Language stigmatization the case of cameroonian pidgin english

CHAPTER ONE LANGUAGE STIGMATIZATION 1.0 INTRODUCTION This dissertation is triggered by the increasing negative stereotypes against Cameroonian Pidgin English (CPE) in the Cameroonian community, the marginalization of its users and its consequent short-comings in the educational domain This study sets out to examine the issues at stake for learners of a second language in a community like Anglophone Cameroon where the circumstances in the path of the learners are quite unique and challenging It will take a look at societal attitudes vis-à-vis administrative policies with relevance to language and education, and examine how these factors have a bearing on the acquisition and use of the various language varieties in the community This work does not only investigate into the circumstances that give rise to the prevailing inability of the learners to adequately master and use the mainstream language but it as well makes proposals that could be taken into consideration to ameliorate the situation As in the case of CPE, contrary to the veneration of the standardized language varieties, other non-standard varieties like the West African Pidgins and Creoles, US Ebonics, Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish), Australian Aboriginal English, Melanesian Pidgin English, Hawai’i Creole-English, and the Caribbean Creoles amongst others, are stigmatized, marginalized, and regarded as illogical and inadequate representations of their mainstream lexifiers These views, shared by both the elites and the users of these languages themselves have continued to entrench an attitude of lack of faith in both the educational and socio-economic potentials of these languages This attitude of disregard has been boosted by language policies that have to a large extent been determined by political and economic considerations rather than by academic or cultural evaluations As such, the teaching methodologies adopted have been fostered by ill-conceived notions, a setback that has left much to be desired in the second language acquisition procedure These and other parallel factors have made the experience of English language learners in Cameroon comparable to that of learners in other diverse backgrounds In this view, alongside CPE speakers, the experience of Caribbean Creole-English speakers, US speakers of Ebonics, and Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish) speakers will be examined This juxtaposition will be done in the light of the following points which will be examined in greater details in subsequent chapters: 1) Negative societal attitudes towards these non-standard language varieties 2) Certain unfounded myths and stereotypes attached to these languages 3) The language/educational policies adopted for use in these communities These main aspects, to be examined in the context of the various language varieties under study is deemed to enable a broader perspective into the experience of Cameroonian learners of English as well as create room for incorporating those factors that have been a helpful resource to other learners with a similar status 1.1 LANGUAGE STEREOTYPES Debates on the influence of the primary language of the learners on the acquisition of a mainstream language in the Cameroonian community as in other countries where similar situations apply have always provoked much controversy and conflict Although extensive research including that of Moore (2000), Kamwangalu (2000), Gorsuch (2000), Koenig et al (1983), Siegel (1993, 1999b), Baugh (2000), and Smitherman (1999) have persistently highlighted the fact that the recognition of the primary language of the learners is fundamental to the acquisition of a second language, a wide range of opinions still hold that these less socially recognized languages are both academically and economically detrimental and should neither be encouraged nor enhanced This is the fate that stigmatized languages have suffered for centuries now Such negative stereotypes need rigorous reevaluation in order to destroy the acclaimed intellectual superiority of European languages over these less standardized languages A lot of current research and studies that began with the early works of linguists like Hall (1955), and Schuchardt (1980) have set out to correct these notions, emphasizing that these languages possess a grammar structure and a cultural heritage that is as rich and unique as that of their over-venerated mainstream lexifiers It is unfortunate that despite strong and persistent endeavors by linguists to prove the logicality and educational significance of these languages, reservations on the use of them in the formal settings still persist For this reason, optimizing their value particularly in the classrooms where they are most relevant has been particularly difficult Belief that these languages if used in the classroom will corrupt the learning of the standard language has been a major reason for reservation Therefore, in the background of projecting the educational, social and intellectual functionality of CPE, this dissertation will highlight attested improvements in second language teaching/learning that resulted from the incorporation of the learners’ primary language in the acquisition process As in the case of Cameroon, interference, apparent particularly in the written works of the learners is manifested in the form of peculiar vocabulary items, unique grammar structures and other cultural undertones These factors are to an extent the result of influence from the home language(s) and other contact languages that the learners have to accommodate in the second language acquisition process To another extent these influences are attributable to the inadequate teaching methodologies implemented Because of the uninformed notion that the West, Western life style, culture, and education are indispensable for a commendable life, and the general misinformation that CPE is ignoble and deprives the users of the chance to economic empowerment both at the national and international domains, the academic system gives priority to the European languages over the learners’ primary language(s) These false notions not only downplay on the learners’ cognitive potentials but it also inhibits innovative teaching methods that are fundamental in enhancing the target language acquisition process As such, despite extensive research that has been a helpful resource to language teaching/learning, more still need to be done to meet up with the increasing challenges of the linguistic and cultural diversity of second language learners, particularly in determining the kind of learners as well as their specific language concerns so that research findings on second language acquisition (SLA) become relevant to the situation of the classroom where they are most needed 1.2 LINGUISTIC MISCONCEPTIONS AND PREJUDICES As human beings differ so too languages and the things people engage in and believe in However, the ridicule that a lot of languages today have suffered has been largely due to their difference in speech patterns and origin to the prevailing mainstream languages Such language attitudes are a major cause of linguistic upheavals all over the world and until such negative language approaches are fully addressed, linguistic inequality and academic malpractices will continue to thrive Despite the rich cultural background of Pidgin and Creole languages, they have, from the days of slavery suffered the same fate of suppression that their speakers suffered The legitimacy of these languages has always been put under scrutiny with their detractors always hell-bent to prove the ‘devastating’ consequences of these ‘illegitimate’ languages on the advancement of the supposed ‘civilized’ languages As such, while the so presumed legitimate languages have been pushed into the educational system of the ‘barbarians’ in a bid to linguistically civilize them, the main languages of these ‘barbarians’ have been depicted as depraved and not worthy of recognition Therefore, these non-standard language speakers have either willingly or obligatorily mastered the European languages in addition to their local languages Following these circumstances, the non-standardized languages have continued to be viewed by many as an inferior representation of European languages and not as languages of an independent origin, or, in some cases, not even as languages in their own right The stigma on CPE as on US Ebonics, Singlish, the Caribbean Creoles, and other languages with such prejudiced status increases as the reverence and use of the mainstream languages for both educational and administrative purposes increase Even more bizarre is the fact that apart from the elites, most of the users of these languages themselves turn to attribute it to inferiority and illiteracy, a factor which Newsum (1990) attributes to the sociological and psychological phenomenon of socio-cultural supremacy, where high social status is not just a measure of individual capital power but is as well a condition of the mind and life style Cultural capital inherently becomes a prerequisite for economic capital Therefore, while the exploiting class alienates itself from the masses concentrating economic and political power within itself, the exploited, in a state of cognitive poverty have developed a feeling of alienation from the reins of power, manifested in what Newsum (1990:17) refers to as ‘a disinclination to develop the power to express oneself’ This factor to a great extent accounts for the negative approach of the lower classes to their own languages As has been demonstrated by researchers like Siegel (1993, 1999a), Smitherman (1999), Koenig et al (1983), Howe (1993), and Healy (1993), some of the past and present difficulties of Creole/Pidgin speaking children in the acquisition of a second language are a result of negative approaches of the educational system to their primary languages/mother-tongues As in the slave trade period in which the indigenous Africans were regarded as both socially and linguistically inferior to their colonial counterparts, the continuous use of the colonial masters’ language in every sphere of the economic and social life has continued to brainwash the descendant of these slaves on the merits and need for their own languages to be implemented in the day to day running of their lives In this state of mind, the speakers themselves devalue their languages, regarding them and their African features as the cumulative reasons for their poverty and insignificance Thus, in Cameroon as in other neo-colonial countries, pro-English/Western indoctrination and colonial linguistic imperialism have to a major extent contributed to the marginalized status of the local languages and consequently the fall in standards of education CHAPTER TWO THE EXPERIENCE OF SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN CAMEROON 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW The circumstances of a dual linguistic inheritance and its subsequent imposition in a country where the local languages and a lingua franca are the major languages of communication have been an issue of concern to many linguists, Cameroonians and non-Cameroonians alike Even though the incorporation of the local languages and CPE into the Cameroonian educational system has not been given official attention, a wide range of research has been carried out on the socio-linguistic background of Cameroon particularly on the educational functionality of CPE Amongst these are the works of Wolf Hans-Georg (2001), Alobwede-D’Epie (1998), Mbangwana Paul (1989, 1993), Koenig et al (1983), Feral de Carole (1979, 1980), Loreto Todd (1979, 1985, 1986), Gilman Charles (1979), Moore, Leslie C (2000), and Wilt Timothy-Lloyd (1994) However, despite these and a handful of dissertations on related topics, their availability to the general public and the larger academic community has been minimal The sociolinguist profile of the Cameroonian language situation has been examined by Koenig et al (1983) In this collection, issues related to the historical background that pitted French against English and the consequences that they have on the overall learning situation in a predominantly lingua franca speaking community have been brought to the forefront Emphasis has been placed on the significance of the indigenous languages and on CPE which is the language of wider communication in the Anglophone community The need for these home languages of the learners to be used as an educational aid has been a significant highlight of their contribution Attention has been drawn to the fact that CPE could be a viable language for adult literacy campaigns and the early stages at least of primary education, more so, that mass education should seriously take into account this vital language which conveys the philosophy of life and the traditional heritage of the people Also of significance to the classroom situation of language learning in Cameroon is the work of Moore (2000) in which he highlights the learning handicaps of Cameroonian learners of French in the multi-linguistic background of the Mandara Mountains of Cameroon His research shows that although the Francophone and Anglophone second language learners in Cameroon have a dissimilar socio-cultural and linguistic background, because of a shared language policy, the concerns of second language learning in both zones are basically the same He projects that the governments’ insistence on the use of French-only as the language of education in the area under study has borne untold hardship on the learning process He notes that because code-switching is an inherent practice in this community where close to thirty local languages prevail, the French only policy conflicts with the practices of the inter-ethnic community, creating room for linguistic and cultural discontinuities between home and school He further argues that preventing children from manifesting their innate communicative competence will rather slow down than accelerate the mainstream language acquisition process Further to these are the contributions of Todd (1979, 1985, 1986) in which certain socio-linguistic and grammatical features of CPE have been highlighted She has as well gone a long way to project the image of certain marginalized languages in an effort to combat the ignorant and prejudicial beliefs that non-mainstream languages are degenerations and deviations from the standardized systems She once more projects the view that no language is inferior to another in terms of functionality and that each is capable of being modified to meet the demands of existing circumstances 2.2 LANGUAGE ATTITUDES In Cameroon as in related countries, linguistic prejudice has generated devastating consequences in the social and economic domain but of most significance in the academic domain Cameroon is endowed with a wide range of indigenous languages and most Cameroonian English language learners are acquainted with at least one indigenous language depending on the family background However, because CPE is the language of wider communication amongst the Anglophones it is the home language of most of the learners while English is used at academic venues or at formal occasions All the same, because of social stratification a limited but increasing number of children are getting to use English as a home language 10 APPENDIX i THE OAKLAND SCHOOL BOARD DECLARATION Whereas, numerous validated scholarly studies demonstrate that African-American students as part of their culture and history an African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as "Ebonics'' (literally Black sounds) or Pan-African Communication Behaviors or African Language Systems; and Whereas, these studies have also demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically based and not a dialect of English; and Whereas, these studies demonstrate that such West and Niger-Congo African languages have been officially recognized and addressed in the mainstream public educational community as worthy of study, understanding, or application of its principles, laws, and structures for the benefit of African-American students both in terms of positive appreciation of the language and these students' acquisition and mastery of English-language skills; and Whereas such recognition by scholars has given rise over the past 15 years to legislation passed by the state of California recognizing the unique language stature of descendants of slaves, with such legislation being prejudicially and unconstitutionally vetoed repeatedly by various California state governors; and 116 Whereas, judicial cases in states other than California have recognized the unique language stature of African-American pupils, and such recognition by courts has resulted in court-mandated educational programs which have substantially benefited African-American children in the interest of vindicating their equal protection of the law rights under the 14th Amendment to the U.S Constitution; and Whereas, the Federal Bilingual Education Act (20 USC 1402 et seq.) mandates that local educational agencies "build their capacities to establish, implement, and sustain programs of instruction for children and youth of limited English proficiency,'' and Whereas, the interests of the Oakland Unified School District in providing equal opportunities limited-English-proficient for educational all of its programs students recognizing dictate the English-language acquisition and improvement skills of African-American students are as fundamental as is application of bilingual education principles for others whose primary languages are other than English; and Whereas, the standardized tests and grade scores of African-American students in reading and language arts skills measuring their application of English skills are substantially below state and national norms and that such deficiencies will be remedied by application of a program featuring African Language Systems principles in instructing African-American children both in their primary language and in English; and 117 Whereas, standardized tests and grade scores will be remedied by application of a program with teachers and aides, who are certified in the methodology of featuring African Language Systems principles in instructing African-American children both in their primary language and in English The certified teachers of these students will be provided incentives including, but not limited to, salary differentials Now, therefore, be it resolved that the board of education officially recognizes the existence and the cultural and historic bases of West and Niger-Congo African Language Systems, and each language as the predominately primary language of African-American students; and Be it further resolved that the board of education hereby adopts the report recommendations and attached policy statement of the district's African American Task Force on language stature of African-American speech; and Be it further resolved that the superintendent in conjunction with her staff shall immediately devise and implement the best possible academic program for imparting instruction to African-American students in their primary language for the combined purposes of maintaining the legitimacy and richness of such language whether it is known as "Ebonics,'' "African Language Systems,'' "Pan African Communication Behaviors,'' or other description and to facilitate their acquisition and mastery of English-language skills; and Be it further resolved that the board of education hereby commits to earmark district general and special funding as is reasonably necessary and 118 appropriate to enable the superintendent and her staff to accomplish the foregoing; and Be it further resolved that the superintendent and her staff shall utilize the input of the entire Oakland educational community, as well as state and federal scholarly and educational input, in devising such a program; and Be it further resolved that periodic reports on the progress of the creation and implementation of such an educational program shall be made to the board of education at least once per month commencing at the board meeting of Dec 18, 1996 119 REFERENCES Adegbija, E (1994) Language Attitudes in Sub-Saharan Africa Clevedon: Mutilingual Matters Ltd Akinnaso, F (1993) “Policy and Experiment in Mother Tongue Literacy in Nigeria.” International Review of Education, 39/4, 255-285 Alatis, J et al (eds.) (1996) Linguistics, Language Acquisition, and Language Variation: Current Trends and Future Prospects Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press Alcam (1983) Atlas Linquistic du Cameroon DGRST: Institut des Sciences Humaines Alleyne, M (1986) “Substatum Influences – Guilty Until Proven Innocent.” In Muysken, P and Smith, N (eds.), Substrata versus Universals in Creole Genesis Amsterdam: John Benjamins Alobwede-D’Epie, C (1998) “Banning Pidgin English in Cameroon?” The International Review of the English language, 14/1 (53), 54-60 Anderson, R (1983) Pidginization and Creolization as Language Acquisition Rowley: Newbury House Asong, S (1990): "Error Analysis and Quality Assessement of the French/English Translation of Advertisements in the Cameroon Media." DISS University of Buea -ASTI (Advanced School of Translation and Interpretation) Barbag-Stoll, A (1983) Social and Linguistic History of Nigerian Pidgin English Tubingen: Stauffenberg 120 Baugh, J (2000) Beyond Ebonics: Linguistic Pride and Racial Prejudice Oxford: Oxford University Press Bazergui, N (1998) “A Descriptive Account of Cameroonian Pidgin English: A Principles and Parameters Approach.” Dissertation Abstracts International, Section C: Worldwide 59/2, Item 660 Bell, R (1981) An Introduction to Applied Linguistics London: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd Bickerton, D (1981) Roots of Language Ann Arbor: Karoma (1985) “Creole and West African languages: A Case of Mistaken Identity?” In Muysken P and Smith N (eds.), Substrata versus Universals in Creole Genesis Amsterdam: John Benjamins Botse, R (1981) On the Nature of Tense and Aspect: Studies in the Semantics of temporal reference in English and Kinyarwanda Ann Arbor, Michigan Brown, K and Miller, J (1991) Syntax: A linguistic introduction to Sentence structure London: Routledge Cohen, L and Marnion, L (1980) Research Methods in Education London: Croom Helm Corder, S (1981) Error Analysis and Interlanguage Oxford: Oxford University Press Craig, D (1980) “Models for Educational Policy in Creole Speaking Communities.” In Valdman A and Highfield A (eds.), Theoretical Orientation in Creole Studies New York: Academic press 121 Crewe (1977) Singaporean English and Standard English: Excercises in Awareness Kuala Lumpur: Eastern University Press Crystal, D (1997) English as a Global Language Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cunningsworth, A (1983)."What does it mean to Learn a Language: Some Perspectives on the Future." English Teaching Forum, Vol XXI, No Dalphinis, M (1985) Caribbean and African Languages Social history, Language, Literature and Education London: Karia Press Dillard, J (1972) Black English; its History and Usage in the United States New York: Random House (ed.) (1975) Perspectives on Black English The Hague: Mouton Dorsett, C (1997) Black English, Looking to the Future – 21st Century Racism Internet: http://www.members.tripod.com/~cdorsett/ebonics.htm (Revised 2000) Elliot, A (1983) Errors in English Singapore: Singapore University Press Els et al (1984) Applied Linguistic and the Teaching of Foreign Languages UK: Edward Arnold English Language Planning and Policy in Singapore (2001) Internet: http://www.elangproject.net (Revised 2002) Feral, C (1979) “Ce que Parler Pidgin veut dire: Essai de Definition Linguistique et Sociolinguistique du Pidgin-English Camerounais.” In Manessey et al (eds.), Plurilinguisme: Normes, Situations, Strategies: Etudes Sociolinguistiques Paris: Harmattan 122 (1980) “Quelques Fonctions et Caracteristique Structurelles du Pidgin-English Camerounais.” A Journal of African Languages and Literature, 11/2, 21-33 Foley, J (ed.) (1988) New Englishes: The Case of Singapore Singapore: Singapore University Press Gebhard, M (1999) “Debates in SLA Studies: Redefining Classroom SLA as an Institutional Phenomenon.” TESOL Quarterly, 33/3, 544-557 Gilman, C (1979) “Cameroonian Pidgin English, A Neo-colonial African Language.” In Hancock et al (eds.), Readings in Creole studies Ghent: E Story-Scientia Gent Gorsuch, G (1999) “EFL Educational Policies and Educational Cultures: Influences on Teacher’s approval of Communicative Activities.” TESOL Quarterly, 34/4, 675-710 Guthrie, M (1971) Comparative Bantu: An Introduction to the Comparative Linguistics and Prehistory of the Bantu Languages Gregg Publishing House Hall, R (1955) Hands off Pidgin English Sydney: Pacific Publications PTY Ltd (1966) Pidgin and Creole Languages Ithaca: Cornell University Press Hancook, I (1979) “On the Origin of the Term Pidgin.” In Hancock et al (eds.), Readings in Creole studies Ghent: E Story-Scientia Gent 123 Hans, L (1967) Comparative Education: The Study of Educational Factors and Traditions London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd Hartshorne, K (1995) “Language Policy in African Education: A Background to the Future.” In R Mesthrie (ed.), Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics Cape Town: David Phillip Healey, M (1993) “The parallel Continuum Model for Suriname: A Preliminary Study.” In Byrne F and Holm J (eds.), Atlantic Meets Pacific Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company Heines, B (1992) “Language Policies in Africa.” In R Herbert (ed.), Language and Society in Africa: The theory and Practice of Sociolinguistics Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press Howe, K (1993) “Haitian Creole as the Official Language in Education and in the Media” In Byrne F and Holm J (eds.), Atlantic Meets Pacific Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company Hyltenstam, K and Viberg, A (eds.) (1993) Progression and Regression in Language: Socio-cultural, Neuropsychological, & Linguistic Perspectives Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Kamwangamalu, N 2000 “Language Policy and Mother-tongue Education in South Africa: The Case for a Market-oriented Approach.” In Alatis, J et al (eds.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press 124 Kellerman, E & Smith, M (1986) “An Introduction.” In Kellerman E and Smith M (eds.), Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition Oxford: Pergamon Press Koenig et al (eds.) (1983) A Socio-Linguistic Profile of the Urban Centres in Cameroon California: CrossRoad Press Kramsch, C (1993) Context and Culture in Language Learning Oxford: Oxford University Press Labov, W (1972) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press Lado, R (1957) Linguistic Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press Lakoff, R (2000) The Language War California: University of California Press Luma, E (1983) The Education of African Teachers Yaounde: SOPECAM Mauhlhausler, P (1986) Pidgin and Creole Linguistics New York: Basil Blackwell Mbangwana, P (1989) “Flexibility in Lexical Usage in Cameroon English.” In Garcia, O et al (eds.), English across Cultures, Cultures across English: A Reader in Cross-cultural Communication Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter (1993) “Some Instances of Linguistic and Literary Resource in certain Humorous Cameroonianisms.” Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 6/2, 195-222 125 Moore, L 2000 “Language Mixing at Home and School in a Multilingual Community (Mandara Mountains, Cameroon).” In Alatis, J et al (eds.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Llinguistics Washington, D.C.: Georgetown university press Mufwene, S (ed.) (1993) Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties Georgia: University of Georgia Press (2001) The Ecology of Language Evolution Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Murdock, G (1959) Africa: Its People and their Culture History New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc Nanda, S (1994) Cultural Anthropology Belmont, California 94002: Wadsworth publishing Company Nero, S (2001) Englishes in Contact: Anglophone Caribbean Students in an Urban College Newsum, H (1990) Class, Language and Education Trenton, N.J: Africa World Press, Inc Ngoh, V (1996) History of Cameroon since 1800 Limbe: Pressbook Ngwa-Niba, F (2002) “English speakers mourn in Cameroon” BBC Report Unpublished report Pakir, A.(ed) (1992) Words in a Cultural Context Singapore: UniPress (1993) The English Language in Singapore: Standards and Norms Singapore: UniPress 126 Perez, C (1985) Aspects of Complement in Three Bantu Languages Indiana: Indiana University Club Pica, T (1992) "Language - Learning Research and Classroom Concerns." English Teaching Forum, Vol 30, No Porter, M (1981) “Smohl no bi sik: A preliminary Survey of Pidgin Literature in Cameroon.” Pacific Quarterly, 6:3/4, 62-69 Richards, J (1974) Error Analysis; Perspectives and Second Language Acquisition London: Longman (1978) Understanding Second and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching Rowley Mass.: Newbury House Richmond, J (1986) “The Language of Black Children and the Language Debate in Schools.” In Sutcliffe, D and Wong, A (eds.), The Language of the Black Experience: Cultural Expression through Word and Sound in the Caribbean and Black Britain Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd Rickford, J 2000 “Linguistics, Education and the Ebonics Firestorm.” In Alatis, J (eds.), Georgetown University Round table on languages and linguistics Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press Rodges, T (1996) “Poisoning Pidgins in the Parks: The Study and status of Hawaiian Creole.” In Alatis, J et al (eds.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages & Lingiuistics Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press Romaine, S (1988) Pidgin and Creole Languages London: Longman 127 Rutherford, W (1987) Second Language Grammar: Learning and Teaching New York: Longman Group Inc Sajavaara, K (1986) “Transfer and Second Language Speech Processing.” In Kellerman, E and Smith, M (eds.), Cross-linguistics Influence in Second Language Acquisition Oxford: Pergamon Press Schuchardt, H (1980) Pidgin and Creole Languages London: Cambridge University Press SGEM News (2001) ‘National Day Rally Speech (Tong, G August 22nd 1999)’ Internet: http://www.sgem.org.sg/pm22.htm Sharp, O (1973) Language in Bilingual Communities London: Derick Sharp Siegel, J (1993) “Pidgins and Creoles in Education in Australia and the Southwest Pacific.” In Byrne F and Holm J (eds.), Atlantic Meets Pacific Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company (1999a) Creole and Minority Dialects in Education: An Overview Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 20, 508-531 (1999b) Stigmatized and Standardized Varieties in the Classroom: Interference or Separation? TESOL Quarterly, 33/4, 701-728 SIL International (2002) Internet: http://www.sil.org/sil/annualreport/.index.html Singler, J (1990) Pidgin and Creole Tense Mood Aspect Amsterdam: John Benjamin Smitherman, G (1994) Black Talk Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company 128 (1999) Talkin That Talk: Language Culture, and Education in African America London: Routledge Sprinthall, A and Oja, S (1994) Educational Psychology: A Developmental Approach New York Mc Graw -Hill Inc Tenjoh, O (1980) "The Negative Influence of Some French Writing Habits in the Acquisition of Language." WAJE, Vol XXI (2) (1996) A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory Cambridge: Cambridge University press Thomason, S (1997) Contact Languages: A Wider Perspective Amsterdam: John Benjamins Todd, L (1979) “Cameroonian: A Consideration of ‘what is in a name?” In Hancock, I et al (eds.), Readings in Creole Studies Ghent: E Story-Scientia Gent (1984) Modern Englishes: Pidgins and Creoles New York: Basil Blackwell (1985) “Lexical Patterning in Cameroon Pidgin and Tok Pisin.” In Hancock, I (ed.), Diversity and Development in English-Related Creoles Ann Arbor, Michigan: Karoma Pubs (1986) “The CM2 Process: A selection of Riddles in Cameroon Pidgin English.” Lore and Language 5/2, 3-11 Vansina, J (1990) Paths in the Rainforest: Towards a history of Political Tradition in Equitorial Africa London: James Curry Ltd 129 Williams, R (ed.) (1975) Ebonics: The True Language of Black Folks St Louis: Robert Williams and Associates Wilt, T (1994) “A Survey of the Linguistic Preferences of Cameroonian Pidgin English Speakers.” Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 9/1, 51-56 Wolf, H (2001) English in Cameroon Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Wolfram, W (1996) “Endangered Dialects: Socio-linguistics, Opportunity and Obligation.” In Alatis, J et al (eds.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages & Lingiuistics Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press 130 [...]... However, with the death of the League of Nations and the birth of the United Nations (UN) following the end of WW2, Cameroon graduated from being a mandate of the League of Nations to a trustee of the UN With the phase of de-colonization brought about by the wind of change that followed WW2, the UN Charter obligated France to administer Cameroon towards independence Fostered by the emergence of Trade Unions,... which English and French became the languages of administration and education throughout the country as stated in Article 1 (4) of the unitary constitution of 2nd June 1972 The policy of the two European languages bilingualism thus came into place 2.5 THE LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF CPE In the background of deep rooted mother-tongues and the officially recognized languages, CPE continued to emerge as the. .. amongst others 2.6 BACKGROUND TO CAMEROONIAN PIDGIN ENGLISH Even though the Cameroonian government concentrated its resources in developing French and English as the two official languages as an addition to the indigenous languages that were already deep rooted in the communities, CPE was establishing itself as the language of wider communication In the midst of the growing trend of westernization, and the. .. began the policy of bilingualism in Cameroon, instituted by the 1961 Federal constitution that brought together English and French speaking Cameroon, stipulating the use of two languages in the country Through that constitution, 20 article 1(3) stipulated that: English and French were to be the different languages of the Federal Republic of Cameroon Article 55, stated that the official language of the. .. drawn the attention of the colonizers to the trading opportunities that were available in the coast of Africa thus the abolition of slave trade did not see the colonizers out of Africa The most that took place was a change of policy and trading in goods and services continued and the serviceability of CPE remained Although the English language had been established along the coastal areas of Cameroon, the. .. notwithstanding, Cameroonian English language learners like their counterparts in the Caribbean Islands, the US, Singapore and other communities, who usually begin formal education with just a non-standard language as their language of proficiency are obligated to repress it and adopt English CPE is generally regarded as the major cause of inadequacies in the acquisition of the target language and the falling... in the growing zeal in the elites and the local population alike to display proficiency in the official languages, the extent of the use of CPE in the community has remained unrivalled As investigated by Koenig et al (1983:16): in the port city of Douala a major Francophone city, it was discovered that 83% of the population used CPE when buying in the market and that in the Anglophone West, 97% of. .. between the two regions, the government deemed it indispensable to place both zones of the country on the path of mutual recognition and acceptance In a bid to evade antagonism in choosing one language over the other or in derailing from this goal by incorporating a significant number of already existing home languages, the language policy of enforcing the mutual use of both (at the expense of any other)... followed by the establishment of trading posts by the Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish on the coast of Cameroon When the Dutch broke the Portuguese monopoly over slave trade in Cameroon and established a trading post at the mouth of the Wouri river trading in slaves from Cameroon expanded Some of the slaves were auctioned off to the plantations while others served as porters of European goods into the interior... standards of education Worst still is the role of the teachers models on whom the learners depend for reassurance and comprehension As a language teacher in Cameroon, I observed that a major source of the learners’ hardship stems from the attitude of some teachers, especially language teachers Because of the general notion that the more you speak CPE the less you will learn English, ’ rather than understand ... Despite the rich cultural background of Pidgin and Creole languages, they have, from the days of slavery suffered the same fate of suppression that their speakers suffered The legitimacy of these languages... requirements, the learners are left in the desperate position in which they not acquire the more formal styles of their primary language, neither are they taught the informal styles of the official language. .. and the attitude crisis that has culminated in the growing zeal in the elites and the local population alike to display proficiency in the official languages, the extent of the use of CPE in the