes to different parts of speech of the same word 39

II.2.7 Errors in the determination of stress on words with negative prefixes 40 II.2.8 Errors in the addition of the prefix un- to the common words which have the opposite 41

II.2.9 Errors in the addition the prefix non- to verbs 41

II.2.10 Errors in the use of the prefix a- with negative meaning and this prefix with the meaning of to or towards 41

II.3 SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS AND EXERCISES 42

II.3.1 Suggested solutions 42

II.3.2 Suggested exercises 45

PART THREE CONCLUSION

PART ONE INTRODUCTION

I RATIONALE

English is used as an international language in many countries all over the world In Vietnam as well as in other countries, there is a greater and greater need to learn English, from young to old, and from male to female Therefore, English is taught in Vietnam at every educational level Vietnamese learners have to face many difficulties or obstacles when they learn this international language because each language has its own origin, characteristics and values It is inevitable that when learning English as a foreign language, Vietnamese students usually have problems on account

of the differences between Vietnamese and the target language The differences in the system of language may bring about learning problems for foreign language learners

It is proved that English grammar is complex and often causes embarrassment to students especially in communication Negative prefixes are one of the grammatical items that play an important role in learning and communicating as well Negative prefixes are used widely However, using these prefixes correctly and effectively is rather complex Negative prefixes consist of plentiful meanings, forms and characteristics as well Students find it hard to realize the similarities and differences between English negative prefixes Of course, in learning English in general and negation in particular, being influenced by the mother tongue is unavoidable Due to its various uses, it is assumed that there are many errors which may be made

As a senior student in the Foreign Languages Faculty, this thesis is accomplished with the hope of making a contribution to the process of adding negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives For the reasons above,

this study is conducted with the aim of focusing on errors in using negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives

II RESEARCH PRESUPPOSITION

Some questions are raised:

1 What kinds of errors in using negative prefixes are made by the junior students in the Foreign Languages Faculty?

2 What kinds of errors in the addition of negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives are the most often made by the junior students in the Foreign Languages Faculty?

3 What are the causes of the errors in using negative prefixes made by the junior students in the Foreign Languages Faculty?

4 What are the effective ways to minimize the errors made by the junior students in the Foreign Languages Faculty?

III RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The study is aimed at the following goals:

1 To find out the kinds of errors in the use of negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives made by the junior students in the Foreign Languages Faculty

2 To find out the causes of the errors in the use of negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives made by the junior students in the Foreign Languages Faculty

3 To offer some suggestions to minimize errors in using negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives

IV RESEARCH SCOPE

The general research area of this study is grammar The phenomenon is the errors in using negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives made by the junior students in the Foreign Languages Faculty Others relating to the negative

prefixes are also briefly mentioned The population involved in the study is sixty three students in class K35A and K35B

V RESEARCH TASKS

The study involves fulfilling the following tasks:

1 To study the definition, formation, classification and meanings of negative prefixes in English

2 To study the grammatical features of negative prefixes in English

3 To conduct a survey to find out error types and causes of negative prefixes in English On the basis of the findings, some suggested teaching methods are sought to minimize the students’ errors

VI RESEARCH METHODS

To achieve the objectives of the study, the following methods have been applied:

1 Collecting data from books

2 Consulting the supervisor, experienced teachers and friends

3 Synthesizing theoretical materials on English grammar and linguistics

4 Conducting a survey and analyzing the results

VII RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE

Errors in any language teaching and learning, particularly in English as a foreign language, are sometimes predictable and sometimes unpredictable Therefore, it is essential for teachers to give better treatment to anticipate errors After the research, it is hoped that the result will be helpful to provide:

1 Input for learners of English in order to have better understanding about negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives in English

2 Input for learners in order to minimize their errors in using negative prefixes

3 Input for teachers of English with information on error types and solutions to the problems in order to help their students have a deep insight into negative prefixes

VIII RESEARCH DESIGN

The research work has three main parts: Introduction, Development,

and Conclusion The part Development consists of two chapters

Chapter one Theoretical Background consists of two sections

Section one presents literature review in brief and section two deals with negative prefixes in English in terms of definition, types, and forms Moreover, the differences among the negative prefixes are mentioned as well

Chapter two is Common errors in the use of negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives It describes the research method It is composed of three sections Section one is devoted to the survey The second deals with error types and causes The last one is on solutions to the problems and suggested exercises on negative prefixes

PART TWO DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER ONE: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND I.1 LITERATURE REVIEW IN BRIEF

Negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives have been dissected by many grammarians like Roger Lass (1999), Peter S Gardner, (2005), Zeki Hamawand,( 2011), Osamu Imahayashi and Yoshiyuki Nakao (2010), Julie Coleman and Christian Kay (1998) and so on They have accessed negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives in their own ways It is visible that their contributions are so great Generally, they often focus their attention on the kinds and uses of negative prefixes

Pavol Stekauer in the book An Onomasiological Theory of English

Word-formation (1998) studies the definition of word – formation as well

as the process of coining a new naming unit (words) and productivity of word – formation processes Studying word – formation is the foundation for studying negative prefixes

In the book The Cambridge History of the English Language, Roger

Lass (1999) traces the development of the English language in orthography and punctuation, phonology and morphology, syntax, lexis and semantics, regional and social variations, especially history, characteristics and productivity of negative prefixes

The book Introduction to English Linguistics by Ingo Plag (2007)

introduces beginning university students to the study of English linguistics, with a strong focus on linguistic analysis and argumentation; especially, Ingo Plag shows the major methods of word – formation such as affixation, compounding, conversion, and so on and features of prefixes

In Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, the author

explains the definition, origin of negative prefixes as well as gives precise illustrations for them

Thomas Tsoi (2008) in a study on the website http://www.linglish.net

discusses the meaning, origins, productivity and especially ways to classify negative prefixes

Jacek Fasiak (1986) in the book Linguistics across Historical and

Geographical Boundaries studies the characteristics as well as uses of

negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives

Dzuganova B (2006) in his series of studies about affixes in

medicine like Negative Affixes in Medical English and Seemingly or

Partially Negative Affixes in Medical English describes the uses,

characteristics and productivity of medical affixes that are sometimes considered to be negative prefixes He also makes comparisons among prefixes in his surveys

In short, much research has been conducted on the negative prefixes

to nouns and adjectives Most grammarians focus on definitions, forms, characteristics and productivity of these prefixes However, not many researchers have studied the differences among negative prefixes as well as the errors often made by learners In addition, the errors students make when using negative prefixes have not been studied specifically and profoundly Therefore, it is essential to have a comprehensive study of the common errors in negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives

I.2 NEGATIVE PREFIXES TO NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

I.2.1 English word – formation

The existence of words is usually taken for granted by speakers of a language To speak and understand a language means knowing the words

of that language The average speaker knows thousands of words, and new words enter our minds and our language on a daily basis Word formation

is one of the most useful methods to coin new words

I.2.1.1 Definition of word – formation

According to Pavol Stekauer (1998) in An Onomasiological Theory of

English Word-formation, word – formation studies the process of coining

new naming units in accordance with the naming needs of a speech community

Pavol Stekauer also mentions the view of S Thompson (1975: 332) about productivity of word – formation S Thompson defines the productive process as one “which accounts for a speaker’s ability to form and understand new words.” Productive lexical processes provide an opportunity to denominate things for which there is no word in lexicon

Roger Lass (1999) in the book The Cambridge History of the English

Language also states that word – formation is concerned with the patterns

of language on which new lexemes are formed It accounts for composites which are analyzable both formally and semantically

Word formation is the process of creating new words from the material available in the language following certain structures and semantic formulas and patterns

Word – building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary There are certain main ways of word-building in modern English, for example, affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation, sound and stress interchange, sound imitation, blends, and back formation

I.2.1.2 Productivity of word – formation

Methods of creating new words are considered to be really productive However, their productivity remains one of the most contested areas in the

study of word formation, and several authors have studied this specifically Assessing the productivity of word – building must be based on the meanings and usefulness of new words created There are many newly formed words which are really productive; some others are rather productive; certain new words are less productive; and some are unproductive Due to the limited time and conditions, the productivity of all ways of word – formation cannot be covered The thesis only lists principal ways according to the degree of productivity

I.2.1.3 Kinds of word – formation

I.2.1.3.1 Affixation

Affixation is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to the stems Therefore, affixation is divided into prefixation and suffixation because derivational affixes consist of prefixes and suffixes

According to Ingo Plag, Maria Braun, Sabine lappe, Mareile Scramm

(2007) in the book Introduction to English Linguistics, affixation is one

common strategy of creating new words, namely adding affixes to existing bases

For example:

WORD

I.2.1.3.2 Compounding

Compounding is the building of a new word by joining two or more words This way of word formation is very popular in English For example:

school gate, dining – room, headmaster

Compounds usually have two stems The second element usually expresses

a general meaning In a sentence, compounds can function as separate lexical units From different viewpoints, there are different ways to classify English compounds: in terms of part of speech, componential relationship

or meaning, and so on

We often deal with compounds classified according to part of speech In this way, compounds consist of:

- Compound nouns: bedroom, heart attack

- Compound verbs: whitewash

- Compound adjectives: self – confident

- Compound prepositions: into, onto

According to Ingo Plag (2003) in the book Word – formation in English,

compounds generally have leftward stress

I.2.1.3.3 Shortening

Shortening is the formation of a new word by creating roots from new morphemes There are different ways to produce shortenings such as abbreviation and blending

- Abbreviations are composed of acronyms and clippings

For example: BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)

VIP (Very Important Person)

- Blending is a special type of shortening where parts of words merge into a new word

For example: smog (mixture of fog and smoke)

brunch (a late morning meal eaten instead of

breakfast and lunch)

I.2.1.3.4 Conversion

Conversion is the process of coining a new word in a different part of speech and with a difference in distribution characteristics without adding any derivative elements

hand to hand

In this way of word formation, we do not have to add any morphemes to the available words Therefore, conversion is an extremely productive way

of producing new words in English

I.2.1.3.5 Back – formation

The great majority of back formations in English are verbs In the light of modern data, back – formation can be defined as the formation of new lexemes by the deletion of actual or supposed affixes in longer words The process can be seen from the formula below, which uses the examples

of editor and exhibitor

I.2.1.3.6 Sound imitation

Sound imitation is the meaning of an action or thing couched by a more or

less exact reproduction of a sound associated with it, e.g word naming

sounds and movement of water: bubble and gush

According to the source of sound, words fall into a few definite groups First, many verbs denote sounds produced by human beings in

communicating or expressing their feelings, e.g murmur, chatter, whisper, and etc Second, many sounds are produced by animals, e.g mew, crow, and etc Next, verbs imitate the sound of water like bubble, plash, and etc

In addition, some sounds imitate the noise of metallic things of forceful

motion like twinkle, whip, crash, and etc

I.2.2 Affixation

I.2.2.1 Definition of an affixation

According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, an affix is

a group of letters added to the beginning or end of a word to change its

meaning or use, such as un-, mis-, -ness, or -ly

On the website thefreedictionary.com, the author says that an affix is a

word element, such as a prefix or suffix that can only occur attached to a base, stem, or root

As mentioned above, affixation is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to the stems

The website thefreedictionary.com also gives the definition of affixation

That is the formation of a word by means of an affix

I.2.2.2 Common kinds of affixation

Affixation consists of prefixation and suffixation

Prefixation rarely forms a new part of speech and can be classified in many ways, either according to their origin or function or meaning

Suffixation often changes the meaning of the stems, both in lexical and grammatical meaning Suffixation also transfers words into different parts

of speech

I.2.3 Prefixation

I.2.3.1 Definition of prefixation

Prefixation is the formation of new words with the help of prefixes or in

other words, by means of prefixes (according to thefreedictionary.com)

For example:

From the above examples, these prefixes il-, counter- and dis- are used to

modify the meaning of the original roots to create new words

Prefixation brings about another way of broadening vocabulary and learning English new words When mastering the meaning of these prefixes, learners can guess the meaning of newly – formed words

I.2.3.2 Classification of English prefixes

I.2.3.2.1 Regarding etymology

Many English words were borrowed from other languages, mainly from Greek, French and Latin A large number of affixes also originated from these languages Therefore, English prefixes have been classified according

to their origin as follows:

- Old English origin: a-, over-, un-, mis-, and etc

- Greek origin : apo-, hemi-, pare-, and etc

- Latin and Latin – French: ab-, bi-, de-, non-, in- (il-, ir-, im-), and

etc

I.2.3.2.2 Regarding uses

English prefixes are also divided based on their uses

For example:

Negation: un-, il-, non-, mis-, dis, and etc

Space and time relations: fore-, pre-, over-, super-, and etc

Number: uni-, mono-, tri-, tetra, and etc

I.2.3.2.3 Regarding semantics

According to Thomas Tsoi (2008), even though we may say all the negative prefixes carry a negative, opposite force, there are in fact differences between their meanings

For example, the prefix anti- does not merely mean not, but against So if someone is anti – sexist, it is not just the case that the person is not sexist, but he or she is in fact against sexism The three prefixes dis-, in- and un-

are very similar in meaning They often show a state on the opposite end of

the scale Therefore if somebody is impolite, he is not just being not polite, but in fact rude If something is untrue, it is false They are distinguished from non-, which expresses a simple negation If something is

nonreligious, it is not necessarily antireligious or irreligious, but just has

nothing to do with religion

I.2.3.3 Definition of negative prefixes

A negative prefix is a prefix which carries a negative meaning not, opposite

of According to Jacek Fasiak (1986) in the book Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries, adjectives are claimed to include

negative prefixes if they convey a meaning of evaluation; denote the

absence of something or if they are matched by obvious simplex opposites

For example: un-, in-(il-, im-, ir-), non-, dis, anti-, ab-, contra-, mis-, and

etc

I.2.3.3.1 Definition of negative prefixes to nouns

A negative prefix added to a noun is called a negative prefix to nouns

For example: non – aggression, misinformation, antibody, and etc

I.2.3.3.2 Definition of negative prefixes to adjectives

A negative prefix added to an adjective is called a negative prefix to

adjectives

For example: inaccurate, unaided, immaculate, and etc

I.2.4 Common features of negative prefixes

I.2.4.1 Negative prefixes and parts of speech

Negative prefixes do not usually change the part of speech of the newly – formed words that they are attached to They have the role of modifying the lexical meaning of these words In other words, negative prefixes change the meaning of words, but do not cause the part of speech to change

For example:

legal (adjective) illegal (adjective)

application (noun) misapplication (noun)

mature (adjective) immature (adjective)

I.2.4.2 English negative prefixes and stress on derivatives

Almost English negative prefixes do not have an effect on the stress of newly – formed words According to many scholars, productive prefixes normally have a light stress on their first syllable, and the main stress of the word falls on the base

For example:

ROOT NEGATIVE PREFIXES

appropriate (stress on 2nd syllable) misappropriate (stress on 3rd

syllable) accountable (stress on 2nd syllable) unaccountable: (stress on 3rd

syllable)

I.2.4.4 Negative prefixes used mainly in medicine: anti-, contra-,

counter-, dys-, ex-, extra-, mal-, de-, a-

Among negative prefixes, certain prefixes are often used in medical terms

such as anti-, contra-, counter-, dys-, ex-, extra-, ma-l, de-, a-

For example, Dzuganova B (2006) has given some medical terms with

negative prefixes such as anoxia (absence of oxygen), asexuality (having

no evident sex or sex organs), dispensary (a place where medicine and medical supplies are given out), nondisjunction (failure of two homologous

chromosomes to pass to separate cells during the first division of meiosis),

non infectious (not infectious), undress (take off one’s clothes)

Thefreedictionary.com also mentions these medical terms such as extracardiac (outside the heart), maladjusted (appearing unable to maintain

effective relationships needed to fit into the environment and showing

irritability, depression, and other psychogenic conditions), counteractive

(opposing or neutralizing or mitigating an effect by contrary action),

antibacterial (destroying or inhibiting the growth of bacteria)

I.2.4.5 Other features of negative prefixes

Besides the above features, negative prefixes also have certain other characteristics Almost negative prefixes cannot be used alone as words

For example: un- in unabated

im- in impractical

However, there are still some prefixes that may stand alone and can be used

as an independent word

For example: under- in underline

over- in overdo

Negative prefixes may have one or more meanings The prefix un- means

not in the words unable, unhappy, and so on, but has the meaning of do the verse in the words unfold, undo, unwrapped

I.2.5 Kinds and uses of negative prefixes to nouns and adjectives

I.2.5.1 Basic negative prefixes

I.2.5.1.1 The prefix a-/ an-

According to Thomas Tsoi (2008), the prefix a-/ an- originated from Greek and has medium productivity Its meaning is not or without, for example,

amoral (without morals), atypical (not typical)

The prefix a-/ an- is added to adjectives to form new adjectives which

mean that someone or something does not have the feature or quality like the original adjectives

For example: apolitical, achromatic, atheistic, asexual, asocial, and so on

In addition, a- (an)- also goes with noun bases, as in asymmetry and

anarchy

According to Margaret Ann Richek (2011) in the book The World of

Words: Vocabulary for College Success, the prefix a(n)- is used in many

medical words, such as aphasia (without speech) and anesthetic (without

feeling, referring to chemicals that make patients unable to experience pain during a medical procedure)

I.2.5.1.2 The prefix dis-

The prefix dis- is considered to be one of the most productive negative prefixes According to thefreedictionary.com, it came into English during

the Middle English period, from Latin dis- in part; in some cases, via Old French des- In compound words of Latin origin, dis- becomes dif- before f and di- before some consonants

In general, the prefix dis- conveys the meaning not, absence of, opposite of when it goes with nouns, adverbs and adjectives, for example, disinterest,

disfavor, and so on Besides, it also has the meaning of deprive of or remove when it is added to verbs for example, disfranchise, disbud, and

etc

Dis- has a great ability to combine with different bases belonging to

different parts of speech like adjectives, adverbs, nouns and verbs When added to verbs, it describes processes in order to form new verbs describing the opposite processes

When added to adjectives or nouns, dis- has the meaning of the reverse or

opposite of the state, attitude, quality which the adjectives or nouns describe

For example:

Disaffected members have left to form a new party

He has put himself at a disadvantage

Besides the word with the prefix dis-, there are a large number of words which have the initial letter dis, but they do not belong to negative prefixes

They express other meanings Therefore, learners should be cautious so as not to misunderstand them

For example: discourse (a series of speech or pieces of writing on a

particular subject)

disregard (to ignore something or treat it as unimportant)

I.2.5.1.3 The prefix in-, ir-, il-, im-

According to Thomas Tois (2008), the prefix in- (il-, ir-, im-) originated from Latin and have medium productivity It carries the meaning of not, or

opposite of The prefix in- (il-, ir-, im-) is often added to adjectives, nouns

and adverbs to form opposite words

In- (il-, ir-, im-) changes its color to blend in, and has an interesting

characteristic, that is the ability to change in a number of forms depending

on the initial segment of the root Thus, there are four different forms, in-,

im-, ir-, and il- When the base or root begins with the sound /b/, /m/, or /p/,

we use im-, as in imbalance, immeasurable, impolite The prefix il- will be applied to the base or root beginning with the sound /l/, as in illegal,

illogical, illegitimate When the base or root begins with the sound /r/, in-

is changed into ir-, as in irregular, irreverent, irreligious The prefix ir- is not much productive The standard form is spelled in- In- appears before

the bases with the sounds /t/, /d/, /s/, /dz/, /j/ and vowels It does not go with the bases with /z/, /w/, /θ/, /ð/

Among these prefixes, in- seems to be the most productive It has a great

ability to go with different bases It can be added to both adjectives and

nouns Marchand (1960) notes that in- is not added to the bases that begin with in such as inflammable, invaluable, inflected, and so on Inflammable and flammable are a special couple of words which often confuse learners Many people think that, inflammable is the negation of flammable, but it is not true Inflammable and flammable have the same meaning: burning

easily The difference is that inflammable is stronger than flammable, in

other words, inflammable is the emphasis of flammable Another pair that has similar features is valuable and invaluable Invaluable is not the opposite of valuable but worthless and valueless are

For example: This help was valuable in focusing my ideas

This help was invaluable in focusing my ideas

These two sentences have similar meanings

The prefix in- also has another unique characteristic that learners should be cautious of Besides the negative meaning, the prefix in- also carries the meaning of place or movement, for example, internal, income, instate, and

so on This meaning of the prefix in- is used rather productively recently

Therefore, learners should grasp it so as not to make mistakes

I.2.5.1.4 The prefix non-

According to Thomas Tsoi (2008), the prefix non- had its origin from Latin through Old French Non- conveys the meaning of not, and this use is highly productive In other words, the prefix non- possesses immense

productivity

Roger Lass (1999) in the book The Cambridge History of the English

Language states that the earliest native coinages were legal terms, such as non – ability, non – appearance, non – performance, non – user, and so on

Although non- prefers Latinate bases, hybrids occurred from the fifteenth century onwards, for example, non – knowledge, non – truth, non –

freedom, and so on The input range for non- was broadened when

adjectives and participles began to appear with the prefix, for example, non

– graduated, non – preaching, non – communicant, and so on In Early

Modern English, non- does not often combine with verbs, except for non –

act, non – occur, non – licentiate

According to Bryan A Garner (1995) in the book A Dictionary of Modern

Legal Usage, except in a few historical phrases, non- is properly used only

as an inseparable or hyphenated prefix However, some legal writers have

tried to make it separable, for example, “Rather, proof must be presented

that the non parties actively participated with the named party in violating the decree”

Non- is always added to lexemes, and almost always to nouns or adjectives

Bryan A Garner (1995) still discusses the adding of non- to verbs Although we have accepted verbal idioms such as to nonplus a person and

to nonsuit a case, the prefix non- should not be used to create new verbs

I.2.5.1.5 The prefix un-

According to Roger Lass (1999) in The Cambridge History of the English

Language, throughout Early Modern English, un- remains the most

common negative prefix It expresses complementary and contrary semantic relations (not, opposite of) and combines with adjectives, both

simple and derived, native and borrowed, for example, unfit, unfortunate,

ungodly, uncommon, unfashionable

Thefreedictionary.com states that the prefix un- originated from Old

English and conveys the meaning of not or opposite of, contrary to Thomas Tsoi also says that this prefix has high productivity in use Un- can

combine with different roots like adjectives, nouns and also adverbs When added to nouns, it sometimes changes their parts of speech

For example: Frock (noun) means a woman’s or girl’s dress or a long

loose piece of clothing worn by some Christian, meanwhile unfrock (verb)

means to remove someone from their position as a priest as a punishment for behavior or beliefs that the Church does not approve of

In Roger Lass’s viewpoint (1999), the prefix un- is established with derivations ending in –able, for example, unable, unacceptable,

unalterable, and so on, and also occurs with participle adjectives, for

example, unbecoming, unabated, unabsorbed, and so on

I.2.5.2 Negative prefixes expressing diverse opinions

Besides the above prefixes, there are certain other prefixes which are considered to be negative prefixes Some grammarians do not classify them into the group of negative prefixes, and some scholars consider them to be negative prefixes According to Jeff March et al (2003) there are 12

negative prefixes in English: anti-, de-, dis-, dys-, il-, im-, ir-, mal-, mis-,

non-, and un- Pavol Kvetko (2003) considers the following prefixes to be

negative ones: a-, de-, dis-, in-, il-, im-, ir-, non-, un- Therefore, this issue

is so controversial, and much debate has been given about it However, due

to the limited time and conditions, each prefix won’t be studied separately and fully

The prefix anti-, according to Thomas Tsoi (2008), is a highly productive prefix It came from Old Greek and conveys the meaning of against,

counter, opposite For example, antibiosis, anti-black, antibody, antiasthma, antiauthoritarian The Greek word antichristos is considered

to be the first anti- word in English Later the prefix anti- was also used with other words e.g anti – duke, anti – creation, anti – music, anti –

poison, anti – hero (Marchand, 1960) Nowadays anti- means opposed to a

particular system or practice or to a particular group of people or their policies, culture or power It expresses someone’s negative attitude, for

example, anti – American, anti – religious, anti – social In medical

English, it means intended to prevent something from happening or to

destroy something harmful, for example, anti – cancer, anti – infection,

anti – seasickness, anti – nuclear (The American Heritage Book of English Usage)

The prefix counter- and contra- both derived from Latin The word contra- has the meaning of against Contra- means primarily against, opposite and

counter- means contrary, opposite Thus, contraposition means an opposite

position and countercurrent means a current flowing in the opposite direction For example, counterplea, counterbond, counterstroke,

countercharge counterevidence, contraception,and so on (The American Heritage Book of English Usage Houghton Mifflin, 09-09-1996)

According to Laurie Bauer (1983), the prefix de- has a number of distinguishable meanings, and is often in competition with dis- and un- when added to verbs As Dzuganova B (2007) mentions in the Oxford

Encyclopedia English Dictionary, we can read that the prefix de- can be

traced back through Middle English and Old English to Latin Among these negative prefixes, it is not considered to be productive The major

meanings of de- are to do the opposite of, to reserve action or to remove

from For example, deactivate, decommission, decontaminate, and etc Although the prefix mis-, is considered to be not very productive, it is still

used in both spoken and written English Mis- carries the meaning of bad,

wrong, wrongly, failure or lack, as in misaddress, misclassify, misadvise, misaim, misattribute, and so on It had its origin from Old English and

Middle English

Thefreedictionary.com also states that the prefix dys- is borrowed from

Greek with the meaning of abnormal like dysplasia, impaired such as

dysgraphia, difficult like dysphonia In other words, the prefix dys- means difficult or painful For example, the combination of the root element lexia

with the prefix dys- to create a new word: dyslexia which means an

impaired ability to understand the written word According to Dzuganova B

(2007), in general English, the prefix dys- is used very rarely It can

combines with nouns and adjectives derived directly from these nouns, i.e

dysfunction – dysfunctional, dyspepsia – dyspeptic, dyslexia – dyslexic/ dyslectic, and so on

In his study, Dzuganova B (2007) also mentions the viewpoint of Susan Christensen (2000) from Swarthmore College USA, he has classified the

prefixes ex- and extra- in French as negative ones Both prefixes came from

Latin but it does not seem probable that they are negative in French, and in English they would have lost their negative meaning completely No other

author has put them among negative prefixes In general English, ex- only forms new words when it means previous, former, and it is always written with hyphen, e.g ex – minister, ex – president, ex – wife, ex – husband, and

so on , disregarding someone’s positive or negative attitude to these persons Similarly, the form extra- or extro- means lying or existing

outside, beyond, e.g extra – axial, extra-nuclear electron, extraterrestrial,

extragalactic, extra – marital relations, and so on ; or very, to an

exceptional degree, beyond the scope, e.g extraordinary, extra – thin, extra – sensitive, and so on

In a similar situation there is the prefix mal- It is considered by some

linguists to be a negative prefix, by others a combining word or a negative

root which came from the Latin adjective malus meaning ill Besides these terms, the prefix mal- is found in words as mal-absorption (impaired

intestinal absorption of nutrients), maladjustment (failure to fit one’s inner needs to the environment), mal-development (abnormal growth or development) (Dzuganova B, 2007)

In conclusion, discussing the prefixes mentioned above is still a controversial topic Different scholars have different viewpoints It is the best for learners to grasp both bidirectional opinions to have a comprehensive view about negative prefixes

I.2.6 Differences among prefixes

In English, many negative prefixes have similar and close meanings It is necessary for learners to have clear and exact distinctions between these prefixes

I.2.6.1 Difference between un- and dis-

In some situations, the prefixes un- and dis- are synonymic; they convey the meaning of showing an opposite or negative However, un- and dis- are

not totally identical

For example: uninterested - disinterested While the word disinterested

means that the described person is not interested, not involved, and probably never was involved in a situation and therefore does not stand to

benefit from it A disinterested party is a neutral party, often used as a

mediator or referee When acting as a disinterested party, the party has no

interest in a subject or activity The word uninterested, on the other hand,

means that the person is indifferent, bored or even apathetic with the situation at hand (Dzuganova B, 2007)

From the above example, a conclusion on the difference between the

meanings of words formed by adding the negative prefixes un- and dis- is drawn The prefix dis- means more than the simple negation of un- With

verbs, it may imply some action (often of removal) employed to create a negative state or the absence of something On the other hand, it seems to imply a vector, or a change in state The difference is more obvious than in

the past participle Meanwhile, the prefix un- is used to show a negative meaning, a lack or an opposite In most cases dis- implies no longer, un- implies never was In most cases, dis- is stronger than un- Their shade of meaning differentiates each other, for example, disarmed (having had one’s weapons taken away) – unarmed (not carrying a weapon); disinfected

(having had possible sources of infection removed) – uninfected (not having infection)

I.2.6.2 Difference between non- and un-

Dzuganova B (2007) in his study Negative Prefixes in Medical English says that sometimes the prefix non- is used to form a neutral negative sense when a form with in- or un- has a special sense or usually an unfavorable connotation e.g non – controversial >< uncontroversial, non – human ><

un-human As for the semantic function of non-, the definition of it given

by the Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary and cited by Zimmer (1965) seems quite satisfactory: “A prefix in common use in the sense of not, un-,

in- Non- is generally less emphatic than un- For example, un – American (being disloyal to America), non – American (a nationality which is not

American)

I.2.6.3 Difference between anti- and counter-

The prefix anti- is in some words synonymic with the prefix counter- They both have the meaning of opposed However, Anti- suggests an attitude of opposition: anti – war literature, the anti – nuclear campaign; while

counter- refers to an action taken to prevent or respond to something, e.g counter – espionage activities, counter – revolution, counter – reformation, countermeasure and etc (Dzuganova B, 2007)