Tài liệu hạn chế xem trước, để xem đầy đủ mời bạn chọn Tải xuống
1
/ 117 trang
THÔNG TIN TÀI LIỆU
Thông tin cơ bản
Định dạng
Số trang
117
Dung lượng
0,94 MB
Nội dung
Chapter 1 Introduction
In contemporary China, some government officials, who enjoyed admirable career
prospects, have given up their official positions and turned to the business sector.
This practice is called xiahai.1 According to a government report, there has been a
substantial increase in the number of xiahai officials since 2000.2 Xiahai involves
not only lowerranking officials, but also officials in higher positions, such as the
SecretaryGeneral or President of Chinese People’s Political Consultative
Committee (CPPCC), and even influential people such as the Mayor.3 This
phenomenon is widespread in China, especially in the six provinces of Zhejiang,
Jiangsu, Hubei, Guangdong, Hainan, and Liaoning.4 Having aroused much
attention from the media, the government, and the public, this phenomenon raises
an intriguing question that this study seeks to address: why did those officials give
up these highranking and supposedly advantageous jobs for which they had
struggled to attain for years?
1
"Xiahai Guanyuan Yilan (an Overview On "Xiahai")," Financial Times, 10Nov 2003.
Dai Dunfeng, "Jujiao Ciguan Xiahai Chao (Focusing on Xiahai)," Renmin Quanli Bao (People's Power
Newspaper), 13May 2003.
3
Tang Xiaoteng, "Cong Ciguan Xiahai Shuokaiqu: Jianlun Gaoguan Luoma Yu Boshi Kaoguan(from
'Officials' Xiahai' to 'Doctors Pursue Official Career')," zhongguo guoqing guoli(China's Situation and
National Power) 12 (2003).
4
Zhong Yuming, "Beihao Hangmu: Guanyuan Xiahai Bian Qimao (Xiahai: WellPrepared to Sail in the
Sea)," Democracy & Legal System, no. 2 (2004).
2
1
PHENOMENON OF XIAHAI
We can observe three waves of xiahai which surged or resurged in 1980s, 1990s
and 2000s respectively.5 There is a significant difference between the third wave
and the first two waves. The third wave is prominent in terms of the number, the
rank level, the region and influence.6 This study focuses on the third wave of
xiahai.
The first case of xiahai in the third wave reported by the media was Xu Gang, 7
who was both the former chief accountant of the Local Tax Bureau and a member
of the Finance Bureau in Zhejiang Province. He was regarded as one of the
highestranking officials at the Department level of the province. However, beyond
the expectations of both the public and the authorities, he gave up his official
position in March 2002 and became the Chief Executive Officer of Geely Holding
Group.8 Since then, xiahai has become a hot news topic for the mass media, more
and more stories about officials’ resignations have been reported. In response, the
central government, realizing the seriousness of the situation, formed teams to
investigate this phenomenon. At the end of 2003, the investigation results from six
5
Xiaoteng, "Cong Ciguan Xiahai Shuokaiqu: Jianlun Gaoguan Luoma Yu Boshi Kaoguan(from 'Officials'
Xiahai' to 'Doctors Pursue Official Career')."
6
Ibid.
7
In this thesis, the Chinese names are rendered surname first, in accordance with the Chinese customs.
8
Zou Yao Yang Aixiang, "Di San Lun Xiahai Guanyuan Shengcun Zhuangtai (the Status of Xiahai
Officials in the Third Wave)," 21th Centrury Economic News, 16Nov 2003.
2
provinces (Jilin, Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian and Guangdong provinces)
were reported to the Organization Department of Central Party Committee.
Statistics show that there were 125 government officials at the Directorlevel or
above left the government from 2002 to 2003 in Zhejiang province. 9 With so many
officials leaving the government for the market, xiahai is by no means accidental.
In fact, the characteristics of this phenomenon are so prominent in some regions at
the official ranklevel that some patterns of xiahai can be discerned.
Firstly, this study analyzes these patterns of xiahai in six prominent provinces.
These are Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Hubei, Guangdong, Hainan and Liaoning. In
Zhejiang province, apart from the previous example of Xu Gang, there was a
noteworthy event called “the Wenzhou Phenomenon.”10 In May 2003, after the re
election in Wenzhou, Wu Minyi gave up his position as the Vicemayor of
Wenzhou city and became the president of Hui Lima Commercial Chain in
Shanghai.11 Along with him, another three officials in Wenzhou also resigned from
their positions and decided to take up jobs in private enterprises. They were Lin
9
Wu Xinzhong Zhou Qingxing, "Fangda Yu Toushi: Xin Yilun "Guanyuan Xiahai" Jiexi (a Detailed
Analysis on the Third Wave of Xiahai)," The Forum for Chinese Cadres, 31May 2004.
10
Tao Jianqun, "Toushi Wenzhou Ciguan Chao (Analyze the 'Wenzhou Phenomenon')," Shidai Chao (Wave
of Era) 11 (2001).
11
Wu Minyi, 45 years old, assumed vicemayor of Wenzhou city in 1998, in charge of technology, industry
and business; Lin Peiyun, 52 years old, vicemayor of Wenzhou city, in charge of foreign trade and travel
industry; He Baogen, 56 years old,had been the Vicesecretarygeneral for two terms; Wang Yunzheng,
Vicesecretarygeneral in Wenzhou Municipal government. He embarked on business in early 1990s; five
years later, he reoccupied as the Vicedirector and Vicesecretarygeneral in Wenzhou Municipal
government; at last, however, he went to Ao Kang Group in May 2003.
3
Peiyun (Vicemayor), He Baogen (Secretarygeneral) and Wang Yunzheng (Vice
secretarygeneral).12 It was this event that brought the wave of xiahai to a climax,
because two Vicemayors and two Secretarygenerals in the same city resigned
from their positions almost at the same time. They might become the Vice
president of Local People’s Congress or the Secretarygeneral of CPPCC in
Wenzhou City if they had not given up their positions.
In Jiangsu Province, the most notable event is “the Jianhu Phenomenon.”13 Five
core officials in Yancheng city resigned from their positions at the same time. The
family home of these five people is Jianhu, so this was called “Jianhu
phenomenon.”14 Among them, the case of Wang Xiaoping aroused the most heated
debate in society. Wang Xiaoping, 48 years old, was the Mayor of Dongtai city in
January 2001. He left the government and became the general manager of Yong
Lin Axunge & Chemistry Ltd in Jianhu in December 2002. He had been the Mayor
of Dongtai city for less than two years, and Dongtai is the most prosperous area in
Yancheng City.15 Besides, Zhu Aiqun, once Taizhou’s Secretary, became the
Executive President of Chunlan Group.
12
Tao Jianqun, "Toushi Wenzhou Ciguan Chao (Analyze the 'Wenzhou Phenomenon')," Shidai Chao (Wave
of Era) 11 (2001).
13
Wang Shengke, "Jiangzhe Guanyuan Xiahaichao Shibushi Jinbu Xianxiang? (Is 'Xiahai' in Jiangsu and
Zhejiang Provinces Progressive Phenomenon?)," 21th Century Ecomonic News, 26June 2003.
14
They were Wang Xiaoping, the Mayor of Dongtai city; Gu Chengrong, Subprefect of Buning County; Xu
Zhengyang, Subprefect of Jianhu County; Daimei, Vicepresident of Political Consultation Session in
Jianhu County; Tang Yi, Standing Committee Member of Binghai County and Minister of Propaganda
Department.
15
Shengke, "Jiangzhe Guanyuan Xiahaichao Shibushi Jinbu Xianxiang? (Is 'Xiahai' in Jiangsu and Zhejiang
Provinces Progressive Phenomenon?)."
4
In Hainan province, Wang Wenjin became the general manager of Physical
Training Ltd in June 2003. Before that, he had been the Vicemayor of Qionghai
city for two terms and in charge of the Travel Industry for ten years. Moreover, he
had participated in the entire process of Bo Ao Project on behalf of the
government.16 In Guangdong province, Liu Zhixing, the former Vicewarden in
Foshan city, left the government in August 2003 and became the Vicepresident of
Meidi Group. He had 28 years’ working experience and was an expert in
administration, assetregrouping and capital management.17 In Hubei Province, Cai
Deshan, once the Vicepartysecretary of the district, resigned from his position in
September 2003 and became the board Chairman of Wanjiale Stock Company. He
was only 40 years old, a Masters degree holder and economic consultant.18
In Liaoning Province, Lulu, a fiftyyear old female economic consultant, was the
former Directorgeneral of the Domestic Trade Bureau in Shenyang city. In
January 2004, she became the Vicepresident of Dashang Group, as well as the
president in charge of the Shenyang area.19 Wang Zhimin, former DirectorGeneral
of the Domestic Trade Bureau in Fushun City, is also the Vicepresident of
Dashang Group.20 In addition, Gao Hongbin, the former Director of the State
16
Zhong Yuming, "Beihao Hangmu: Guanyuan Xiahai Bian Qimao (Xiahai: WellPrepared to Sail in the
Sea)," Democracy & Legal System, no. 2 (2004).
17
Ibid.
18
"Xiahai Guanyuan Yilan (an Overview On "Xiahai")."
19
Liu Yanling Yuan Jiaqiang, Liang Shuang, "Shangyeju Nv Juzhang Qiguan Zhi Sida Yingxiang (the Four
Influences of a Female DirectorGeneral Went to Business)," Huashang Morning Paper, 09Jan 2004.
20
Ibid.
5
Department of Information Industry, founded Huliantong Internet Technology Ltd
and acted both as its CEO and President.21 Men Xinguo, the head of Kenli County
in Shandong province, was invited to be the StandingViceManager of Shandong
Huanghe Group.22
These are some representative examples. In fact, each province has a significant
number of officials leaving the government. For instance, in Fujian province, there
were 238 officials who left the government by the end of September 2003, and 9
of them were Departmentlevel officials. 23
Secondly, let us look at the rank of those officials who engaged in business. There
are not only DirectorGenerals (such as Lulu and Wang Zhimin, former Director
Generals in Domestic Trade Bureau), but also SecretaryGenerals in municipal
government (such as He Baogen and Wang Yunzheng, former SecretaryGeneral in
Wenzhou Municipal Government), ViceMayors (such as Wang Wenjin, Wu Minyi
and Lin Peiyun), and a Mayor (such as Wang Xiaoping, former Mayor of Dongtai
City).
Finally, it is important to examine the age of those who moved to the private
sector. They are generally in their forties, energetic and sagacious. For instance,
Wu Minyi is 45 years old and Wang Xiaoping is 49 years old. There are also
21
Zhang Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change:
From 'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics'), 1 ed. (Zhejiang People's Press, 2004).
22
Ibid.
23
“Strait City Newspaper” (Haixia Dushi Bao), Jan 8, 2004.
6
officials in their fifties or thirties. For instance, He Baogen is 56 years old, Cai
Deshan is just 40 years old, and Gao Hongbin 35 years old. This is a particularly
puzzling aspect of xiahai, because officials in this age group generally have
positive career prospects in the government.
What I wish to emphasize here is that the third wave, as mentioned previously, is
significantly different from the former two waves. During the first wave in the mid
1980s, most officials only changed to the sectors or enterprises which were
subordinate to their original working department. This practice is called “semi
xiahai.”24 Most officials became engaged in business because they were not
satisfied with their jobs. Usually, they were misunderstood by people. Some of
them failed to perform well in the market due to a lack of experience. But there
were some fortunate ones, the most famous one was Ye Kangsong, who was called
“the first xiahai official.”25 He was formerly the Party Secretary of Guan Zhen in
Yongjia County of Wenzhou city and is now the Board Chairman and the
President of Kang Long Group in America. He was once received by the American
President Bill Clinton because of his accomplishments.
The second wave began in the early 1990s when some officials who had sufficient
experience and enough preparation left government for the market. Xiahai became
acceptable to the public during this period. What is significant is that most
24
"Xiahai Guanyuan Yilan (an Overview On xiahai)," Financial Times, 10Nov 2003.
"A Story of Ye Kangsong," New Shanghainese, 26Aug 2002.
25
7
officials did not give up their official positions, instead, In that case, they could
still go back to public service if they failed in the business sector. One typical
example of the second wave is Wang Yunzheng. He was once the ViceSecretary
General of the Wenzhou municipal government, he embarked on a business career
in the early 1990s. Five years later, he reoccupied the position of the ViceDirector
and ViceSecretaryGeneral in the Wenzhou municipal government. At last,
however, he went to Ao Kang Group in May 2003.26
Compared with the former two waves, xiahai is riskier in the third wave because of
the institutional constraints. 27 For example, the officials are not allowed to hold a
position in the private sector concurrently.28 Before the officials leave government,
they should be audited by commissioners of audit before they leave government.29
After leaving the government, the officials are not allowed to engage in the
business that were regulated by government agency he previously worked for, and
they are not allowed to take positions in the organizations that were under
jurisdiction of he previously working place.30 Given this policy restriction, once
the officials want to join the private enterprises, they must risk giving up their
26
Dai Dunfeng, "Jujiao Ciguan Xiahai Chao (Focusing on Xiahai)," Renmin Quanli Bao (People's Power
Newspaper), 13May 2003.
27
Wen Zhai Bao 3 May 2004
28
Xinhuanet.com 8 Sept 2004
29
Wen Zhai Bao 3 May 2004
30
Xinhuanet.com 8 Sept 2004
8
official positions. In the third wave of xiahai, many officials had totally given up
their government positions.31
This phenomenon raised an intriguing question that this study wants to explore:
why did those officials give up their official positions for which they had struggled
to attain for years? How can they pursue a career in the market?
WHY IS XIAHAI PUZZLING?
In China, this phenomenon is puzzling because a government career is considered
to be advantageous and beneficial in terms of social values and realistic situations.
First of all, resulting from China’s long history of despotism and a rigid
bureaucracy, the notion of “Advancement in Officialdom” has sunk into most
people’s minds for generations and has influenced their behavior to a large extent.
As Henry Schuman notes:
“For centuries Chinese have engaged in a pastime called
‘Advancement in Officialdom’. Chinese, until the turn of the 20th
century, could climb high socially and economically only if they
were officials.”32
31
Yuan Jiaqiang, "Shangyeju Nv Juzhang Qiguan Zhi Sida Yingxiang (the Four Influences of a Female
DirectorGeneral Went to Business)."
32
Schuman, Henry. Americans and Chinese: Two Ways of Life. New York: H.Wolff, 1953.
9
Nowadays, this notion is still strongly rooted in the Chinese people’s minds. For
example, in 2005, around 250,000 people attended the open examination held by
the state agency for recruiting civil servants.33
Secondly, a government career is still an optimal pursuit for the majority of the
people. In nowadays, being an official might be the best choice when comparing
the benefits and costs.34 In everyday life, it is easy to find that the treatment in
politics and economics is greatly influenced by Officials’ Supremacism (Guan
Ben Wei) in China. As Xiaobo Lu noticed:
“The qualification to participate in a meeting, the sequence of seat, the
level of special car, the amount of income, the length of lament, and
appearance in the newspaper, all are decided by the official position.”35
For example, in a feast, one can easily tell whose position is higher from observing
the order of toasting. Usually, if there is an official in a feast, people would first
toast the official; if there are many officials, people would toast them according to
their rank.
Based on the above analysis, no one can deny that an official career is still pursued
by the majority of people. Most people would choose to become an official if
33
Ding Sheng, "Zhongguo Daxue Biyesheng Zhengzhe Chi Huangliang (Chinese Undergraduates Strive for
Being Public Servants," Lianhe Zaobao, 01 Jan 2005.
34
Xiaoteng, "Cong Ciguan Xiahai Shuokaiqu: Jianlun Gaoguan Luoma Yu Boshi Kaoguan(from 'Officials'
Xiahai' to 'Doctors Pursue Official Career')."
35
Xiaobo Lu, "From RankSeeking to RentSeeking: Changing Administrative Ethos and Corruption in
Reform China," Crime, Law & Social Change 32 (1999).
10
possible. The puzzle is why these officials gave up the supposedly attractive
positions.
THEORETICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This research is important because it will improve our understanding of elite
transformation in transitional China. The existing literature about market transition
suggests that market transition is usually accompanied by the transformation of
elites. As Victor Nee argues, “the partial reform creates new patterns of interaction
between redistributive and market power that give rise to a hybrid elite of cadre
entrepreneurs.” But the question of how elites are transformed in the market
system has not been adequately explored. This study argues that the transitional
context may provide elites both incentives and opportunities to seek an alternative
approach to maintain their elite status. It suggests that the elites may utilize the
power capital they accumulated in the redistributive system to capture new
opportunities generated by the market. By uncovering the micro mechanism of
elite transformation in a transitional context, this study tries to make a theoretical
contribution to Market Transition Theory (MTT).
RELEVANT LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The systematic study of xiahai phenomenon remains inadequate thus far. In this
study, xiahai is conceptualized as an issue of elite transformation. In the
11
redistributive system, government officials who were in control of redistributive
power were able to engage in rentseeking activities to maximize their interests.
But in the transitional context, rentseeking becomes increasingly costly as the
state initiated administrative and judicial reform to enhance government
accountability. Responding to this change, officials chose to work as brokers to
bridging entrepreneurs with the powerholders. As a result, elites are transformed
from rentseekers to powerbrokers. To construct a theory to explain this elite
transformation, one must illuminate the incentives, contextual opportunities as
well as strategies that made the transformation possible, because the existing
literature on Public Service Motivation (PSM), Market Transition Theory (MTT),
and Social Network Theory (SNT) have proved that these factors are related to the
elite transformation in significant ways.
Does PSM Matter?
One tentative explanation for xiahai can be found in the PSM theory. The main
theme of this theory explains how PSM affects government employees’
performance and their consideration about leaving the government. PSM is
defined as “an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded
primarily or uniquely in public institutions” (Perry, 1996).36 Perry developed a
36
James L. Perry, "Measuring Public Service Motivation: An Assessment of Construct Reliability and
Validity," Journal of Public Administration and Research 6, no. 1 (1996).
12
measure of PSM that has four components: attraction to public policy making,
commitment to the public interest, compassion, and selfsacrifice. 37
In other words, PSM can be characterized as a reliance on intrinsic rewards over
extrinsic rewards (Crewson, 1997). Intrinsic rewards are derived from the
satisfaction an individual receives from performing a task, such as a sense of
accomplishment and a feeling of selfworth; extrinsic rewards are those offered to
an employee by someone else, such as a pay rise, a promotion, job security, and
status and prestige.38
Naff and Crum used PSM as an independent variable in order to examine its
impact on employees’ job satisfaction, performance and thoughts about leaving
government. Their findings show that “PSM has a smaller, though statistically
significant, effect on employees’ thoughts about leaving government, meaning that
those with higher PSM are less likely to consider seeking private sector
employment.”39 However, the difference is not large. 40
37
David J. Houston, "PublicService Motivation: A Multivariate Test," Journal of.Public Administration
Research & Theory 10, no. 4 (2000).
38
Ibid.
39
Crum, John and Naff, Katherine C. "Working for America: Does Public Service Motivation Make a
Difference?" Review of Public Personnel Administration 16, no. 4 (19992000): 516
40
In his survey, he measured the PSM by six statements; respondents were required to scale the extent of
agreement or disagreement. However, using this survey as the data source, the research was forced to rely
on selfreported ratings on the employees’ ethnic values towards working in public sector, there might exist
some bias.
13
Do public employees value intrinsic rewards over extrinsic rewards in comparison
to private employees? Houston found that “public employees are more likely to
place a higher priority on intrinsic rewards, whereas private employees value
extrinsic rewards more highly.”41
Can we argue that those officials who entered the private sector had a low level of
PSM while those who did not had a high level of PSM? It may not be true.
Previous research was based on western countries where civil service systems were
more developed than China. PSM has matured in western countries while it is
still in infancy in China. Even in the United States, public choice theory focuses on
the behavior of public sector bureaucrats who are supposed to work in the public
interest and put into practice the policies of government as efficiently and
effectively as possible, but in fact they are self interested utilitymaximizers,
motivated by such factors as salary, prerequisites of the office, public reputation,
power, patronage and the ease of managing the bureau. For Niskanen, self interest
is the sole motivator for officials. 42 For Downs, broader motivations such as pride
in performance, loyalty to a program, department or government, and a wish to
best serve their fellow citizens may also affect a bureaucrat's behavior. However,
Downs admits that an official at any level, be they in the public or private sector,
41
Houston, "PublicService Motivation: A Multivariate Test."
W.A Niskanen, Bureaucracy: Servant or Master? (London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1973).
42
14
acts at least partly in his/her own self interest, and some officials are motivated
solely by their own selfinterest.43
In the context of China, the theory of PSM cannot explain the behavior of Chinese
officials, who favor taking up “rent seeking” activities. Even in a democratic
country, the officials are selfinterested.44 It is somewhat risky to explain this
phenomenon from the perspective of the intrinsic rewards that the officials receive,
and undoubtedly, the extrinsic rewards should be adequately addressed.
My fieldwork shows that the extrinsic rewards, such as economic benefits, were
top concerns for the officials to leave for the business sector. Of course, the
intrinsic rewards, such as career satisfaction, were also critical for the officials to
make the choice. Evidence shows that some officials left the government because
they could not get the achievability from their official positions, and then they
turned to the business sector to actualize their talents. In all, it is reasonable to
assume that the officials are rational actors who take strategies responding to the
changing context.
43
Downs, Anthony Inside Bureaucracy Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967.
This point is advocated by Public Choice Theory.
44
15
Market Transition Theory
Another alternative explanation can be found in the MTT,45 because it seems to
provide a macrolevel context in which xiahai emerges. Victor Nee, who has
referred to the changing value of power capital, may provide some valuable
insights to the phenomenon of xiahai. He argues that the state socialist
redistribution economies are characterized by the allocation and distribution of
goods through central planning. He asserts that “in reforming socialist economies,
the transition from redistribution to market coordination shifts sources of power
and privilege to favor direct producers relative to redistributors.” The shift
improves incentives for direct producers, stimulates the growth of private markets,
and provides to entrepreneurs an alternative path for socioeconomic mobility.” He
pointed out that “the transition to a market like economy should result in higher
returns to human capital characteristics.” 46
Victor Nee makes two basic claims. One is that the value of human capital is
increasing, especially for the entrepreneurs; the other is that the value of power
capital is declining, especially in relation to the officials. The MTT indicates the
central processes in the shift from hierarchies to markets that involve fundamental
45
Over the years after his theory appeared in 1989, the Chinese study in America aroused great interest.
Victor Nee revised his theory two times in 1991 and 1996 in response to the criticism. In 1996, American
Journal of Sociology, a very influential journal in Sociology, even published all the articles focused on his
theory of Market Transition and related debate in the January Edition.
46
Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition: From Redistribution to Markets in State Socialism,"
American Sociological Review 54, no. 5 (1989).
16
changes in the sources of power and in the structures of incentives and
opportunities.47 He concludes that “the more market exchange replaces the
redistributive mechanism in state socialism, the less the value of power capital
relative to market capital.” He modified his theory in 1996 by indicating that
officials have a higher mean household income before and after market reform, but
the increase in household income of officials is substantially lower than that of
peasant entrepreneurs.48
The rising market opens up alternative avenues for socioeconomic mobility, and
thus changes the structure of opportunities and gives rise to entrepreneurship as an
alternative to bureaucratic advancement in state socialism.49 The MTT maintains
that redistributors in sectors of the socialist economy that have experienced market
reform are unable to keep up by drawing on their power capital alone, because
fundamentally, the shift from redistribution to markets involves a change in the
sources of power and privilege.50
But the MTT is problematic in terms of data collection, which weakens the
validity of this theory. Let us look at it in detail. This theory was built on a survey
conducted during the summer of 1985 in Fujian province. Victor Nee randomly
47
ibid
Victor Nee, "The Emergence of a Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," The
American Journal of Sociology 101, no. 4 (1996).
49
Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition: From Redistribution to Markets in State Socialism."
50
Ibid
48
17
selected a sample of 725 households from 30 villages, resulting in 624 completed
interviews. The dependent variable, household income, was based on retrospective
reporting of all resources of household cash income.51 Interviewers carefully
explained to respondents the importance of accurate estimates of household
income for the success of the study, but we must admit that it is very difficult to
get reliable information about the income of officials.
Firstly, income is a sensitive issue, and usually officials are reluctant to speak
about their income, and they have the right to do so. Secondly, the components of
officials' total income are complex. There are two kinds of income in form
(currency and noncurrency) and there are two components in content (normal
income and “grey income”). It is well known that “grey income” composes part of
officials’ income, but it was not reported in the data collection, so the survey data
cannot reflect reality.
Grey income is a serious problem in China. Yang Fan has pointed out that “grey
income”, including direct and indirect ways of collection, reached thirty thousand
billion RMB from 1978 to 1998, almost the six times of China’s annual GNP.52
Several years have passed, none of the economists was against Yang Fan’s
51
Ibid.
"Zhongguo Jingji Mianlin De Weiji Yu Duice (the Crisis Confronted with China's Economy and Relative
Countermeasure)," Zhanlue Yu Guanli (Strategy and Management), no. 4 (1998).
52
18
calculation. It is suggested that “grey income” had reached substantial degree in
China.
The MTT deserves great attention and raises broad debate among scholars. Bian
Yanjie argues that the unrecorded income may be a source of systematic error,
because if a given group did report only part of their total income by concealing
their “grey income”, the results of mean and standard would be affected, and then,
the entire study would be problematic.53 He argues that because China is transiting
from a redistributive economy to a market economy, the two mechanisms work
simultaneously in this particular period. No one can jump to the conclusion that
the value of power capital will decline. Then, he proposed the Continued Power
theory. In this theory, he pointed out that the market has been influenced by the
political power from the beginning; it still plays a critical role in the transitional
period. Those who have access to power can gain more benefits in the market.
The MTT and relevant debates reflect the macrolevel contexts of xiahai. It could
provide some useful insights into the contextual constraints and opportunities for
xiahai officials. For one thing, the rising market economy has opened up an
alternative arena for government officials to actualize their talents. For another,
there still exist various uncertainties for the development of a market economy
because the old redistributive mechanism did not completely diminish. This means
53
Bian Yanjie, Market Transition and Stratification, Social Change in China's Reform Era (Oxford
University Press 1999). pp.109
19
that the power capital possessed by officials is still influential. It enables the
officials to seek interests in the market. What this study seeks to emphasize is that
xiahai is a distinctive phenomenon in China’s market transition period, in which
the market mechanism and redistributive mechanism simultaneously play
important roles. The scenario of xiahai is a good example to show how rational
actors maximize their interests by utilizing the special features of the transitional
period.
Social Network Theory
However, macrolevel constraints and opportunities alone cannot account for the
microlevel strategies in xiahai. For instance, how can the xiahai officials utilize
their power capital after they leave government? The existing study of SNT may
provide plausible answers to this question.
According to this theory, the resources in one’s social network are embedded in a
social structure, which will not change because of one’s job mobility.54 So the
xiahai officials are tied to the powerholder by their social network built up in the
past. Also, this theory could shed light on the behavioral variance in xiahai.
Because it finds that one individual needs to access and/or mobilize his/her social
network in purposive actions and “given the same level of accessible embedded
54
Lin Nan, "Building a Network Theory of Social Capital," Connections 22, no. 1 (1999).
20
resources, some individuals mobilize better resources than others in actions.”55 The
fourth chapter will elaborate the SNT in detail and show how it helps to explain
xiahai.
This study incorporates the reasonable elements of the above literature into a
theoretical framework, I will call a “broker” theory. This theory argues that
officials leave the government because they want to become brokers between the
government and the market. The transitional context, full of uncertainties and
constraints in the private market, provides them opportunities to seek interests as
brokers between the market and government. In this way, they can also minimize
the costs derived from government reforms and anticorruption movement. This
theory emphasizes rational assumption, contextual constraints and opportunities as
well as microlevel strategies.
METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES OF DATA
This study is designed as a comparative case study with relatively small samples.
The unit of analysis is the individual official. The sources of data come from
newspaper and journal articles, official archives, statistics, and website information
for the period of 19782005, plus my fieldwork findings which was conducted in
Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces in 2004. During the fieldwork, I had completed
55
Ibid.
21
fifteen indepth interviews with xiahai officials, ten with incumbent officials and a
few with entrepreneurs.
There is a limited sample in my interview data due to the following reasons.
Firstly, the name list of xiahai officials is not open to public. Not knowing the
name and contact of xiahai officials, it is impossible to conduct a largesample
survey. To solve the problem of accessibility, I tried to reach xiahai officials
through mutual friends' introduction. Secondly, xiahai is a sensitive topic to them.
It is generally difficult to interview government officials who are very cautious
about talking with outsiders. Even with an introduction from mutual friends, a few
of them were still reluctant to receive the interview. Before talking with them, I
informed them that the information they provide would be used exclusively for
research purposes and their real names would not appear in the study. At last,
fifteen xiahai officials accepted my indepth interviews. For confidentiality
reasons, the names used in this thesis are not their real names.
My fieldwork was mainly conducted in Jiangsu, Zhejiang provinces. This is
because it was convenient for me to collect data within limited time and research
fund. The interview cases that were from specific regions may have limited
representatives. This is a limitation of this study, future study may do some cross
regional comparisons.
22
In this thesis, to better understand xiahai, I have addressed the incentives,
contextual opportunities and microlevel strategies. In the part of microlevel
strategies, my findings are mainly based on interview data. Therefore, it may suffer
from selection bias. Nonetheless, this study is an original and preliminary
research on the study of xiahai. With the available data, it has suggested some
patterns of xiahai. Whether these patterns can be generalized is a matter of future
study. Moreover, it has provided important theoretical implications in an
understanding of xiahai.
ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS
Chapter one gives a brief introduction to this study. It includes the research
question, the significance of the study, relevant literature, theoretical framework
and methodology.
Chapter two examines the various incentives of xiahai officials, categorizing the
incentives into “positive” and “negative” types. “Positive” includes “actualization
of talents” and “getting better economic gains.” “Negative” includes “risk
avoidance” and “comparative lower prospects.”
Chapter three shows that the transitional contexts have played a mixed role in the
development of the private economy. On the one hand, the private economy has
experienced great growth. On the other hand, the private economy is confronted
23
with great political and administrative uncertainties. However, both of them have
provided opportunities for officials to undergo occupational change and transfer to
the private sector. Because the rising private economy stands as an alternative
arena for career development, "advancement in officialdom" is not as attractive as
before. Most important, the private entrepreneurs would like to recruit the xiahai
officials based on the expectation that they could solve the problem of
uncertainties.
Chapter four explains the variations in xiahai. Drawing on the Social Network
Theory, this chapter examines the role of “strong tie” and “face” in xiahai. It
argues that those who had established strong ties with entrepreneurs enjoyed
higher possibility to obtain jobs than those who had not, and those who had built
up greater “face” were more likely to stabilize their attained positions in business
enterprises than others.
Chapter five summarizes this study of xiahai, discusses the theoretical
implications of this study to Market Transition Theory and Social Network Theory,
and provides suggestions for future research.
24
Chapter 2 The Incentives of Xiahai
To understand the phenomenon of xiahai, one must recognize two factors: one is
the incentives that motivate officials to leave government; and the other is the
opportunities that make it possible for resigned officials to attain new positions in
the nongovernment sphere. As mentioned in the first chapter, the Chinese
officials usually enjoy extensive privileges, which they are less likely to give up.
Therefore, it is necessary to elaborate here what incentives motivate officials and
why these incentives have emerged in this particular period of time.
As a matter of fact, it is impossible and unnecessary to list all the personal reasons
for xiahai officials since concrete reasons for officials’ choice vary from individual
to individual. But it is still helpful to do some categorical analysis by constructing
several “ideal type” incentives to show the fundamental patterns of this
phenomenon. My interview data includes four types of incentives for xiahai:
comparative lower promotion prospect, risk avoidance, actualization of talent, and
better economic gains. I will elaborate each category in the following section.
COMPARATIVE LOWER PROMOTION PROSPECT
In this scenario, an official is ambitious to pursue a higher position and further
his/her political development, but instead finds that promotion opportunities are
25
scarce. After calculating the gains and losses, he/she may leave government for an
optimum choice. This study suggests that promotion opportunities, which have a
significant influence on the prospects for officials, now have a critical impact on
the decision of xiahai. Xiahai may occur where the opportunity for promotion is
weak, or where due promotion is not realized. Some officials were in a melancholy
mood about leaving government because they were dissatisfied with their current
position.
One scholar has pointed out that “The higher the rank, the better the treatment and
more privileges one got. This has made ranking in the official hierarchy very
significant.”56 For officials, promotion opportunities are critical for career
advancement. They are willing to do everything possible to get promoted. Many
officials even pay large amounts of money to “buy” a position. This is captured in
a Chinese saying: “bupao busong, yuandi budong; zhipao busong, pingji
diaodong”, which means that sometimes monetary benefits are needed to bribe the
superiors in order to get promoted.57 For example, Li Gang, the chief executive of
the township government in Heilongjiang province, had spent 420,000 yuan plus
10,000 US dollars (61, 954 US dollars in total) to buy his position.58 However, this
is only a part of the story. In fact, it has become such a serious social problem that
56
Cheng Lucie Arthur Rosett, "Contract with a Chinese Face: Socially Embedded Factors in the
Transformation from Hierarchy to Market, 19781989," Journal of Chinese Law 5, no. 2 (1991).
57
Zhang Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change:
From 'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics'), 1 ed. (Zhejiang People's Press, 2004).
58
Ibid.
26
the state has carried out a series of regulations to fight this phenomenon. Some
localities even take strict measures to deter officials from buying positions. The
leaders of Henan province, for instance, announced that those who had bought
positions would be immediately dismissed.59
“Imagebuilding” project is another way for the officials to get promotion.
Yongshun Cai has pointed out that:
“In Authoritarian regimes where free and fair elections are absent,
politicians are held accountable to their supervisors rather than to the
public. Driven by tenure and promotion that are determined by higher
level counterparts, local cadres are motivated to build favorable
reputations for themselves. A combination of motivation and opportunity
leads local officials to engage in widespread imagebuilding activities in
China, resulting in a severe waste of resources.”60
In practice, the Chinese officials are active in engaging in “imagebuilding”
projects so as to enhance their opportunities of being promoted, even if such
“imagebuilding” projects may result in severe waste of public resources. For
example, in the 1990s, Wang Huaizhong, the party secretary of Fuyang in Anhui
province, had an ambitious plan to make Fuyang one of the biggest cities in
China.61 Dissatisfied with the small airport in Fuyang, Wang Huaizhong promoted
59
Southcn.com, 06 June 2005.
Cai Yongshun, "Irresponsible State: Local Cadres and Image Building in China," The Journal of
Communist Studies and Transition Politics 20, no. 4 (2004).
61
"An Overview on the ImageBuilding Projects by Wang Huaizhong," Xinmin Weekly, 31 Oct 2003.
60
27
the construction of an international airport to match the blueprint of constructing a
big city. At that time, the number of the estimated passengers was not big enough
in this middlesized city, a big airport was not in need at all. Despite the strong
counterviews of experts and the public, Wang persisted in putting it into practice.
At last, it cost 320,000,000 yuan to complete this big airport. Each of the
government employees, teachers and peasants were levied several hundred Yuan
for airport construction fees. Although this “imagebuilding” project was a huge
waste of public resources, it brought substantial benefits for Wang's official career.
He was promoted to the Vicegovernor of Anhui province in 1999.62
As indicated above, officials try every means to get tenure and promotion, but it is
quite competitive because of limited positions. The consequence is a fierce
competition for higher ranks in the official hierarchy among individual cadres.
Because of the limited promotion opportunities, there is a gap between the
officials’ expectation and their actual status. One of the interviewees, who is now
working in the Jiangsu Committee of the Communist Party, stated: “there is a
queue to get promoted, I am at the back of the queue and many people are in front
of me. If there are alternative ways for me to realize my ambition, I will consider
leaving the government.”63
62
An overview on the Imagebuilding projects by Wang Huaizhong, Xinmin Weekly, 31 Oct 2003.
Personal interview, 15 August 2004.
63
28
Also, most of the interviewees expressed their dissatisfaction with the unjust
promotion system in the government. Yang Yi, who is now working at the
Propaganda Department of the Provincial Committee, commented: “in the
government, the promotion system is not fair at all. Although the popular
assessment of performance is adopted, in fact, one’s promotion opportunity is
determined by his superior officer.”64
My interviews show that most of the xiahai officials had lower prospects for
promotion before they decided to leave the government. For example, Du Dan,
who once worked at the City Planning Bureau, said: “When I worked for the
government, I maintained good relations with my colleagues except for my
superior officer. In that condition, I thought I may not get any chance for
promotion. You know, whether one can be promoted is determined by the will of
the leader. I was tired of dealing with the complex personal relations with my
superiors, so I decided to leave. At that time, my brother initiated his own
business, and I joined it.”65
RISK AVOIDANCE
There has been a general tendency to treat xiahai as a strategy employed by
corrupt officials and as a way to avoid punishment by the Anticorruption Agency.
64
Personal interview, 20 August 2004
Personal interview, 09 Sep 2004.
65
29
In recent years, the anticorruption activities have been increasingly effective. Fear
of being prosecuted has prompted some corrupt officials to leave the government.
By so doing, they can minimize the risk involved, because they are no longer the
target of anticorruption activities, which are mainly aimed at incumbent officials.
For example, Shen Jing, the former Chief of a Reception Office, said: “frankly
speaking, I have received some money by illegal means. But I must say that
corruption is not an uncommon phenomenon in the office. It is very popular to
present valuable gifts to superiors. Later, an acquaintance was arrested for graft.
After that, I was always alert to various signs of disturbance or troubles, and even
could not sleep well because of the great pressures derived from the Anti
corruption Movement. At last, I decided to leave the government and initiate my
own business. Now I feel happy and secure though I earned less money compared
to before.”66
The anticorruption activities did act as a deterrent on the incumbent officials. As
a result, some officials who had taken bribes even sacrificed their official positions
to avoid facing the consequences. This is exemplified in the case of Li Dachang, 67
the former Governor of Sichuan Province. In 2001, Li submitted an application to
66
Personal interview, 02 Sep 2004
Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
67
30
resign from office. He insisted on leaving the government to teach at Southwestern
University of Finance. In January 2003, he left office with the approval of his
superiors. Some people highly praised Li in the sense that he would pursue what
he really cared for even at the cost of the official career. Li justified that his choice
was the result of a strong interest in teaching. However, in 2004 the truth was
revealed when Li was arrested for appropriating 100 million yuan and the misuse
of authority.
The anticorruption activities have been greatly improved in recent years in terms
of effectiveness and efficiency. This trend is evident from the reports made by the
Supreme People’s Procuratorate of China in the annual People’s Congress Meeting
from 2000 to 2004. 68 Compared to previous years, corruption was under control
in this period. In 1999, many cases of corruption were investigated to promote a
clean Chinese government. The representative example is Hu Changqing, former
Vicegovernor in Jiangxi Province. He was given the death penalty because of
serious corruption. In 2000, Cheng Kejie and Li Jizhou received the most
attention.69 Responding to the fact that an increasing number of officials who were
involved in corruption and absconded to foreign countries, the Supreme People’s
Procuratorate of China and the Police Security Ministry jointly organized an
68
All the following statistics about the Anticorruption movement is seen in the website of the Supreme
People’s Procuratorate of China: http://www.spp.gov.cn/gzdt/
69
Li Jizhou, the vice minister of public security, was involved in Xiamen Smuggle case. He received
substantive bribe from Lai Changxing and misused his power to help Lai in smuggle activities.
31
investigation, which led to the arrest of 300 criminals abroad. By 2002, the degree
of Anticorruption activity was greatly improved, with 207103 cases investigated.
In 2003, the big cases represented 53.7% of total cases. The details of Anti
corruption Action is shown in Table 2.1 70
Table 2.1 the Effectiveness of Anticorruption Movement
Cases
Saved money
(RMB/billion)
Cases with more than
50000involved
Cases with more than
100000involved
Involved countylevel
officials
Involved citylevel officials
Involved provinciallevel
officials
1999
38382
2000
45113
2001
36447
2002
207103
2003
39562
400
470
410
420
430
7725
18086
16870
5244
1335
1319
5541
5541
2200
136
2680
184
2670
187
2630
193
2728
167
3
7
6
7
4
Table 2.1 provides more evidence to support the fact that in recent years the Anti
corruption Action in China has improved in terms of effectiveness and efficiency.
Even the highlevel officials cannot escape the law if they are involved in
corruption. In June 2004, Xu Guojian, the chief of the Organization Department in
70
I made this table by referring to the statistics provided by the website of the Supreme People’s
Procuratorate of China: http://www.spp.gov.cn/gzdt/
32
the Jiangsu Provincial Committee, faced “shuanggui”71 and was sent to Beijing to
receive scrutiny.72 The Political Consultation in Hei Longjiang Province removed
Han Guizhi from the post of chairman; Zhang Zonghai, the Chief of
Propagandistic Department in Chongqing city, was demoted by the Chongqing
City Committee;73 and Ding Xinfa, the lawofficer of Jiangxi Province, was
escorted from Nanchang to Beijing to undergo censorship by the Central
Discipline Committee.74 All of these cases greatly frightened those officials who
wanted to benefit from “rent seeking” activities.
ACTUALIZATION OF TALENT
Booming prosperity and vigorous management of private enterprises are attracting
more and more people who want to make good use of their intelligence, including
xiahai officials. While their ages and positions may differ, they share the same
search for greater meaning in life through professional change. Most of the
interviewees said that they prefer working in the enterprises where the promotion
system is fairer and interpersonal relations are simpler. Compared to the unjust
promotion system in the government, the private entrepreneur evaluates the
employees in terms of their performance in order to motivate them to serve the
71
“Shuanggui” refers to the disciplinary measure taken by Chinese Communist Party. Once an official is
“shuanggui”, he must confess his problem in a prescribed time and place.
72
Song Yuan, "Storm of 'Shuanggui'," Phoenix Weekly 152.
73
ibid
74
ibid
33
enterprises. Realizing the importance of talent for the development of enterprises,
the private enterprises put a great value on attracting talented people and sees
merit as the basis for promotion. As one interviewee, Ya Ning, said: “in the
government, one’s obedience to his superior is most important, and since the
performance is immeasurable, one’s personal relations with superiors and
colleagues is regarded as an important factor. However, I was not good at dealing
with relations. Therefore, I joined a private enterprise where one’s achievements
can be measured.”75
The story of Zheng Keji76 can also shed some light on this point. Zheng had
undertaken three open competitive examinations and received top grades, but
failed to get promoted each time. At last, Zheng left the government and joined
Guangsha Group. Zheng’s interest towards joining the Guangsha Group began in
January 2001 when he went to a job fair for highlevel talents. He was curious
about what kind of people are “highlevel” talents and wondered whether he was
one among them. Guangsha Group was the first booth he saw after entering the
job fair. As a Hangzhounese, Zheng had known a bit about this company, which
developed from a small architectural company into a prestigious firm. Since it was
inviting applications for the post of vicepresident, Zheng thought it was a good
75
Personal Interview, 06 Sep 2004.
The story of Zheng Keji can be seen in: Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren
Congzheng (the Power Change: From 'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
76
34
chance and submitted his resume to apply for the position. Three days later, he
received a call from Guangsha Group to invite him for the entry test and interview.
He had no idea about how private enterprises operated and was reluctant to leave
the government for business, but he was curious about the kind of tests held by the
enterprise, although he had experienced many open examinations held by the
government. On the examination day, he arrived punctually to find that the chief
examiner was Lou Zhongfu, the CEO of Guangsha Group. The other examiners
included the officials from the Provincial Ministry of Personnel and professors
from Zhejiang University. The final result was released immediately after the
examination and interview. Lou Zhongfu informed Zheng that he would be
approved as vicepresident. Zheng was deeply moved by the efficiency of
Guangsha Group and was impressed by their attitudes towards talented people.
The next day, Zheng tendered a letter of resignation to the Organization
Department of the Provincial Committee. His friends suggested that he should
acquaint himself with the Guangsha Group first and put forward his resignation
date. However, Zheng decided to give up his official position without hesitation.
One year later, when asked to describe his feelings towards working in the
enterprise, he said that when working in the government, what made him worry
was not his ability but having no opportunities to show his skills. While in the field
of business, he was forced to familiarize himself with the latest information and
knowledge, improve his ability and realize his potential to meet the needs of the
35
enterprise. It was this distinction of working genre between the government and
enterprise combined with the options provided by the economic reform, which
makes those who are pursuing their professional success transit from the
government to the private enterprises.
Besides, the private enterprises have been enjoying a higher social status in recent
years. Gao Jie, one of the interviewees, is the chief Executive Officer of one
company. He said: “An entrepreneur is now an admirable career. Sometimes
people envied me when they knew I was an owner of an enterprise. Also, I can
enjoy some political rights because I am the Deputy of the Local People’s
Congress.”77
With the prosperity of private enterprises and their favorable developmental
environment, the arena of the private economy provides opportunities for people to
choose their profession based on their own preferences. Therefore, an official
career is no longer the only path to success.
GETTING BETTER ECONOMIC GAINS
Last but not least, the economic benefit, for some officials, is taken into
consideration as the deciding factor. Nowadays, being a rentseeker is not as easy
77
Personal interview, 18Aug, 2004.
36
as before because of the anticorruption activities; the enterprises provide
opportunities for officials to earn more money than in the government. Four out of
fifteen interviewed xiahai officials admitted that getting more economic gains is
the decisive factor for them to xiahai.
For example, Wang Xin, one of the interviewees, resigned from his position as
Deputy Director to join H Group in 2000.78 After that, he had worked as the Vice
manager of H Group for three years, and now is the Generalmanager. When he
was invited by H Group in 2000, he was the Deputy Director of one Economic
Development Zone of Zhejiang province. At first, he was reluctant to give up an
official career for which he had struggled for years, but from the angle of
economic benefits, joining the H Group could guarantee him a salary much higher
than the government. As a matter of fact, he has two daughters, who require a
considerable amount to raise. Furthermore, he and his wife were willing to provide
the best schooling for them and send them to overseas universities. However, the
low salaries in the government could not make it possible. He discussed the
situation with his wife for a whole night on whether to join the H Group, and at
last, he decided to leave the government. Before I interviewed him, he was
conducting the welcome meeting for new employees. He said that four years’
experience in the private enterprise greatly enhanced his ability and confidence.
78
Personal interview, 19July, 2004.
37
He also asked me the experience of studying overseas; and he would like to select
a prestigious university for his daughters.
Another interviewee Wei Min, a Directorlevel official in Guiyang City, told me
that he was considering a job shift to one business enterprise.79 He said: “The
salary in the government cannot fulfill the growing economic needs of my family. I
must pay for the high tuition fees for my son. Also, a new apartment is needed to
improve the living conditions of my family. As you may know, the current house
price is strikingly high for an ordinary official like me. So I am thinking of seeking
a job with a high salary in the market.”
Moreover, the stories from newspaper articles also demonstrate the importance of
economic temptations for xiahai. For instance, when interviewed by a journalist in
June 2003, Wang Xiaoping, the former Mayor of Dongtai City, confessed that the
economic benefit was his main consideration for his decision to xiahai. He implied
that the income of a workshop director in Sen Da Group is much higher than that
of a County Secretary. Even the income tax he paid is higher than his previous
income as a Mayor.80 Liu Zhixing, the former vicewarden in Foshan city, became
the vicepresident of Meidi Group. He had 28 years working experience and was
79
Personal Interview, 29July, 2004.
Wang Shengke, "Jiangzhe Guanyuan Xiahaichao Shibushi Jinbu Xianxiang? (Is 'Xiahai' in Jiangsu and
Zhejiang Provinces Progressive Phenomenon?)," 21th Century Ecomonic News, 26June 2003.
80
38
an expert in administration, assetrestructuring and capital management. Meidi
Group paid him an annual salary of million yuan.81 Men Xinguo, the head of
Kenli County in Shandong province, was invited to be the standingvicemanager
of Shandong Huanghe Group. He was given an annual salary of 200,000 yuan.82
Growing economic needs reveal that in a market economy people care more about
economic benefits. This is because, one’s economic status, to a large extent,
decides one's social status. On the other hand, we need to notice that the rising
private market has opened up an alternative arena for people to get better economic
returns.
SUMMARY
To sum up, this study postulates that officials are rational actors, who try to
maximize their interests or minimize costs. “Risk avoidance” and “comparative
lower prospect” indicate their incentive to minimize costs, while “actualization of
talents” and “getting better economic gains” reflects their incentive to maximize
interests. These incentives for xiahai are the consequence of the officials’ response
to the changing context. For one thing, the government's administrative reforms,
especially the ongoing anticorruption activities, make it difficult for officials to be
81
Southern Daily 27Aug 2003.
Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
82
39
rentseekers as before. Moreover, the rising private market opens up an alternative
arena for xiahai officials to actualize their talents and achieve better economic
gains. Besides, the market reform is a partial one; it still depends on government
power to develop. Put simply, the government's administrative reforms create the
push for xiahai while the partial market reform is the pull for xiahai.
40
Chapter 3 The Opportunity for Xiahai
In the previous chapter, I have elaborated the incentives that motivate some
officials to leave their positions in the government and join the business sector.
This chapter is devoted to an analysis of the opportunities for officials to pursue
their new career in the field of business. Without opportunities, the officials’
intention of xiahai cannot be achieved. This chapter explores the opportunity for
officials to xiahai.
It argues that the rising Chinese private market has provided an alternative choice
for government officials to pursue a prosperous career. This choice is attainable for
government officials because the private enterprises are willing to hire xiahai
officials to solve the problem of uncertainties. In reality, the private enterprises
encounter various political and administrative uncertainties that are characteristic
of the transitional period of China.
Political uncertainty refers to the great unpredictability brought about by the
inconsistent or contradictory state policies on the development of the private
economy. This kind of uncertainty, to a large extent, originated from the
ideological baggage of communism and the state’s overall economic and political
strategy. Administrative uncertainty refers to the unfavorable administrative
41
environment derived from the administrative discretion, opacity and inefficiency.
In China, the government has dominated the economy and administration for
decades. The stateled partial market reform has not undermined the dominant
power of the government. The government, with the consideration for
departmental interest, tends to wield administrative power to intervene in the
business field. Meanwhile, the legal system is not developed enough to restrain the
administration from power abuses, therefore leaving loopholes for the misuse of
power.
BUSINESS UNCERTAINTIES AS OPPORTUNITIES
In this uncertain situation, running an enterprise is like a venture full of risks. In
order to reduce the political and administrative uncertainties, the entrepreneurs
strive to establish connections with the government. When the officials leave the
government and seek positions in the market, it provides the entrepreneurs with a
safer and efficient option. That is, embracing the xiahai officials. This is because
the xiahai officials have access to power through the social network they had
established in the past. These advantages of access to power are appealing to the
enterprises and have enabled the xiahai officials to find positions in the field of
business. In other words, uncertainties and risks faced by the business sector
become opportunities for these officials. Building on this critique, this section will
first describe how the Chinese private market has opened up alternative avenues
42
for talent, and then elaborate on the political and administrative uncertainties
confronting the private enterprises. The next section will clarify the available
strategies for the entrepreneurs to reduce the uncertainties and argues that
embracing xiahai officials is a safer and efficient strategy for the entrepreneurs to
reach the same end.
Transition to Private Economy
Since the economic reforms introduced in 1978, the Chinese economy has been
undergoing continuous development with remarkable annual growth rates of Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). The growth rate of GDP once reached doubledigits;
even when the economy was stagnant in 19891990, it still remained at 5.4% (two
and a half times that of the U.S).83 This noticeable economic achievement could
not be reached without the significant contribution of the Chinese private
economy. Over the past twenty years, from 1978 to 1998, the Chinese private
economy experienced spectacular development. As can be seen from Table 3.1,84
firstly, the growing importance of the private economy comes from its rising share
of gross industrial output. It rose from nearly zero in 1978 to 7 percent in 1988 and
38.8 percent in 1998. Secondly, the private economy is giving a big boost to
industrial growth; It accounted for 44.5% of the industrial growth in 198898,
83
Ibid.
The table is cited from China’s Third Economic Transformation: the Rise of the Private Economy. Edited
by Ross Gamaut, Ligang Song. pp. 16
84
43
about 2.65 times that of statesector in the same period. Thirdly, the private
economy demonstrates its vital energy to survive and thrive. The private
enterprises, along with the petty proprietors, are able to continue to keep the
growth rate high at around 44%, which far exceeded that of state or collective
firms. With its significant contributions to society, the private enterprises
constitute an essential part of the national economy. In 2002, the production value
created by the private economy accounted for 48.5% of Gross National Product
(GNP).
In addition, the private economy has provided many employment opportunities. As
can be seen from Table 3.2,85 the number of jobs in the private economy has
increased dramatically from 1978 to 2002; in 2001, the number of workers in the
private sector (74.74 million) surpassed that in the state sector.
85
I made Table 3.2 by consulting the website information from China’s National Bureau of Statistics. State
sector: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/yb2004c/indexch.htm;
Collective sector: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/yb2004c/indexch.htm;
Private enterprises: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/yb2004c/indexch.htm.
44
Table 3.1 Contribution of the State and Nonstate Sectors to Industrial
Output (per cent)
Contribution to total
industrial output
1978
1988
1998
Contribution to industrial
growth
197888
198898
Growth rate by sector
197888
198898
Overall
State
100
100
100
77.6
56.8
22.9
22.4
36.2
38.3
100
100
50.5
16.8
40.3
38.7
12.8
16.6
8.5
4.9
19.9
18.7
Individual
Private
Enterprise
0
7
38.8
0
4.3
18.9
0
2.7
19.9
9.2
44.5
5.7
21.5
3.5
23
86.6
34.2
44
47.3
Collective Private:
Notes:
1. indicates that the values are negligible.
2. “State” refers to stateowned enterprises; “private” refers to private sector, it
includes private enterprises and individual businesses.
45
Table 3.2 Composition of China’s Employment, 1978 2002 (million)
Year\Work
ers
1978
1980
1985
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
State Sector
74.51
80.19
89.9
101.09
103.46
106.64
108.89
109.2
108.9
109.55
109.49
107.66
88.09
83.36
78.78
74.09
69.24
Collective
Sector
20.48
24.25
33.24
35.02
35.49
36.28
36.21
33.93
32.11
30.76
29.54
28.17
19
16.52
14.47
12.41
10.71
Private Sector
0.15
0.814
4.501
21.42
22.743
24.915
26.995
33.12
44.242
55.695
61.882
67.911
78.235
82.625
74.765
74.741
81.522
The expansion of the private sector provides an alternative stage for the social
elites to pursue a prosperous career. Firstly, there are an increasing number of big
private enterprises with impressive profits, and the private entrepreneurs pay more
attention to introducing advanced technology, scientific management and talented
employees. The 1990s was the golden time for the development of the private
economy. From 1993 to 2002, the number of registered private enterprises
increased from 238,000 to 2,435,000. What is noteworthy is that this period saw a
surge of large private enterprises with registered capital exceeding 10 million
46
yuan.86 In 1995, the number of enterprises whose sales exceeded 100 million yuan
reached 41. Among them, the Sichuan Hope Group was the top firm with sales of
1660 million yuan.87 Furthermore, the private enterprises have transited from the
investment of capital and labor force; and their surviving capacity is enhanced by
introducing advanced technologies and updated modes of scientific management.88
A recent survey on private enterprises shows that the hightech enterprises take
3.84% of all enterprises in the sample, which is much higher than before. 89 It also
shows that 43.6% of the investigated enterprises have invested in developing new
products and new projects with technological content. 12.7% of the enterprises
have patented their selfdeveloped technology.90 Furthermore, realizing the
importance of specialist guidance and counseling for their development as a
whole, the entrepreneurs have significantly invested in counseling specialists,
training employees and attracting talented people.
Secondly, the private economy has been legitimatized by the amendments to the
Constitution. As the Constitution is the basic law of the country, any revision to it
86
Yang Xueye, "Jueqi De Zhongguo Siying Jingji (the Rising Private Economy in China)," Modern China
Studies, no. 4 (1998).
87
Zhongguo Siying Jingji Nianjian (the Yearbook of Chinese Private Economy), ed. National Business
Association and Society of Private Business Studies United Front Work Department of the CCP Central
Committee (Beijing: Chinese Language Press, 2000).
88
Xueye, "Jueqi De Zhongguo Siying Jingji (the Rising Private Economy in China)."
89
"Zhongguo Siying Qiye Diaocha Baogao (the Investigation Report on Chinese Private Enterprises),"
Finance, 20 Feb 2003.
90
Ibid.
47
is based on deliberate consideration.91 The provision about the private economy,
which reflects the developing process of the market economy in China, is one of
the most important issues among the previous amendments to the Constitution.
The 1982 Constitution stipulates that "the legal rights and interests of the
individual economy and private economy are preserved by the state. Meanwhile,
they are under the guidance, supervision and administration of the state.”92 In the
1988 edition, the nonstate economy was regarded as the complement to the state
owned economy. In 1993, the socialist market economy was confirmed by the
Constitution; until 1999, the nonstate economy was regarded as an “important
part” of the socialist market economy, and it signals that the private economy
should take up its legitimate place in the arena of the country’s economic life.93 A
new definition of the private economy emerged from the National people’s
Congress in 2004, a definition which, at the rhetorical, had subtly shifted the status
of the private economy. It states that “the legal rights and interests of the
individual economy and private economy are preserved by the state. The state
should encourage and support its development, supervise and manage it legally.”94
91
In China, the amendment to the constitution should be proposed by Standing Committee of the National
People’s Congress or at least one fifth deputies of National people’s Congress, and then, it is valid only
after it is approved by at least two thirds of the total deputies. Now China has 2984 deputies of National
People’s Congress, to make the legal amendment to constitution, at least 1990 deputies should approve the
proposal.
92
See Provision 11 of Constitution
93
See Provision 6
94
See Provision 11 Article 2
48
Thirdly, the private enterprises now enjoy higher social status than before. For
instance, the year 2005 saw 30 private entrepreneurs become candidates for the
“National Model Worker” for the first time.95 The “National model worker” is the
highest national honor for Chinese workers. The selection, which began in 1950, is
made every five years under strict procedures, and usually 3000 candidates are
selected for this honor every time. The successful candidates are called “National
Model Workers” and enjoy considerable benefits. The fact that private
entrepreneurs are allowed to compete for this honor indicates that the social status
of private enterprises has improved tremendously.
To sum up, the rising private sphere with its increased social status has provided
new options for people to actualize their talents. In the past, people regarded
official careers as their primary choice, such as “Advancement in Officialdom”
(Xue Er You Ze Shi). This is because in the redistributive system, the government
plays a dominant role in all aspects of social life, state officials may enjoy various
privileges as well as respectable social reputation. The development of the private
economy has opened up alternative paths for the talented people, including
government officials, to pursue a prosperous career.
95
Meng Na Cui Qingxin, "Nongmin Gong He Siying Qiyejia Shoudeng Quanguo Laomo Bang (Farmer
Laborer and Private Entrepreneurs Become National Model Worker)," People's Daily, 19April 2005.
49
Political Uncertainty
We must recognize the fact that the development of the Chinese private economy
relies heavily upon the policies of the Partystate. Its development is full of
uncertainties. Firstly, the extraordinary growth of China’s private sector has
occurred despite a highly unfavorable business environment. Without the
consistent support from Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the state, the private
economy has experienced great frustration and obstacles, as can be seen in the
developmental history of Chinese private economy:
“The larger private firms operating in China in the 1950s were
comprehensively replaced by collective and stateowned enterprises
from 1956, as part of the socialist transformation. Then, with the onset
of the Cultural Revolution in 1966, even small individual businesses
were shut down. The private sector went underground during the
Cultural Revolution and was suppressed for a number of years even
after its official conclusion in 1976. A dynamic private sector
resurfaced in the countryside in 1979, following rural reform. Still, all
but very small formally registered private firms were prohibited during
most of the 1980s. Larger private businesses were formally sanctioned
in 1988 but soon faced a difficult economic environment, with the anti
inflation policies of 1988 and 1989, and the temporary reaction against
reform after June 1989. It was not until a new burst of reform began in
1992 that private enterprises flourished again, soon emerging as a
major component of the national economy.”96
96
Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
50
This history indicates that the development of the private economy is deeply
influenced by government policies. Whenever the political winds shift in direction,
the private economy inevitably suffers losses. For instance, even when the private
economy was legalized by the Constitution in 1988,97 it could not avoid the
miserable fate of being suppressed after the 1989 political movement. Because the
CCP insisted that the 1989 Political Movement was a counterrevolution and a
restoration of the bourgeois formed from mutineers, private entrepreneurs, the
Party started to launch a campaign of rectification against private entrepreneurs
and petty proprietors. As a result, they were not allowed to engage in the field of
vintage and cosmetic, and were not permitted to rent counters in stateowned
shops. Worst of all, the Central Committee commanded that they were forbidden to
join the CCP.98 Meanwhile, many commissioners from the Central Consultant
Committee appealed to Deng Xiaoping to complain the side effects of Reform and
Openup Policy. Opposition to the private economy can be frequently heard, such
as “the development of the private economy is based on tax evasion”, “developing
the private economy is equal to privatization”, “private economy is the economic
foundation of the bourgeoisie” and the like.99 The private economy became the
imagined enemy, though the law which had legalized the private economy was in
97
In 1988, the National People’s Congress passed an amendment to Constitution to recognize the legitimacy
of private economy: “The state permits the private sector of the economy to exist and develop within the
limits prescribed by law. The private sector of the economy is a complement to the socialist public
economy. The state protects the lawful rights and interests of the private sector of the economy, and
exercises guidance, supervision and control over the private sector of the economy.”
98
Xueye, "Jueqi De Zhongguo Siying Jingji (the Rising Private Economy in China)."
99
Ibid.
51
force. Under such circumstances, the private economy reached its lowest ebb. The
number of registered petty proprietors declined from 23.1 million in 1988 to 19.4
million by the end of 1989; the number of registered private firms declined from
90,600 in 1989 to 88,000 in June 1990. Sensitive to the conservative political
climate, many private firms transferred to collective ownership or reduced their
number of employees to fewer than eight.100 The private economy did not revive its
vitality until Deng Xiaoping’s southern tour in 1992. Deng emphasized that
economic policy making should be separated from ideology per se. 101 After that,
the party’s attitude towards the private economy became more tolerant than
hostile, which led to a revival of the private enterprises. In 1993, the number of
private enterprises increased sharply from 90,000 to 238,000. From 1992 to 1995,
there was an annual increase in the number of registered private firms, the
employment, and the registered capital by 47.1%, 51.6% and 98.9% respectively.102
This indicates that the government’s policy changes have a significant impact on
the private economy. Under such circumstances, the development of the private
economy is contingent upon the Party’s policy. As Chen An has argued:
“China is presumably the first country in world history where
capitalism is largely an ‘artifact’ invented by the state. The rise of the
urban private economy as part of the reform package is mostly a
100
China’s third economic transformation: the rise of the private economy. edited by ross Garnaut and
Ligang Song
101
"Huigu Zhongguo Siying Jingji Ershisi Nian (an Overview on TwentyFour Years' Development of
Chinese Private Economy)," New People's Weekly, 09Dec 2002.
102
Xueye, "Jueqi De Zhongguo Siying Jingji (the Rising Private Economy in China)."
52
product of the partystate policy and has been placed under tight
government control.” 103
Secondly, although the CCP has recognized the legitimacy of the private economy,
there exist uncertainties for its future development. This is because the CCP
adheres to the ideology of communism which is opposed to private economy. 104
Also, the Party sees itself as the party of the industrial proletariat of China and
worries that the foundation of its rule would be challenged by the booming private
economy. Ross Garnaut and Ligang Song also notice that the development of
Chinese private economy is faced with a challenge from ideology:
“Maintaining rapid growth in the private sector requires continuing
development of the ideological, policy, regulatory and institutional
framework within which it operates. But the authorities still need to
identify the need for reform, have the imagination to make changes
and be willing to take political risks. Successful development of the
private sector depends on whether the authorities can keep up.”105
Political uncertainty has a deep influence on the entrepreneurs. The first large
scale survey among private entrepreneurs has measured the entrepreneurs’
perceptions of external and internal constraints on the development of private
103
Chen An, "Capitalist Development, Entrepreneurial Class, and Democratization in China," Political
Science Quarterly 117, no. 3 (2002).
104
I analyze the Chinese Communist conception of the Communist party by looking at the general outline
of the Party Rules of the Eighth Party Congress in September 1956. “The Chinese Communist Party is the
vanguard of the Chinese working class. It is the highest form of class organization of the Chinese working
class. Its goals are to realize socialism and communism in China.” Citation from Franz Schurmann p 118
“Ideology and Organization in Communist China” University of California Press 1968.
105
Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics'). pp.8
53
enterprises.106 Business people were asked to identify a number of major
constraints on private sector development. The results show that “frequent change
in policy and arbitrary fees" are among the top concerns of the private
entrepreneurs.107 In reality, the private entrepreneurs strive to establish connections
with powerholders, because the accessibility to power can help reduce the
uncertainties confronting with the enterprises. This point will be elaborated in the
later part of this chapter. Realizing the importance of reducing uncertainties, the
private entrepreneurs have developed their own strategies. Political participation is
one of them, many private entrepreneurs were active in joining the political and
social organizations. But the 2004 National Survey among the private
entrepreneurs shows that the motive for private entrepreneurs to participate in
politics is to establish personal connections with the government officials.108 My
fieldwork data also proves this point. This chapter argues that embracing xiahai
officials is a very good strategy for the entrepreneurs to establish connections with
the powerholders. And, it is a safer and more efficient strategy to solve the
problem of uncertainties.
106
R Garnaut, L. Song, Y. Yang and X. Wang, Private Enterprises in China (Canberra: Asia Pacific Press,
2001).
107
Ibid.
108
United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee, "2004 National Survey on Chinese
Private Enterprises."
54
Administrative Uncertainty
An inadequate state infrastructure hinders the healthy development of any sector,
even though there is no longer an ideological bias against private ownership.109
The misuse of state power, the lack of government transparency, an uncertain legal
enforcement, and inadequate financial and fiscal institutions are all impeding the
development of the private sector.
Firstly, the private enterprises encounter numerous arbitrary fees imposed by the
government departments. The 2004 National Survey of China’s Private
Enterprises110 shows that in addition to taxation, private enterprises have to spend a
considerable amount of money on three items: administrative fees, apportionment
from the government, and public relation fees.111 In order to show clearly the
amount of the three items, this survey uses the taxation, aftertax returns, and
dividend for comparison. According to the 2004 National Survey, in 2003,
administrative fees accounted for 48.8% of the taxation,112 68.0% of aftertax
109
Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
110
The sixth national survey on China’s private enterprises was staged by United Front Work Department of
the CPC Central Committee, National Business Association and Society of Private Business Studies. The
following figures are from this survey.
111
Public relation fees refer to the spending on treating government officials, including banquet, gifts and
others.
112
Based on the information provided by 1382 private enterprises, the total of their taxation reached
1,128,084,000; the total fees they have to turn in are 550,445,000, the fees account for 48.8% of the
taxation.
55
returns,113 or 116.6% of the dividend;114 the proportion from the government
accounted for 9.2 of taxation,115 7.8% of aftertax returns,116 or 29.3% of the
dividend;117 and spending on “public relations” accounted for 18.2% of taxation,118
15.2% of aftertax returns,119 or 44.3% of the dividend.120 It can be seen from the
aforementioned statistics that the private enterprises suffer great financial losses
from fees, apportionment and “public relations.”
There are a variety of government departments in charge of private enterprises,
such as the Industry and Commercial Administration Bureau, Police Department,
City Administration, Business Administration, Revenue Bureau and Technical
Supervision Bureau. Accordingly, private enterprises are required to pay various
fees charged by each department. To take the Guangdong province as an example,
although it has organized largescale rectifications on the abolishment and
correction of illegal administrative fees, the amount was rising at an alarming rate
113
According to 1351 enterprises, in 2003, the total of their aftertax returns reached to 1162735,000, while
the fees are 790096,000, accounts for 68.0% of the aftertax returns.
114
According to 1002 enterprises, in 2003, the total dividend reached to 251,239,000, fees are 293,941,000,
accounts for 116.6% of the former.
115
Based on the information provided by 819 enterprises, the total taxation reached 783016,000, the
proportion from the government reached 72074,000, takes up 9.2% of the taxation.
116
According to 779 investigated enterprises, in 2003, the total of their aftertax returns reached
869058,000, the apportion from the government is 68125,000, accounts for 7.8% of the former.
117
According to 754 investigated enterprises, in 2003, the total of their dividend reached 226529,000, the
apportion from the government is 66461,000, accounts for 29.3% of the former.
118
According to 1554 investigated enterprises, in 2003, the total of their taxation reached 1450645, 000; the
spending on “guanxi” is 264659,000, accounts for 18.2% of the former.
119
According to 1478 enterprises, in 2003, the total of their aftertax returns reached 1680223,000, while the
spending on treating officials are 255736,000, accounts for 15.2% of the former.
120
According to 1257 enterprises, in 2003, the dividend reached to 366553,000, the spending on treating
officials reached to 162403,000, accounts for 44.3% of the former.
56
all around the province. According to the statistics of the Provincial Finance
Bureau, the total administrative fees in 1981 was 400 million yuan, which rose to
37750 million yuan in 2003, and the annual increasing rate was 22.9%.121 In
Huizhou city, the total amount of administrative fees amounted 2190 million yuan
during 20012003, which was 23.44% of finance revenue in this period.122 In
Yangjiang city, the amount of administrative fees in 2003 was 269.2 million yuan,
equal to 41% of the finance revenue in this city.123
In most cases, the imposed fees are unreasonable. For instance, one electronic
steelyard cost the enterprises 500 yuan, but it cost 800 yuan as the examination fee
by the Quality Monitor Bureau every year.124 Although the administrative fee for
construction trash was abolished by the state in 2001, some localities changed the
item to “disposal fees” to continue charging the fees.125 Under such circumstances,
the private enterprises, especially those small ones, are taking on serious burdens
that offset their further development. Besides, the administrative punishment, as an
important measure, is put in practice to assist the increasing role of government
agencies. A survey conducted in 1991 shows that in Beijing, the total number of
the administrative punishment in 1991 was 8000,000 cases, among which, 599,000
121
Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
122
Ibid.
123
Ibid.
124
Wang Shaojie Cai Ling, "Suggestions on Improving the Legal Environment for Private Enterprises,"
(2005).
125
Ibid.
57
people were taken into custody, and 756 business licenses were withdrawn and
shut down.126 It is a fact that the administrative punishment did play an important
role in preventing and rectifying the illegal activities, but it also created numerous
problems because its misuse had seriously infringed the lawful rights of the
citizens and corporations. For example, the Industry and Commercial
Administration Bureau did not tell the enterprises how to make the proper signpost
and advertisement, but requested them to change the alreadymade signpost and
advertisement frequently to satisfy their requirement.127
Some grassrootslevel government follows the principle of combining the revenue
and expenditure which should be separated in law. Some agencies have set the
amount of punishment as an index to evaluate the performance of its staff. For
example, in 2004, the Industry and Commercial Administration Bureau in Fang
County put the amount of administrative punishment as a basic measurement of
promotion; the 80% of the exceeding amount of the administrative punishment
were awarded to each department.128 Under this condition, some agencies charged
fees at discretion for their own economic benefit. Even the central government had
noticed this phenomenon and decided to launch a campaign against illegal fees,
punishment and apportionment imposed on private enterprises.
126
Ma Huaide, "Xingzheng Chufa Xianzhuang Yu Lifa Jianyi (the Current Status of Administrative
Punishment and Suggestions on Legislation)," http://www.jcrb.com/zyw/n6/ca12519.htm, 16Jan 2003.
127
Cai Ling, "Suggestions on Improving the Legal Environment for Private Enterprises."
128
Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
58
Secondly, the strict and interlaced control over the private enterprises, together
with the discretional behavior in administration, has created an environment not
conducive to the development of the private economy.
“Partly because the legal structure is underdeveloped, the Chinese
government has maintained a strict control over private enterprises. A
number of government departments are involved in the administration
and supervision of private enterprises, the most important of which is
the State Administration for industry and Commerce. It looks after the
registration, reregistration and deregistration of all enterprises,
including private enterprises.”129
The 2004 national survey on private enterprises shows that 81.7% of the surveyed
enterprises cared most about transforming government from a direct player to rule
maker, and 80.7% of them were concerned most about standardization of the
market order.130 The results of the survey indicated that a serviceoriented role by
the government is mostly desired by the private enterprises.
Needless to say, administrative registration is the initial stage for one to start the
business. When it comes to evaluate the efficiency of getting the legal registration
in China, the conclusion is that the cost for initiating the business is
correspondingly high.131 Previous research has used two measures, time and fees,
129
China's Third Economic Transformation: The Rise of the Private Economy ed. Ross Garnaut, Ligang
Song (RoutledgeCurzon: New York, 2004).
130
National Business Association and Society of Private Business Studies United Front Work Department
of the CPC Central Committee, "2004 National Survey on Chinese Private Enterprises," (2004).
131
http://www.u88.com.cn/html/slgs/20054139304717788.htm “what prevents us from initiating business?”
59
to examine the business environment in 85 areas.132 The research found that the
average days needed for registration is 2 days in Canada, 121 days in Italy and 111
days in Mainland China. The research only calculates the outstanding fees based
on the authoritative information, because it is hard to calculate the potential cost.
The total fees account for 11% of people’s average annual income in Mainland
China, 25% in Italy, and only 1% in America, England and Canada.133
It is easy to draw the conclusion that applying for administrative approval in China
takes a comparatively longer time and results in higher fees. The overall
environment is not satisfying. To take the industry of real estate as an example, it
is not an exaggeration to say that the total number of sealed permissions required
for initiating one construction project is around several dozen.134 As can be seen in
Table 3.3, land agents will be involved in the lengthy procedures and time
consuming process once they want to apply for a new project. But time means
money and profits in real estate and the earlier the approval, the quicker the
circulation of the loan; the later the approval, the higher chance of money being
hitched.
132
They are LaPorta and Shleifer from Harvard University, LopezdeSilanes from YaleUniversity and
Djankov from the World Bank.
133
Since the amounts of the outstanding fees vary from country to country; it is more convincing to figure
out how much it accounts for in people’s average annual income in one country.
134
See Table 3.3 for detail.
60
Table 3.3 Permission Procedures of Real Estate Administration135
Departments
Proceeding
Time
Project vision
Environmental
protection
Territorial resources
Planning
Project division
Fire protection
Civil defense
Earthquake
Weather bureau
Construction
Project division
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Evaluate project feasibility
At once
Evaluate effects on environment
Approve land use
Issue land construction license
Evaluate monomer plan
Examine fireproofing design
Examine antiaircraft basement
Evaluate security of surviving earthquake
Examine lightening proof design
Examine shop drawingput on records
Issue license of programming the project
Permit the affiliated greenbelt
Record the bid sheet
register for quality inspection
Register for construction projects
Confirm construction permission
Presale permission of commercial house
Register for commercial house presell
contract
Check the completion
Check and accept the project completion
510days
3days
10days
12days
715days
At once
5days
5days
At once
5days
5days
At once
At once
At once
3days
3days
Check and accept
Check the antiaircraft basement
Check and accept establishment of fire
protection
register for completion of project
Register for sale of commercial house
5days
3days
Construction
Construction
Project division
Environmental
protection
Civil defense
Fire protection
Construction
Construction
2days
At once
5days
813days
5days
2days
135
I made Table 3.3 by translating the table provided in the website:
http://www.longyan.gov.cn/spzd/viewspzd9.asp
61
More seriously, different people experience different situations when dealing with
the administrative matters. For instance, one interviewee, who is a land agent,
complained that around 30 sealed permissions are required to initiate a
construction project. For each seal, he would bribe officials to make things
progress smoothly. Moreover, on holidays or festivals, especially the spring festival
and midautumn festival, he needed to send a large number of valuable gifts to
some key departments, such as Territorial Resources, the Project Division, City
Construction, and the Revenue Bureau, to express gratitude and keep close ties. 136
He said: “for those who have close ties with a government agency, the time needed
to get the approval can be greatly reduced. The submitted document can be
approved within one day, while for the ordinary people, they are required to queue
to fill all the forms and wait for 715 days to get approval.” 137
Moreover, even when people are granted the approval or licenses, government
agencies may deprive the petty proprietors or private firms of their due rights
without showing evidence of their unlawful behavior. This behavior has caused
great administrative uncertainties for the private enterprises and petty
businessmen. For instance, Yu Chengwei, who was running a grocery shop in
Shehong County, even committed suicide after failing to renew his business
136
The information is from the land agent, who is my interviewee. I had the interview with him on 09Aug,
2004
137
ibid
62
license. 138 On October 2001, when he was on the way to deliver cigarettes to his
own shop, the Tobacco Bureau of Shehong County held up his truck, alleged that
he was guilty of traffic offenses and should be punished. They confiscated 44
packets cigarettes, worth 1000 RMB. At that time, Yu had already received a
business license which allowed him to engage in the food and tobacco business.
There was no evidence to punish him for traffic offenses. Yu was angered by this
unreasonable punishment, so he wrote letters to sue the Tobacco Bureau of
Shehong County for its misbehavior. However, his action offended the Tobacco
Bureau. When Yu applied for a license renewal, the Tobacco Bureau insisted that
Yu was not qualified for getting such approval. At last, Yu brought a lawsuit
against the Tobacco Bureau for its nonfeasance, but failed. This example indicated
that the misuse of arbitrary power can have a negative effect on private
businessmen.
Thirdly, the private firms have limited access to financial aid and administrative
information, compared with their state counterparts. “An important constraint lies
in the availability of capital for establishing and expanding a private company in
China. Until 2000, public banks gave low priority to the needs of private firms, in
line with the preference of government authorities to assist stateowned and
138
Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
63
collectivelyowned enterprises.”139 Recent survey shows that the average monetary
needs for the enlargement of private enterprises are 8,838,500 yuan. Because the
bank has a controlling interest in lending money to the private enterprises, some of
them turn to private loans for finance.140
Now, China has begun to tackle these issues and some measures aimed at
encouraging private sector development have been gradually introduced, such as
the newly implemented Administrative Permission Law, but these improvements
are still in their early stages. The problems still to be overcome are greater than the
progress so far. Based on the above description, it is reasonable to say that during
the transitional period of China, there exist great political and administrative
uncertainties for the development of private enterprises. The private entrepreneurs
would like to employ the xiahai officials because the xiahai officials can still
access to powerholders through their established social network. The accessibility
to power is important for the private enterprises because both redistributive and
market mechanisms play critical roles in this transitional period.
139
China's Third Economic Transformation: The Rise of the Private Economy ed. Ross Garnaut, Ligang
Song (RoutledgeCurzon: New York, 2004).
140
"Zhongguo Siying Qiye Diaocha Baogao (the Investigation Report on Chinese Private Enterprises)."
64
STRATEGIES TO REDUCE UNCERTAINTIES
The evidence reviewed above shows how political and administrative uncertainties
affect private firms in China. To survive in such an uncertain context, private
enterprises must seek ways to reduce the uncertainties they are confronted with.
There are mainly three options for them: political participation, bribery and
personal connections. In this section, I will discuss the available options that can
be adopted by the entrepreneurs to reduce contextual uncertainties. Based on an
examination of their effectiveness, I explain that establishing networks with state
power through the medium of xiahai officials is the best option in the current
changing situation.
Political Participation
Private entrepreneurs could pursue their interests through political participation.
Evidence shows that there is an increasing interest for private entrepreneurs to join
political and social organizations. The 1996 national survey of private
entrepreneurs shows that 14.2% of the sampled entrepreneurs are Deputies of the
Local People’s Congress; 33.9% of them have joined Chinese People's Political
Consultative Committee (CPPCC); 47.1% have assumed positions in the Business
Association.141 The 2004 national survey on China’s private enterprises shows that
141
The 1996 National Survey on Chinese private enterprises was staged by United Front Work Department
of the CCP Central Committee, National Business Association and Society of Private Business Studies.
This survey issued 2123 questionnaires according to the proportion of 5%, valid questionnaires are 1992,
the valid rate is 93.8%.
65
the business association is the most influential private business organization in the
sense that it has the largest membership of private entrepreneurs (66.1% of the
private entrepreneurs have joined it). While the CPPCC is a popular channel for
entrepreneurs to participate in politics, 33.6% of the sampled entrepreneurs are
Committee members at respective levels. The Chinese Communist Party is the
most popular political party among the private entrepreneurs (33.9% are party
members).142
Political participation provides a channel for private entrepreneurs to articulate
their interests. For instance, the Deputy of the National People’s Congress is
granted the right to contact the People’s Congress and his superiors directly. They
are allowed to use special letters to articulate their ideas and suggestions, which is
enclosed in a special envelope and immediately sent to the relevant leaders.
According to the code, the functionary should tear off the envelope himself and
inform the results to the deputies within three months. It is called “the express
train for deputies.”143
But the role of these institutions as channels for political participation should not
be exaggerated because of the following reasons. First, the formal political
142
United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee, "2004 National Survey on Chinese
Private Enterprises."
143
"'Renda Daibiao Zhitongche' De Qidi (Implications for 'Express Train for Deputies'),"
http://www.xinhuanet.com/, 13 May 2003.
66
institutions like the CCPCC and the NPC are still under the political control of the
Party, though they seem more effective than before.144 Secondly, social
organizations like private business associations and the association of
entrepreneurs are designed as corporatist institutions to extend state power to the
grassroots level and control newly emerged social forces. They may not play a
significant role in policy making to the extent that interest groups have done in
democracies.145 Finally, by its very nature, policy is a public good. Even if the
social or political institutions open channels for entrepreneurs to articulate
interests, they may not be able to overcome collective action problems to make
contributions to the public good at personal risks and costs.
My argument is also supported by the results of 2004 National Survey of private
entrepreneurs. It shows that the motives for private entrepreneurs to participate in
politics are not to influence policy making, but to attain a peculiar identity, or
establish connections with powerholders. 146 Fang Liang, one of the interviewees,
said: “After I became the deputy of the local People’s Congress, I have known
144
Yang Qing, "Cong Chaojingji Qiangzhi Dao Guanxixing Heyi Dui Siying Qiyezhu Zhengzhi Canyu
Guocheng De Fenxi (an Analysis on Private Entrepreneurs' Political Participation)," Modern China Studies
71 (2000).
145
Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
146
United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee, "2004 National Survey on Chinese
Private Enterprises."
67
more people. To my joy, I can establish connections with some government
officials.”147
Bribery
Entrepreneurs regard the support from the government as crucial because the
government deals with the administrative matters and decides the favorable access
to scarce resources. So they tried to spend as much money and time as possible on
establishing connections with the state actors who were in charge of the relevant
decisions or allocations. In the past, they could bribe the officials for returns.
However, in recent years, the means of bribery is becoming increasingly dangerous
because of the ongoing political reform and anticorruption movement.148 Under
this condition, not only are the officials reluctant to accept bribery for fear of being
punished, but the entrepreneurs may be charged of economic crimes, which have
become more strictly enforced in recent years. Also, “this strategy by
entrepreneurs was coming to be seen as inefficient because the time spent
choosing gifts, extending invitations, and performing etiquette was something that
entrepreneurs could ill afford in a market economy where time is money.”149
147
Fang Liang is a private entrepreneur, I interviewed her on 05 Sep 2004.
Chapter Two has analyzed it in detail.
149
David Wank, "BusinessState Clientelism in China: Decline or Evolution?" in Social Connections in
China Institutions, Culture and the Changing Nature of Guanxi, ed. Doug Guthrie Thomas Gold, David
Wank (Cambridge University Press, 2002).
148
68
Embracing Xiahai Officials
The 2004 national survey on private entrepreneurs shows that compared to
political participation, private entrepreneurs are more inclined to articulate their
interests through establishing personal connections with government officials.150
Some scholars like Jean Oi have noticed the role of social networks in interest
articulation:
“Like citizens in many Third World countries, Chinese citizens pursue
their interests not as groups, but on an individual basis, through the use
of personalistic relationships. Instead of working in the formal arena
to lobby for reform, many rely on personal connections and
particularistic relationships to make the most of the economic and
political context, to get ahead and take advantage of scarcity and
rationing.”151
In particular, Li Baoliang noticed the importance of social networks in the
development of China’s private enterprises:
“In China, the development of the private economy, directly influenced
by government policy, is full of uncertainty and unpredictability. Under
such circumstances, the lawful rights and economic benefits of the
private enterprises not only rest on the management and development
of themselves, but on the capacity to mobilize personal networks to
enjoy political protection.”152
150
United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee, "2004 National Survey on Chinese
Private Enterprises."
151
Jean Oi “Mobilization and participation: the case of China” Asia, case studies in the social sciences: a
guide for teaching
152
Li Baoliang, "Cong Shehuiwang De Jiaodu Kan Siyingqiyezhu De Zhengzhiguannian He Xingwei (a
Study on the Political Conciousness and Behavior of Private Entrepreneurs from the Perspective of Social
Network)," Modern China Studies 63 (1998).
69
Why are connections with government critical for the development of private
enterprises? Fundamentally, because the Chinese government has maintained strict
control over private enterprises, a number of government departments are involved
in the administration and supervision of private enterprises. Under the control of
various bureaus and some functions of which are interlaced, the enterprises have
encountered great inconvenience on administrative issues and need to pay to be
offered nonpayment services, as described before. As the aforementioned example
of applying for a project in real estate shows, the estate developers must obtain
around thirty sealed permissions from more than ten government bureaus. Also, a
variety of government departments have imposed arbitrary fees on private
enterprises, causing great financial burdens. Put simply, the enterprises will be
better off if they have particularistic ties to a number of government departments.
When the officials leave government, it provides an option for private
entrepreneurs to establish connections with officialdom, that is, incorporating the
xiahai officials. This option is a safer and more efficient strategy compared with
bribery. This is because when the officials leave government for enterprises, they
are not only moving from one network to another, but also establishing a link
between these. “The former officials could lobby officials they knew.”153 As the
subordinates of the entrepreneurs, the xiahai officials can mobilize their social
networks to work for the enterprises. In this way, the entrepreneurs can achieve the
153
Wank, "BusinessState Clientelism in China: Decline or Evolution?."
70
same end in a safe and efficient way. My fieldwork study shows that the private
enterprises have benefited from embracing the xiahai officials in many ways.
Firstly, xiahai officials can help reduce the costs of arbitrary administrative fees.
Some xiahai officials in Tonghua city in August 2004154 admitted that it is easier
for them to reduce the arbitrary fees because of their previously being officials.
They said that in most situations, this identity is very important. For example, it is
common for a company to spend one million yuan on capital construction, but if
they negotiate with relevant people, the total fees can be reduced to ten thousand
yuan. They knew government operations and administrative laws well. The
government agency would not dare to impose unreasonable fees on them.
For another example, Shen Jing155 had started a company of his own after he left
the government. Before xiahai, he worked as the deputy director of one bureau.
After Shen found that the company had to turn in large sums of arbitrary fees and
taxes, he tried to seek help from his friend who was working at the government.
Through the help of his friend, Shen’s company was affiliated to one government
agency. As a result, the company was immune from various administrative fees
and taxes.
154
From 1995 to 2004, there were 195 cadres who had resigned office and plunge into business in tonghua
city; among them, 3 people are in departmental level, 52 are in director level and 140 are in section level.
155
Shen jing is one of my interviewees. I did the interview with him on 02 Sep, 2004
71
Secondly, xiahai officials can facilitate the application for getting administrative
approval. The typical case is Li Fei.156 Li had been the Directorgeneral of the
Electricity Bureau of one city in Zhejiang province for 13 years before he left
government for business in 2003. Li said he had broad connections with
officialdom. Now, Li is the vicemanager of one enterprise. According to one
informant, Li had helped this enterprise succeed in land use application. Several
years ago, this enterprise planned to build a new factory to increase output. It
applied for land use from the National Territory Bureau. As known to all, land use
has increasingly become a scarce resource sought by many companies involved in
fierce competition. This enterprise did not get the approval because it was in the
rear of the application queue. When Li joined this enterprise, he helped it reapply
for land use again. This time, they succeeded. In my interview with Li, I asked
him why it was able to obtain the land use this time. Li said with a smile, “I had a
friend, he is working in the National Territory Bureau.” 157
In another example, Ya Ning158 was working at the Quality Monitor Bureau in one
city with the rank of Director Level. He is now the vice general manager of one
automobile service company. He has taken charge of product quality supervision
for four years in the Quality Monitor Bureau before he left the government in
156
Li Fei is one of my interviewees. I interviewed him in Zhejiang province on 28 July, 2004
The information comes from the interview with Li on 28 July 2004.
158
Personal interview, 06 Sep, 2004.
157
72
2000. Asked to identify one of his contributions to the company, Li put it
succinctly: “I can help speed up the administrative approval.” He explained that
this is because he knew about government operations and had a substantive
network in the government.
Thirdly, xiahai officials can help enterprises obtain scarce resources. For example,
Fang Liang,159 the president of one private company, told me a story. In the
summer of 2004, the government had set limits on the use of electricity because of
its scarcity. As her company could not bear the risk of a power cut, the problem
needed to be solved. At last, she recruited one xiahai official, who could guarantee
the continuous use of the electricity by utilizing his network. Fang Liang said that
a successful employer not only excels at making full use of her own network, but
also tries to utilize the employee’s network wisely.
Moreover, it is easier for xiahai officials to obtain financial aid from the banks. In
May 2002, Xu Gang, the former chief accountant of the Local Tax Bureau and a
member of Finance Bureau of Zhejiang Province, resigned from his official career
and became the CEO of Geely Group. With Xu Gang’s expanding network, Geely
Group has made considerable achievements in getting external support from the
159
Personal interview, 05 Sep 2004
73
government and banks.160 In all, the available data shows that employing xiahai
officials is an effective strategy for private enterprises to solve the problem of
uncertainty.
CONCLUSION
The opportunity for xiahai stems from the sphere of the Chinese private economy.
The private economy has experienced a dramatic increase over the past twenty
years and is playing an increasingly important role in the arena of the Chinese
economy. Some people’s occupational preference for private enterprises is
challenging the traditional concept of “advancement in officialdom.” Meanwhile,
the private economy is unfairly treated by the Partystate which exercises strict
control. The private entrepreneurs must find ways to overcome the political and
administrative uncertainties. These uncertainties, to a large extent, are derived
from “partial” market reforms. Political participation is ineffective for private
entrepreneurs to articulate their interests. They are active politically because they
use such channels to establish personal connections with officials. In the new
environment, bribery to officials is a dangerous way to obtain immediate benefits
because of the ongoing anticorruption movement. The entrepreneurs need a safer
way to establish longterm relations with government departments. The xiahai
officials provide them this option.
160
Aixiang, Yang and Yao, Zou. "Di San Lun Xiahai Guanyuan Shengcun Zhuangtai (the Status of Xiahai
Officials in the Third Wave)." 21th Centrury Economic News, 16Nov 2003.
74
My fieldwork shows that private enterprises can effectively reduce the
uncertainties by employing xiahai officials. In conclusion, the rising private
economy provides an alternative arena for officials to actualize their talents, and
this chance is attainable for the xiahai officials because business entrepreneurs like
to offer them jobs.
75
Chapter 4
Explaining the Variations in Xiahai Success
The previous two chapters have explored the incentives and opportunity for
government officials to engage in xiahai. The macro analysis of the context in
which xiahai phenomenon emerges, however, does not explain some variations at
the micro level: why some officials were able to find jobs in the business section
while others were not; why some xiahai officials were successful in keeping their
newly attained positions in business while others were not. In order to clarify the
complexity and diversity of the xiahai phenomenon, the chapter will focus on the
mechanisms that account for the behavioral variations at the micro level.
This study assumes that xiahai is a transaction between officials and entrepreneurs
because each side possesses resources that are unavailable for but desired by the
opposite side. Although both sides have incentives to make a transaction, they may
be confronted with a variety of difficulties because, first, a real transaction always
involves transaction costs that are caused by the information asymmetry between
both sides of the transaction. Whether the agreement of transaction can be reached
relies heavily upon whether the transaction cost is able to be reduced. Second,
xiahai is not a oneshot game like many everyday exchanges in the market. Instead,
it is a game of longterm cooperation between officials and entrepreneurs.
76
Therefore, each side of the transaction must satisfy the expectations of the other
side after the agreement of the transaction is reached. Otherwise, the transaction
may not be able to sustain over time. For xiahai officials, they must show their
competence to secure the survival of the enterprises in a highly uncertain
environment.
Drawing on insights from sociology, I would like to explain in this chapter that the
social networks that officials have built up in the past are responsible for the
behavioral variation among them in both stages of xiahai transactions. At the first
stage, the social connection with entrepreneurs determines the officials' likelihood
of getting a position in the circle of business. Those who have established strong
ties with entrepreneurs enjoy high possibilities to attain positions than those who
have not. The strong tie is a determinant because it helps to lower the transaction
costs in significant ways. First, strong ties usually involve more frequent
interactions. As a result, the information flow between the actors with strong ties
may become increasingly sufficient. Second, strong ties are conducive to the
development of trust among actors. Because of the trust, the information that the
actors provide becomes thorough and reliable. With sufficient and reliable
information flows, the transaction costs will be lowered significantly and
agreement on the transaction will be reached more smoothly. The social networks
also play an important role in the second stage, because it helps the xiahai officials
77
to keep the attained positions. When working at government departments, the
xiahai officials are able to establish extensive social connections with other
officials. With the social networks that contain abundant power resources, the
xiahai officials are able to mobilize support from other incumbent officials even
they are no longer in public office. Nevertheless, not all the xiahai officials are
evenly able to mobilize power resources to facilitate their commitments to the
entrepreneurs. In section two, I will illustrate that the success of mobilization is
determined by the “face” that an official has built up within his social networks.
SOCIAL NETWORK AND JOB ATTAINMENT
This section explains why some officials have a better chance of seeking
employment in the private sector than others. My fieldwork findings show that
those officials who were strongly tied to, or were located in better networks with
the entrepreneurs, were more likely to be embraced by the enterprises. In this
regard, the network location approach is adopted in this part to explore the
underlined reasons contributing to this finding. Lin Nan has done a good literature
review on this approach:
“Some have chosen to focus on the locations of individuals in a
network as the key to social capital. Burt’s work typifies this approach.
By identifying the locations of individual nodes, it is possible to assess
how close or how far the node is from a strategic location, such as a
bridge, where the occupant has the competitive advantage in possible
78
access to more, diverse and valued information. Strength of ties
(Granovetter 1973, 1974) is also a wellknown conceptually argued
network location measurement of a bridge’s usefulness.”161
As applied to xiahai, whether the official stands a strategic location is dependent
on how far or close he was with the entrepreneurs. The tie strength between them
decides whether the official has competitive advantage in getting access to the
enterprises. The strength of a tie is “a combination of the amount of time, the
emotional intensity, the intimacy (mutual confiding), and the reciprocal services
which characterize the tie.”162 According to this definition, “strong tie” and “weak
tie” are differentiated by the extent of their strength. Which one, strong tie or weak
tie, is more effective in seeking employment? Many scholars have conducted
research to answer this question. Basically, there are two viewpoints on this
question. One is the strength of weak ties advocated by Granovetter:
“While individuals use their personal network to search for work, they
are matched to jobs more frequently or more effectively through weak
ties than through strong ties. Weak ties have a special role in a person’s
opportunity for mobility – that there is a structural tendency for those
to whom one is only weakly tied to have better access to job
information one does not already have.” 163
161
Ibid.
Mark S. Granovetter, "The Strength of Weak Ties," The American Journal of Sociology 78, no. 6 (1973).
pp.1361
163
Ibid.
162
79
The logic of his argument is: “Those to whom we are weakly tied (relationships
characterized by infrequent interaction or low intimacy) are more likely to move in
circles different from our own and will thus have access to information different
from that which we receive.”164 The other competing perspective is advanced by
Bian Yanjie:
“I find that in China personal networks are used to influence
authorities who in turn assign jobs as favors to their contacts, which is
a type of unauthorized activity facilitated by strong ties characterized
by trust and obligation. In a 1988 survey in Tianjin, I find that jobs are
acquired through strong ties more frequently than through weak
ties.”165
Bian has made distinctions between “information and influence” two kinds of
resources that flow through network ties during job searches”, and found that
“although weak ties are useful in spreading information, the strong ties of trust and
obligation may be more advantageous in accessing influence.”166
Strong Ties to Entrepreneurs
In this study, I have measured the tie strength between xiahai officials and private
entrepreneurs. In my fieldwork, the “tie strength” between xiahai officials and
164
Ibid. pp. 1371
Bian Yanjie, "Bringing Strong Ties Back In: Indirect Ties, Network Bridges, and Job Searches in China,"
American Sociological Review 62, no. 3 (1997).
166
Ibid.
165
80
their current employers (private entrepreneurs) was measured by the following
three questions,167 which were asked to 15 interviewees.
Question 1: How long have you known your current employer before
xiahai?
Question 2: How often did you contact with each other before xiahai? Did
you help each other before?
Question 3: Do you know your employer’s personality and ability very
well? Does your employer know that of you as well? 168
These questions may be sensitive in the context of China, this is because the
officials' relationship with entrepreneurs are usually suspected as a deviant
behavior of corruption. Therefore, when talking about relationship and its role in
xiahai, the officials often declined to provide reliable information. In order to
secure data's reliability and validity, I tried to establish trust with interviewees and
talk with them in a casual and informal way.
Firstly, I tried to use my personal network to access to those interviewees. This is
effective because the mutual trust can be easily established with the friends'
167
Because “tie strength” is a combination of “the amount of time”, “the reciprocal services” and “the
intimacy”, question 1, 2 and 3 were designed to measure each dimension of “tie strength” respectively.
168
This question is learned from Bian (1997). Bian measures tie strength by utilizing two different
parameters: role relation (relatives, friends and acquaintances) and intimacy (knowing each other very well,
well, soso, not well, not at all). A potential drawback of Bian's method is that it does not examine how two
people get connected at first place. As this is not the focus of my study, it is better not to go further to
discuss it.
81
introduction. Moreover, I informed the interviewees that the information they
provide would be used exclusively for research purposes and their real names
would not appear in the study. Secondly, I tried to ask questions in implicit and
casual ways, because abrupt questions may alert the interviewees. Therefore, I
always begin the interview with some easy and open questions like “When did you
leave government? Are you satisfied with your current situation? What do you
think is the major difference between working with government and private
enterprises?”169 In this way, they felt comfortable to talk with me, and I was able to
collect much useful information. At last, the conversations were translated and
summarized into the interview findings.
Table 4.1 Interview Question 1
Question 1
Choices
less than 3
months
3 months to 1
year
1 year to 3 years
more than 3 years
How long have you known your current employer?
Number of respondents (n=15)
0
1
7
7
169
I asked and chatted with them on the following questions: Are you satisfied with your current situation?
Would you regret leaving the government? How long have you left government? What do you think is the
most important factor for promotion at government? Were you having good opportunities for promotion
before leaving government? What do you think is the major difference between working with government
and private enterprise?, Were you invited by many companies after leaving government? Why did you join
this company? Did you know your current employer at that time? How long have you known each other?
Do you think you know him well? In your opinion, why did he invite you to join his company? Are you good
friends?...
82
Table 4.2 Interview Question 2
Question 2
Choices
More than twice
Twice
Once
Never
How often did you help each other?
Number of respondents (n=15)
5
4
6
0
Table 4.3 Interview Question 3
Question 3
Choices
Very well
Well
So so
Not well
Describe the mutual understanding
Number of respondents (n=15)
6
6
3
0
My fieldwork findings show that most xiahai officials had cultivated strong ties
with entrepreneurs. It shows that most of the interviewed xiahai officials and their
employers had adequate time to know each other, and pursue reciprocal services
and mutual understanding. As shown in Table 4.1, before joining the enterprises,
the officials had already known their current employers and in most cases, the
officials and entrepreneurs had adequate time to know each other. For example, 14
out of the 15 interviewed xiahai officials had known their employers more than
one year; half of them (7 out of 15) more than 3 years; only 1 interviewee was
below 1 year. Table 4.2 shows that only 3 interviewees had occasional interaction
with their current bosses; most of them (11 out of 15) did have frequent contact.
83
Most of them admitted that they had helped each other before. This implies that
the officials and their employers had enjoyed the reciprocal services provided by
each other. Table 4.3 shows that 80% of the interviewees (12 out of 15) knew their
employers well and vice versa; 20% (3 out of 15) answered “soso” to describe
their mutual understandings with their bosses. This implies that the mutual
understanding between two parties was generally good. In all, the ties between
those xiahai officials and their employers can be seen as “strong ties.”
In contrast, those who do not have “strong ties” with private entrepreneurs usually
have less chance to xiahai, though some of them may have strong intentions.
Although the systematic data is lacking in my interviews among the incumbent
officials, the available data can still provide some clues on this point. For
example, 3 out of 15 officials had high incentives to xiahai but were unable to do
so. They complained that they would have left the government for business if they
had a proper chance. Chen Dong, who was working at a research institute of the
provincial committee, said: “there is a queue for promotion in my department; I am
at the rear of the queue. If possible, I would like to transit to business where I can
earn more money. But I don’t have any connections with the private entrepreneurs,
let alone the possibility of being invited by them.”170 It seems that the strength of
ties between officials and private entrepreneurs correlates positively with the
170
Chen Dong is one of my interviewees, I interviewed him on 11August, 2004.
84
likelihood of xiahai. The presence of “strong ties” can help officials search for
jobs in the business sector, while the absence of “strong ties” makes it less likely
for the officials to obtain suitable opportunities in a new business enterprise.
Strong Ties as Mechanism
But how can strong ties make sense in this process? This study argues that “strong
ties” can facilitate the transaction of xiahai because it can lower the transaction
cost. Xiahai can be treated as a transaction for it complies with the prerequisites of
a transaction. The essence of a transaction, as highlighted by many economists, is
“the endeavor to ensure the fullest possible satisfaction of two parties’ needs.”171
The first premise of a transaction is that before the real transaction, both of two
parties have a belief that they can benefit from such transactions.172 This applies to
xiahai, because both officials and entrepreneurs have a belief that they can benefit
from such a transaction in xiahai. From the perspectives of the officials, the
incentive to xiahai has been categorized into four types (as elaborated in Chapter
Two): disappointed about the promotion opportunities, avoid punishment by the
anticorruption movement, take up a more meaningful career and pursue more
economic benefits. Whatever the case, those xiahai officials believe that they can
benefit from xiahai. From the perspective of the entrepreneurs, they embrace
171
Oliver E Williamson, "The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach," American
Journal of Sociology 87, no. 3 (1981).
172
Ibid.
85
officials in the hope of utilizing their social capital to help the enterprises to
survive and thrive (Chapter Three elaborated this point in detail). The second
premise of a transaction is that throughout the transaction, the two parties are
interdependent in the sense that the demands of one party can be provided by the
other.173 The situation of xiahai meets this premise because the officials and
entrepreneurs are mutually interdependent. The entrepreneurs can offer jobs to the
officials while the officials can work for the enterprises. It is the social capital
possessed by officials and monetary capital possessed by entrepreneurs that make
these two parties interdependent.
Thus, xiahai represents a form of transaction. This transaction, like other ones,
features various “transaction costs.” Many scholars have studied transaction cost
theory. Coase has pointed out a “transaction cost” occurs in the whole process of a
transaction.174 Williamson made it clear that a transaction cost is attributed to
asymmetric and inadequate information. The more information that flows through
the partners, the less the transaction costs involved.175 As reflected in xiahai,
many officials encountered the transaction cost problem, especially the lack of
adequate information from the entrepreneur, and thus, they found it difficult to
proceed with the transaction of xiahai. For example, Li Xiang, who was working
173
Ibid.
Ronald H Coase, "The Nature of the Firm," Economica 4, no. n.s. (1937).
175
Williamson, "The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach."
174
86
at the Construction Department of the Provincial Committee of one province, said:
“I was once invited by one realestate developer to join his company. I got to know
him last year when he interacted with my department. Of course, I refused his
invitation, because I knew little about him, let alone had trust in him.”176 It was
argued that before the official and entrepreneur reach an agreement on the xiahai
transaction, the official tends to hesitate over the decision to xiahai if he knows
little about the entrepreneur. Therefore, the xiahai officials and entrepreneurs must
know and trust each other so as to eliminate concerns about the transaction costs.
In this regard, I argue that “strong ties” can lower the transaction cost in reaching
an agreement of xiahai, because the frequent interaction and mutual confiding
embedded in “strong ties” can help the officials obtain reliable and adequate
information. Firstly, frequent interaction leads to information flow between the two
parties. Over a longterm interaction, they can have an objective evaluation of each
other’s overall ability and personal character. Secondly, the mutual confiding
embedded in “strong ties” can ensure the reliability of information that flows
between the two parties.
176
Li Xiang is one of my interviewees, I had the interview with him on 12 August, 2004
87
The case of Xugang177 is examined to illustrate my argument. Xugang was the
former chief accountant of the Local Tax Bureau and a member of the Finance
Bureau in Zhejiang Province. He was regarded as one of the officials with the
brightest prospects at the Department level in the province. However, he resigned
in March 2002 and joined Geely Group, a big enterprise in China. The president of
Geely Group is Li Shufu. Before Li Shufu invited Xugang to join the Geely Group,
they had known each other for fifteen years because they lived in the same village
during their childhood. In Xugang’s eyes, Li was an ambitious entrepreneur who
was not satisfied with his achievements. At the beginning, Geely Group was a
refrigeratormaking company and had some achievements in this field. Li had
expanded it into motorcycle and automobile production. Because Li had realized
the importance of talented people for the further development of Geely Group, he
persuaded Xugang to leave the government and help him. Li said sincerely to
Xugang: “you are already at the department level, there is little promotion
opportunities for you in the government, while there are numerous ones if you
come to my company. I really appreciate your ability. Come to Geely Group and
help me. We can create something together.” After that, Xugang carefully
considered this chance to engage in business and accepted Li’s invitation at last.
When the journalists asked Xugang why he decided to work for the Geely Group,
Xu said: “I have known Li for a long time and I am impressed by Li’s perseverance
177
The story of Xugang can be seen at Zhang Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren
Congzheng, 1 ed. (Zhejiang Renmin Publisher, 2004). pp. 1113
88
in pursuing a business career. I am also touched by his personality and working
style.”
The above story depicts a vivid picture over the relations between Xugang and Li
Shufu. Xu and Li had known each other for a long time, so it was possible for
them to have frequent interactions. Also, they appreciated each other’s personality
and ability. When Li invited Xu to join Geely Group and assigned Xu as the
position of CEO, it showed that Li had deep trust in Xu. Therefore, “strong ties”
between Xu and Li lowered the transaction cost in xiahai by providing fertile and
reliable information for the two parties.
To sum up, xiahai can be seen as a form of transaction involving various
transaction costs. To reduce the transaction cost, something must be done to solve
the problem of information asymmetry. Once again this study argues that “strong
ties” can lower the transaction cost in xiahai, because it can guarantee the
reliability and adequacy of information shared by the officials and entrepreneurs.
“FACE” AND JOB RETAINMENT
The previous section discussed the role of social networks as a mechanism for
government officials to attain positions in business enterprises. For a further
understanding of xiahai, it is necessary to explain why some officials succeeded
89
while others failed in the arena of private business. Therefore, some typical cases
of xiahai officials, described at the beginning of this study, deserve revisiting.
Some xiahai officials had to change jobs again after xiahai. For example, Wu
Minyi (former Vicemayor of Wenzhou city) had left HongQingting Group after
three months.178 Men Xinguo (the first County Head to xiahai) stayed in Huanghe
Group for one year before he had another job shift.179 These examples are just the
tip of the iceberg. It raises the question: what accounted for the different outcomes
in xiahai?
This study argues that social networks still play a significant role in the stage of
stabilization of the attained positions. As demonstrated in the previous chapter, the
private entrepreneurs try all means to establish connections with the government.
They hope that this connection may help them reduce the uncertainties caused by
the vacillating policies of the Partystate and arbitrary power of the government.
While the xiahai officials desired to seek employment opportunities, it provides an
option for the entrepreneurs to solve the problem of uncertainties, that is,
incorporating the former government officials into their enterprises. This strategy,
compared to the means of bribery used in the past, is safer for the entrepreneurs to
reach the same end (Chapter 3 has discussed it in detail). When the entrepreneurs
178
Southcn.com, 06 June 2005.
This information can be found at: Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren
Congzheng. pp. 150151
179
90
embrace the xiahai officials, they expect that these officials can help them solve
the problem of uncertainties. So, once the officials join the enterprises, they must
satisfy the expectation of the new boss so that the attained positions can be
retained. To reduce the uncertainties caused by discretionary power, the xiahai
officials often contact the state actors who take charge of administrative power to
ask favors.
But the question is why were xiahai officials still able to mobilize the embedded
resources in government circles even after they had left the government offices?
Why did some xiahai officials have better access to power than others? This is a
complex question without a straightforward answer. This is because when the
official left the government and joined the enterprise, his social network structure
subsequently changed. The relations between him and his acquaintances in the
government changed. In the past, he was a subordinate, superior or colleague of
them. Now there are no formal relations between them after leaving government.
How and why they can access to administrative power becomes crucial to
understanding xiahai.
91
Power Resources Embedded in Social Network
In this regard, social networks can provide a workable mechanism for the xiahai
officials to gain access to power resources.180 Ronald S. Burt found the importance
of network in career achievement:
“Managers with networks rich in structural holes get promoted faster
and at a younger age than do their peers. The kind of analysis that
follows is useful for the social science task of studying competition
and occupational achievement, as well as the more practical tasks of
understanding how specific kinds of individuals rise in a firm...”181
Lin Nan has proposed the theory of social capital in his classic works.182
According to this theory, the resources can be embedded in one’s social network,
thus constituting the social capital possessed by an individual:
“Social capital can be defined as resources embedded in a social
structure which are accessed and/or mobilized in purposive actions. By
this definition, the notion of social capital contains three ingredients:
resources embedded in a social structure; accessibility to such social
resources by individuals; and use or mobilization of such social
resources by individuals in purposive actions.183 The better the
accessible embedded resources, the better embedded resources can and
will be mobilized in purposive actions by an individual. The more
intriguing question is why given the same level of accessible
180
On this point, see among others. Burt(1992) Structural Holes, Uzzi, Brian(1999) “Embeddedness in the
Making of Financial Capital: How Social Relations and Networks Benefit Firms Seeking Finance”, Seibert
et al. (2001) “A Social Capital Theory of Career Success”.
181
Ronald S. Burt, Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition, Harvard University Press (1992),
pp.115
182
Nan, "Building a Network Theory of Social Capital." I cited Lin's work because it is most relevant to my
study.
183
Ibid. pp 35
92
embedded resources, some individuals mobilize better resources than
others in actions.”184
It can be assumed from the above that:
1. One’s social network resources are embedded in a social structure, which will
not change because of one’s job mobility;
2. Not all the resources of one’s social network can be accessed, one needs to
mobilize them in a purposeful manner;
3. One’s embedded resources influence one’s ability to mobilize them.
So, once an official establishes his social network in the circle of government, the
network resources are embedded in the social structure. Even when he leaves the
government, he could still access or mobilize his social capital in a purposeful
manner. But how certain resources embedded in his social network is mobilized
to facilitate the specific instrumental action? Why did some xiahai officials have
better access to power than others?
“Face” and Ability to Mobilize Network Resources
My main argument is that the variance on the outcome of mobilization can
be attributed to the “face” one has built up. That is to say, the extent the xiahai
officials are able to mobilize the resources embedded in their social network is
184
Nan, "Building a Network Theory of Social Capital." pp. 42
93
determined by the “face” they have established. Here “face” is defined as a
person’s ability to make a claim for himself from others. This ability is a function
of the credibility and the network resources one has accumulated.185 This
understanding of face is based on the presumption of rationality. In this sense, it is
different from the traditional understanding of “face” in the existing literature.
“Face” is such a complicated concept. Lin Yutang found that the concept of face is
“abstract and intangible.”186 Some scholars, such as Goffman and David Ho, treat
face as social expectations over one person’s performance. Goffman defined face
as “the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line
others assume he has taken during a particular contact. Face is an image of self
delineated in terms of approved social attributes.”187 David Ho stated that “the
question of ‘face’ frequently arises beyond the realm of individual responsibility
and subjective volition.”188 With this recognition, he offers a definition of “face”:
“Face is the respectability and/or deference which a person can claim
for himself from others, by virtue of the relative position he occupies
in his social network and the degree to which he is judged to have
functioned adequately in that position as well as acceptably in his
general conduct.”189
185
My idea about “face” is enlightened in my discussion with Ruan Hengfu, who is also a graduate student
in National University of Singapore.
186
Lin Yutang, My Country and My People (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1935).
187
Goffman Erving, "On FaceWork: An Analysis of Ritual Elements in Social Interaction," Psychiatry 18,
no. August (1955).
188
David Yaufai Ho, "On the Concept of Face," The American Journal of Sociology 81, no. 4 (1976). pp.
867
189
ibid. pp. 883
94
These scholars went further by regarding one’s face as something others
recognized and extended to him. It means “Face is not an attribute located within
the individual, it is what others have recognized and extended to him.”190 The
above theory paid more attention to whether one person could satisfy social
expectations or not, but it had little explanatory power in explaining why some
people with bad reputations could still claim from others though they rarely
followed the norms. Furthermore, although it is argued that one’s face was
recognized and extended by others, under what conditions do other people
recognize one’s face?
To resolve these questions, it is important to realize that although “face” is a
concept that originated from the Chinese tradition, it is “distinctively human” and
is a universal behavior.191 Although the conceptualization of “face” may vary
across cultures, it is reasonable to assume that all people are rational actors. The
actors make rational decisions on the basis of selfinterest: maximize the interests
or minimize the costs. So, whether one actor (mobilizer) can claim from the other
actor (respondent) is determined by the extent to which the respondent can expect
to benefit from the mobilizer in the future. In the course of his calculation, the
rational respondent may consider two questions: one is whether the mobilizer is
capable of satisfying his demands; the other is whether the mobilizer is willing to
190
ibid. pp. 875
This point is also argued by David Ho.
191
95
reciprocate. That is to say, the rational calculation of the respondent is based on
the assessment of the network resources and credibility of the mobilizer. One’s
credibility refers to whether one person can fulfill his obligation and follow the
norm of reciprocity. Cheng and Rosett pointed out that “when one fails to fulfill
one’s obligations, one loses face.”192 If one does not reciprocate, “one may pay the
ultimate price of losing one’s social networks and the social resources embedded
in them.”193 One’s network resources can explain why some people with low
responsibility could still claim from others, because they had broad resources that
were useful for others. I argue that the combination of credibility and network
resources determines the payoff structure that the respondent is confronted with.
Therefore, “face” includes two dimensions: one dimension is credibility, the other
is network resources. So, unlike other scholars who have defined one’s face as
recognized and extended by others, I define “face” as a function of the relationship
between credibility and network resources, and it can be expressed by the
following formula:
y = f (c, r)
Here, y represents the face of the actor, c represents the credibility of the actor, and
r represents the network resources accumulated by the actor.
192
Cheng Lucie Arthur Rosett, "Contract with a Chinese Face: Socially Embedded Factors in the
Transformation from Hierarchy to Market, 19781989," Journal of Chinese Law 5, no. 2 (1991).
193
ibid
96
With this definition, I constructed a model to show the logic of the interaction
between the mobilizer and respondent, and applied this model to explain how the
xihai officials mobilize resources. Using c and r, a matrix is made to show the four
categories of “face”.
Figure 4. 1 Four Categories of “Face”
Network Resources
High Low
High
Credibility
F 1
F 3
F 2
F 4
Low
In the first scenario where the xiahai official enjoys high values in both c and r, he
is most likely to mobilize resources from his social network. This because he can
send positive signals to the potential helper: he has substantive network resources;
he is a credible man, and he will pay back others’ help in the future. The typical
case is Li Fei.194 Li had been the Directorgeneral of the Electricity Bureau of a
city in Zhejiang province for 13 years before xiahai in 2003. Li said he had broad
connections with officialdom. Now, Li is the vicemanager of one enterprise. As
described in the third chapter, Li had successfully helped this Company apply for
land use which was rather difficult in the past. Li told me that he had a friend
(Zhang) who was working in the National Territory Bureau. In the past, they had
194
Li Fei is one of my interviewees. I interviewed him in Zhejiang province on 28 July, 2004
97
helped each other. So when Li asked help from Zhang this time, Zhang promised
to try his best to be of help. It can be learned that Li had accumulated considerable
network resources and occupied a high position in the enterprise. Furthermore, the
mutual reciprocity between Li and Zhang convinced Zhang that Li was a credible
person. Therefore, it is not surprising that Li could receive the help from Zhang.
If the xiahai official has a high value in r and low value in c, he falls into the
second category. The xiahai official could still mobilize help from his network
resources because he has possessed important network resources despite his poor
credibility. When he tries to ask help from others, the respondent may want to
establish good relations with him to utilize his huge network resources. But the
poor credibility of the xiahai official cannot convince the respondent of the
expected returns. Therefore, the returns of the respondent are conditional. If the
mobilizer can provide immediate benefits in exchange, he is more likely to make a
claim from the respondent. Otherwise, the reaction of the respondent might be
more symbolic than substantive.
For example, Shen Jing195 started a company of his own after he left the
government. Before xiahai, he worked as the deputy director of one bureau. Later
Shen found that the company had to turn in large sums of arbitrary fees and taxes.
195
Shen jing is one of my interviewees. I did the interview with him on 02 Sep, 2004
98
He tried to seek help from one friend who was working at the government (Guo).
Shen presented some big gifts to Guo and promised to let Guo share more of the
benefits after resolving the problem. Through the help of Guo, Shen’s company
was affiliated to one government agency. As a result, the company no longer had to
pay the various administrative fees and taxes. After that, Shen presented valuable
gifts to Guo for his help.
In the third scenario where the xiahai official has a high value in c and a low value
in r, it is still possible for him to mobilize help from the respondent. But this
possibility is contingent upon the closeness of the relations between them. The
returns of the respondent are more likely to be expressive and symbolic, not
substantive. The typical case of this kind is Du Dan.196 Du had worked in the City
Planning Bureau for three years before he left the government in 1992. After
xiahai, he had several jobs, until 1998 when he became the general manager of
Furniture Corporation Limited. Du said that when he worked with the government,
he got along well with his colleagues. After Du left the government, he still kept in
contact with his former colleagues. Ten years passed and several of his former
colleagues had become the bureau chiefs, and they were willing to purchase
furniture for the Department from Du or introduce some buyers for Du.
196
Du Dan is one of my interviewees, I interviewed him on 09 Sep,2004
99
If the xiahai official has a low value in both c and r, he is least likely to claim help
from others. This is because the respondent can hardly expect that the xiahai
official would bring any benefit to him in the future.
To conclude, the accessibility to power can be explained by the face that the xiahai
officials have built up in their social networks. The xiahai officials who have
greater face in terms of credibility and network resources are more likely to gain
access to power and thus may have a high possibility of stabilizing their new
positions in business enterprises.
100
Chapter 5 Conclusion
SUMMARY
This study has sought to explain why and how some Chinese officials left the
government and joined the business sector. The finding is that Chinese officials
xiahai because they had both the incentive and opportunity to do so. This study
finds that the transitional context is important to understanding xiahai. First of all,
China's marketoriented reforms had provided officials with an alternative choice
to pursue career excellence. Meanwhile, the reforms aimed to restrain
governmental power and made rentseeking activities riskier than before. Under
such circumstances, some government officials chose to leave for the business
sector after making rational calculations. Secondly, in the transitional period,
redistributive power still had significant influence on business enterprises.
Therefore, these entrepreneurs, in order to reduce the political and administrative
uncertainties, sought opportunities to establish connections with powerholders.
These xiahai officials were still tied to powerholders though they left government.
With the accumulated power capital embedded in the social network, they became
attractive to the entrepreneurs and thus had advantages in gaining new positions in
the private sector.
101
This study also shows that social network plays a critical role in xiahai. The social
network is relevant because it works throughout the whole transaction of xiahai.
This study treats xiahai as a longterm transaction between the officials and
entrepreneurs. In the first stage, the agreement of transaction is reached when the
xiahai officials accept a job offer by the entrepreneurs. In the second stage, the
agreement of transaction is sustained only when the xiahai officials and
entrepreneurs can satisfy the expectation of the other side.
This study finds that the social network established by the xiahai officials played
an important role in both stages of the xiahai transaction. In the first stage, the
social connections with entrepreneurs determined whether the xiahai officials
could be offered jobs in business enterprises. Those who had established strong
ties with entrepreneurs were more likely to attain positions than those who had not.
This is because the trust and frequent interaction, which are embedded in the
strong tie, can effectively lower the transaction costs and facilitates the agreement
of transaction in a more smooth way. In the second stage, the social network
decides whether the xiahai officials have the ability to satisfy the expectations of
the entrepreneurs by getting access to power resources. It can provide a workable
mechanism for the xiahai officials to mobilize their embedded resources in the
officialdom though they have left the government. This study argues that the
xiahai officials’ ability to mobilize the resources embedded in their social network
102
is determined by the “face” they have built up. Those who have greater “face” in
terms of credibility and network resources enjoy high possibilities to gain access to
power and thus have their positions stabilized.
Xiahai, in the final analysis, is an issue of why and how some political elites were
transformed into economic elites. By explaining the incentives, contextual
opportunities and microlevel strategies of this elite transformation, this study has
shown how the xiahai officials shifted from being rentseekers to power brokers.
THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS
Although xiahai is hotly discussed by the public, it has not attracted adequate
academic attention possibly because of the difficulties in data collection. This
thesis is the first academic study on the issue of xiahai. Drawing on the insights
from Market Transition Theory (MTT) and Social Network Theory (SNT), it has
explored the mechanism behind xiahai in terms of both the macrolevel contextual
opportunities and the microlevel strategies.
This study can complement to MTT because it emphasizes that xiahai is a
distinctive phenomenon in China’s transitional period. MTT explains that “the
partial reform creates new patterns of interaction between redistributive and
103
market power that give rise to a hybrid elite of cadreentrepreneurs.”197 But it did
not make clear the mechanism for this elite transformation. This study of xiahai
describes the whole process in which the officials shifted from the political to
economic arena, and shows how the elites make the best of both the redistributive
and market mechanisms to satisfy their own interests. It has, to some extent, tested
the prediction of “a hybrid elite of cadreentrepreneurs.” In this regard, this study
may improve our understanding of elite transformation in transitional China.
Another point this study has emphasized is that both the redistributive and market
mechanisms play significant roles in this transitional context. The fact that the
xiahai officials can help the enterprises solve the problem of uncertainties proves
the argument raised by Bian Yanjie that the power capital does not experience a
decline.
This study also has significant implications for SNT. Firstly, this study can
supplement Lin Nan’s theory of social capital. Lin Nan has argued that “given the
same level of accessible embedded resources, some individuals mobilize better
resources than others in actions.”198 This study has explained the differing
outcomes of mobilization by proposing the concept of “face.” Here, “face” is a
197
Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in
China," American Sociological Review 56, no. 3 (1991).
198
Lin Nan, "Building a Network Theory of Social Capital," Connections 22, no. 1 (1999).
104
function of the credibility and the network resources one has accumulated. My
fieldwork shows that this definition of “face” can better explain the behavioral
variance among those xiahai officials. The definition of “face” is based on the
presumption of rationality, so it is helpful to combine the rational choice approach
with social network analysis. By doing so, it is more convincing when explaining
the interactions among actors within their social network.
Secondly, this study finds that the access to and use of social resources are
increasingly determined by the networks in a horizontal structure, as opposed to
the hierarchical structure like before. In the past, one’s hierarchical network was
important because we could stay in one work place for a long time. Nowadays, job
mobility has substantially increased, and communication and interaction on a
horizontal network has deepened. Therefore, one’s ability to exchange resources is
important.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY
This study adopted SNT to explain the variance in xiahai success. It has explored
how xiahai officials were able to attain positions in the enterprises and how they
mobilize support from incumbent officials to retain their positions. These two
questions can be conceptualized into the issue of network relations: one is the
relations between the xiahai officials and entrepreneurs, and the other is the
105
relations between the xiahai officials and incumbent officials. Evidence has shown
the efficacy of “strong ties” between entrepreneurs and officials in the first stage.
But due to the limitation of data sources, this study did not examine what kinds of
ties are more effective in the second stage. This issue is undoubtedly important to
an understanding of xiahai. Therefore, future studies can address this issue by
conducting a largesample survey. The answer to this question can help understand
how the structure of social relations influences the flow of information and
opportunities. By doing so, some patterns of xiahai can be ascertained based on
the measurement of the strength of the tie.
106
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
(In English)
Bian, Yanjie “Market Transition and Stratification”, Social Change in China's
Reform Era, Oxford University Press, 1999.
Coleman, James S. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1990.
Garnaut, R, L. Song, Y. Yang and X. Wang. Private Enterprises in China,
Canberra: Asia Pacific Press, 2001.
Granovetter, Mark S. Getting a Job. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
1974.
Hsu, Francis L.K. The Study of Literate Civilazations. New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston, 1969.
Franz Schurmann Ideology and Organization in Communist China, University of
California Press 1968.
Lin, Yutang My Country and My People, New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1935.
Mayfair Meihui,Yang, Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social
Relationships in China, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994.
Niskanen,W.A Bureaucracy: Servant or Master? London: Institute of Economic
Affairs, 1973.
Oi, Jean C. State and Peasant in Contemporary China : The Political Economy of
Village Government, Berkeley: University of California Press 1989.
Putnam, R. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
107
Pye, Lucian W. The Spirit of Chinese Politics, Harvard University Press, new
edition, 1992.
Ross Garnaut, Ligang Song (ed.) China's Third Economic Transformation: The
Rise of the Private Economy, New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.
Schuman, Henry. Americans and Chinese: Two Ways of Life. New York: H.Wolff,
1953.
Wank, David L. "BusinessState Clientelism in China: Decline or Evolution?" In
Social Connections in China Institutions, Culture and the Changing
Nature of Guanxi, edited by Doug Guthrie Thomas Gold, David Wank, 97
115: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
———Commodifying Communism : Business, Trust, and Politics in a Chinese
City Cambridge [England] ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Yan, Yunxiang The Flow of Gifts : Reciprocity and Social Networks in a Chinese
Village Stanford, California: Stanford University Press 1996.
(In Chinese)
Fei, Xiaotong. Xiangtu Zhongguo (China Rural Conditions) Beijing: Beijing
Press, 2005.
Yang, Jisheng. Zhongguo Shehui Ge Jieceng Fenxi (an Analysis to China's Social
Classes) Hongkong: Sanlian Bookstore, 2000.
Zhai, Xuewei. Zhongguo Ren Xingdong De Luoji (the Logic of Chinese People's
Behavior). Second ed: Social Science Philology Press, 2001.
Zhang, Jing. Fatuan Zhuyi (Corporatism) China Social Sciences Press, 1998).
Zhang, Jingping Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng
(the Power Change: From 'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation
in Politics'). First ed: Zhejiang People's Press, 2004.
108
JOURNAL ARTICLES
(In English)
Arthur Rosett, Cheng Lucie. "Contract with a Chinese Face: Socially Embedded
Factors in the Transformation from Hierarchy to Market, 19781989."
Journal of Chinese Law, Vol. 5, no. 2 (1991), pp. 143244.
Bian, Yanjie. "Bringing Strong Ties Back In: Indirect Ties, Network Bridges, and
Job Searches in China," American Sociological Review, vol. 62, no. 3
(1997), pp.366385.
Burt, Ronald S. "The Network Structure of Social Capital." In Research in
Organizational Behavior, edited by Robert I.Sutton and Barry M. Staw.
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 2000.
———. "Structural Holes and Good Ideas." American Journal of Sociology, vol.
110, no. 2 (2004), pp. 349399.
Cai, Yongshun. "Irresponsible State: Local Cadres and Image Building in China."
The Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, vol. 20, no. 4
(2004), pp. 2041
Chen, An "Capitalist Development, Entrepreneurial Class, and Democratization in
China." Political Science Quarterly , vol. 117, no. 3 (2002), pp. 401422.
Coase, Ronald H. "The Nature of the Firm." Economica , vol. 4, no. 16 (1937), pp.
386405.
Coleman, James S. "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital." American
Journal of Sociology, vol.94 (1988), pp. S95S121.
Crum, John and Naff, Katherine C. "Working for America: Does Public Service
Motivation Make a Difference?" Review of Public Personnel
Administration, vol. 16, no. 4 (19992000), pp. 516.
Dittmer, Lowell. "Chinese Informal Politics." The China Journal, vol. 34 (1995),
pp. 134.
109
———. "Informal Politics Reconsidered." The China Journal, vol. 34 (1995), pp.
193205.
Erickson, Bonnie H. "Culture, Class and Connections." American Journal of
Sociology, vol. 102, no. 1 (1996), pp. 217511.
Erving, Goffman. "On FaceWork: An Analysis of Ritual Elements in Social
Interaction," Psychiatry, vol. 18, no. August (1955), pp. 213231.
Granovetter, Mark S. "Economic and Social Structure: The Problem of
Embeddedness." American Journal of Sociology, vol. 91 (1985), pp. 481
510.
———."The Strength of Weak Ties," The American Journal of Sociology, vol. 78,
no. 6 (1973), pp. 13601380
———. "The Strength of Weak Ties: A Network Theory Revisited." Sociological
Theory, vol. 1 (1983), pp. 201233.
Ho, David Yaufai. "On the Concept of Face," The American Journal of Sociology
vol. 81, no. 4 (1976), pp. 867884
Houston, David J. "PublicService Motivation: A Multivariate Test," Journal of
Public Administration Research & Theory, vol. 10, no. 4 (2000), pp. 713
727
Hwang, KwangKuo. "Face and Favor: The Chinese Power Game." The American
Journal of Sociology, vol. 92, no. 4 (1987), pp. 944974.
Lin, Nan. "Building a Network Theory of Social Capital." Connections, vol. 22,
no. 1 (1999), pp. 2851.
Lu, Xiaobo. "From RankSeeking to RentSeeking: Changing Administrative
Ethos and Corruption in Reform China," Crime, Law & Social Change, vol.
32 (1999), pp. 347370.
Nee, Victor. "A Theory of Market Transition: From Redistribution to Markets in
State Socialism," American Sociological Review, vol. 54, no. 5 (1989), pp.
663681.
110
———"Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution
and Markets in China," American Sociological Review , vol. 56, no. 3
(1991), pp. 267282.
———"The Emergence of a Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of
Stratification in China," The American Journal of Sociology, vol. 101, no.
4 (1996), pp. 908949
Oi, Jean C. “Mobilization and participation: the case of China”, in Asia, Case
Studies in the Social Sciences: A Guide for Teaching, Myron L. Cohen
(ed.), ME Sharpe, 1992.
Perry, James L. "Measuring Public Service Motivation: An Assessment of
Construct Reliability and Validity," Journal of Public Administration and
Research, vol. 6, no. 1 (1996), pp. 522
Putnam, R. "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital." Journal of
Democracy, vol. 6, no. 1 (1995), pp. 6578.
Roger V. Gould; Roberto M. Fernandez, "Structure of Mediation: A Formal
Approach to Brokerage in Transaction Networks," Sociological
Methodology, vol. 19 (1989), pp. 89126.
RonaTas, Akos. "The First Shall Be Last? Entrepreneurship and Communist
Cadres in the Transition from Socialism." The American Journal of
Sociology, vol. 100, no. 1 (1994), pp. 4069.
Uzzi, Brian. "The Sources and Consequences of Embeddedness for the Economic
Performance of Organizations: The Network Effect." American
Sociological Review, vol. 61, no. 4 (1996), pp. 674698.
Williamson, Oliver E. "The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost
Approach." American Journal of Sociology, vol. 87, no. 3 (1981), pp. 548
577.
Zhou, Xueguang; Nancy Brandon Tuma; Phyllis Moen, "Institutional Change and
JobShift Patterns in Urban China, 1949 to 1994," American Sociological
Review, vol. 62, no. 3 (1997), pp. 339365.
111
(In Chinese)
Li, Baoliang. "Cong Shehuiwang De Jiaodu Kan Siyingqiyezhu De
Zhengzhiguannian He Xingwei (a Study on the Political Conciousness and
Behavior of Private Entrepreneurs from the Perspective of Social
Network)." Modern China Studies, no. 63 (1998).
Song, Shige."The Deferring Effect of Power Conversion an Explanation to Elite
Reproduction and Circulation During the Market Transition in Socialist
Country.” Shehui Xue Yanjiu, no. 3 (1998).
Yang, Qing. "Cong Chaojingji Qiangzhi Dao Guanxixing Heyi Dui Siying
Qiyezhu Zhengzhi Canyu Guocheng De Fenxi (an Analysis on Private
Entrepreneurs' Political Participation)." Modern China Studies, no. 71
(2000).
Yang, Xueye. "Jueqi De Zhongguo Siying Jingji (the Rising Private Economy in
China).", Modern China Studies, no. 4 (1998).
Zhong, Yuming. "Beihao Hangmu: Guanyuan Xiahai Bian Qimao (Xiahai: Well
Prepared to Sail in the Sea)," Democracy & Legal System, no. 2 (2004).
NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES
(In Chinese)
"A Judicial Case on Ligang's Illegal Behavior," People's Daily, 23Nov 2004.
"A Story of Ye Kangsong," New Shanghainese, 26Aug 2002.
"An Overview on the ImageBuilding Projects by Wang Huaizhong." Xinmin
Weekly, 31Oct 2003.
Cui Qingxin, Meng Na. "Nongmin Gong He Siying Qiyejia Shoudeng Quanguo
Laomo Bang (Farmer Laborer and Private Entrepreneurs Become National
Model Worker)." People's Daily, 19April 2005.
112
Dai Dunfeng. "Jujiao Ciguan Xiahai Chao (Focusing on Xiahai)," Renmin Quanli
Bao (People's Power Newspaper), 13May 2003.
Ding, Sheng "Zhongguo Daxue Biyesheng Zhengzhe Chi Huangliang (Chinese
Undergraduates Strive for Being Public Servants," Lianhe Zaobao, 01Jan
2005.
"Huigu Zhongguo Siying Jingji Ershisi Nian (an Overview on TwentyFour Years'
Development of Chinese Private Economy)." New People's Weekly, 09Dec
2002.
Song, Yuan. "Storm of 'Shuanggui'." Phoenix Weekly 152.
Tang, Xiaoteng. "Cong Ciguan Xiahai Shuokaiqu: Jianlun Gaoguan Luoma Yu
Boshi Kaoguan(from 'Officials' Xiahai' to 'Doctors Pursue Official
Career')," Zhongguo Guoqing Guoli(China's Situation and National Power)
12 (2003).
Tao, Jianqun. "Toushi Wenzhou Ciguan Chao (Analyze the 'Wenzhou
Phenomenon'),", Shidai Chao (Wave of Era) 11 (2001).
Wang, Shengke. "Jiangzhe Guanyuan Xiahaichao Shibushi Jinbu Xianxiang? (Is
'Xiahai' in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces Progressive Phenomenon?)."
21th Century Ecomonic News, 26June 2003.
"Xiahai Guanyuan Yilan (an Overview On "Xiahai")," Financial Times, 10Nov
2003.
"Xingzheng Shiyexing Shoufei Jugao Buxia (the Rise of Administrative Fees),"
Southern Daily, 25Nov 2004.
Yang, Aixiang and Zou, Yao. "Di San Lun Xiahai Guanyuan Shengcun Zhuangtai
(the Status of Xiahai Officials in the Third Wave)." 21th Centrury
Economic News, 16Nov 2003.
Yuan Jiaqiang, "Shangyeju Nv Juzhang Qiguan Zhi Sida Yingxiang (the Four
Influences of a Female DirectorGeneral Went to Business)."
Yuan, Jiaqiang, Liu Yanling and Liang Shuang "Shangyeju Nv Juzhang Qiguan
Zhi Sida Yingxiang (the Four Influences of a Female DirectorGeneral
Went to Business)," Huashang Morning Paper, 09Jan 2004
113
"Zhongguo Jingji Mianlin De Weiji Yu Duice (the Crisis Confronted with China's
Economy and Relative Countermeasure)," Zhanlue Yu Guanli (Strategy and
Management), no. 4 (1998).
Zhou Qingxing and Wu Xinzhong. "Fangda Yu Toushi: Xin Yilun Guanyuan
Xiahai Jiexi (a Detailed Analysis on the Third Wave of Xiahai)," The
Forum for Chinese Cadres, 31May 2004.
ELECTRONIC SOURCES
Cai Ling, Wang Shaojie. "Suggestions on Improving the Legal Environment for
Private
Enterprises."2005.
http://
www.lianghui.org.cn/chinese/zhuanti/2005lh/805633.htm
China’s National Bureau of Statistics.
http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/yb2004c/indexch.htm;
"Henan Province Dismiss the Officials Who Engage in 'Buying' Position,"
People's Daily, 05 Feb 2005. http://home.htu.cn/jiwei/zcfg/zcfg32.htm
Ma, Huaide. "Xingzheng Chufa Xianzhuang Yu Lifa Jianyi (the Current Status of
Administrative Punishment and Suggestions on Legislation).”
http://www.jcrb.com/zyw/n6/ca12519.htm, 16Jan 2003.
"Renda Daibiao Zhitongche' De Qidi (Implications for 'Express Train for
Deputies')." http://www.xinhuanet.com/, 13 May 2003.
Sun, Liping. “Zongti Xing Ziben Yu Zhuanxingqi Jingying Xingcheng (Totalist
Capital and Formation of Elites in Transitional Context).”
http://www.sachina.edu.cn/Htmldata/article/2005/09/291.html
Supreme People’s Procuratorate of China: http://www.spp.gov.cn/gzdt/
"The State Council Take Measures to Control the Arbitrary Fees for Private
Enterprises," Southern Daily, 20April 2005.
http://www.southcn.com/finance/gdmqgc/gdmqgcqwjd/200504200053.htm
“What Prevents Us from Initiating Business?”
http://www.u88.com.cn/html/slgs/20054139304717788.htm
114
"Zhongguo Siying Qiye Diaocha Baogao (the Investigation Report on Chinese
Private Enterprises)." http://www.china.org.cn/chinese/zhuanti/282306.htm
YEARBOOKS, LAWS AND SURVEYS
Zhongguo Siying Jingji Nianjian (the Yearbook of Chinese Private Economy).
Edited by National Business Association and Society of Private Business
Studies United Front Work Department of the CCP Central Committee.
Beijing: Chinese Language Press, 2000.
The Constitution of China and its revised edition in 1988, 1993, 1999, and 2004.
The Administrative Permission Law (2003)
National Survey on Chinese private enterprises, staged by United Front Work
Department of the CCP Central Committee, National Business Association
and Society of Private Business Studies in 1993, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2002, and
2004.
115
Appendices
Appendix 1. The Geographical Distribution of Xiahai
116
Appendix II the Constitutional Change towards Private Economy
1982 Constitution
1988 Constitution
1999 Constitution
2004 Constitution
The legal rights and interests of the individual
economy and private economy are preserved by
the state. Meanwhile, they are under the
guidance, supervision and administration of the
state.
The nonstate economy was regarded as the
complement to the stateowned economy.
The nonstate economy was regarded as the
“important part” of the socialist market
economy. It signals that the private economy
takes up its legitimate place in the arena of the
country’s economic life.
The legal rights and interests of the individual
economy and private economy are preserved by
the state. The state should encourage and
support its development, supervise and manage
it legally.
117
[...]... But in the transitional context, rent seeking becomes increasingly costly as the state initiated administrative and judicial reform to enhance government accountability. Responding to this change, officials chose to work as brokers to bridging entrepreneurs with the power holders. As a result, elites are transformed from rent seekers to power brokers To construct a theory to explain this elite transformation, one must illuminate... intrinsic rewards, such as career satisfaction, were also critical for the officials to make the choice. Evidence shows that some officials left the government because they could not get the achievability from their official positions, and then they turned to the business sector to actualize their talents. In all, it is reasonable to assume that the officials are rational actors who take strategies responding to the changing context 43 Downs, Anthony Inside Bureaucracy Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967... fifteen indepth interviews with xiahai officials, ten with incumbent officials and a few with entrepreneurs There is a limited sample in my interview data due to the following reasons. Firstly, the name list of xiahai officials is not open to public. Not knowing the name and contact of xiahai officials, it is impossible to conduct a largesample survey. To solve the problem ... the problem of accessibility, I tried to reach xiahai officials through mutual friends' introduction. Secondly, xiahai is a sensitive topic to them. It is generally difficult to interview government officials who are very cautious about talking with outsiders. Even with an introduction from mutual friends, a few of them were still reluctant to receive the interview. Before talking with them, I ... As a matter of fact, it is impossible and unnecessary to list all the personal reasons for xiahai officials since concrete reasons for officials choice vary from individual to individual. But it is still helpful to do some categorical analysis by constructing several “ideal type” incentives to show the fundamental patterns of this phenomenon My interview data includes four types of incentives for xiahai: ... For officials, promotion opportunities are critical for career advancement. They are willing to do everything possible to get promoted. Many officials even pay large amounts of money to “buy” a position. This is captured in a Chinese saying: “bupao busong, yuandi budong; zhipao busong, pingji diaodong”, which means that sometimes monetary benefits are needed to bribe the ... Cheng Lucie Arthur Rosett, "Contract with a Chinese Face: Socially Embedded Factors in the Transformation from Hierarchy to Market, 19781989," Journal of Chinese Law 5, no. 2 (1991) 57 Zhang Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From 'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics'), 1 ed. (Zhejiang People's Press, 2004) 58 Ibid 26 the state has carried out a series of regulations to fight this phenomenon. Some ... thus changes the structure of opportunities and gives rise to entrepreneurship as an alternative to bureaucratic advancement in state socialism.49 The MTT maintains that redistributors in sectors of the socialist economy that have experienced market reform are unable to keep up by drawing on their power capital alone, because fundamentally, the shift from redistribution to markets involves a change in the sources of power and privilege.50 ... increasing, especially for the entrepreneurs; the other is that the value of power capital is declining, especially in relation to the officials. The MTT indicates the central processes in the shift from hierarchies to markets that involve fundamental 45 Over the years after his theory appeared in 1989, the Chinese study in America aroused great interest. Victor Nee revised his theory two times in 1991 and 1996 in response to the criticism. In 1996, American... with great political and administrative uncertainties. However, both of them have provided opportunities for officials to undergo occupational change and transfer to the private sector. Because the rising private economy stands as an alternative arena for career development, "advancement in officialdom" is not as attractive as before. Most important, the private entrepreneurs would like to recruit the xiahai officials based on the expectation that ... Xiaoteng, "Cong Ciguan Xiahai Shuokaiqu: Jianlun Gaoguan Luoma Yu Boshi Kaoguan (from 'Officials' Xiahai' to 'Doctors Pursue Official Career')." 35 Xiaobo Lu, "From RankSeeking to RentSeeking: Changing Administrative Ethos and Corruption in ... accessibility, I tried to reach xiahai officials through mutual friends' introduction. Secondly, xiahai is a sensitive topic to them. It is generally difficult to interview government officials who are very cautious ... As a matter of fact, it is impossible and unnecessary to list all the personal reasons for xiahai officials since concrete reasons for officials choice vary from individual to individual. But it is still helpful to do some categorical analysis by constructing