ON IMAGINING a NATION CONSTRUCTIONS OF INDONESIA IN JAKARTA, KUPANG AND BANDA ACEH

ON IMAGINING A NATION: CONSTRUCTIONS OF “INDONESIA” IN JAKARTA, KUPANG AND BANDA ACEH STEFANI H.S. NUGROHO (MA. Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2013 I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its entirety. I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information which have been used in the thesis. This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously. Stefani H.S Nugroho STEFANI H.S. NUGROHO 31 AUGUST, 2013 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This thesis could never have been completed without the help of so many people. I would like to thank the people in Jakarta, Kupang and Banda Aceh who were willing to meet and talk to me. I could not thank you enough. The main aim of this thesis is to share with others the invaluable insights I have obtained from your stories. I would like to thank Professor Eric Thompson for his guidance and patience. Thank you for teaching me the importance of articulating ideas clearly and concisely. I have learned so much in the past years. I also wish to thank Professor Gavin Jones as my co-supervisor, and Professor Maribeth Erb as my committee member for having guided me. Thank you for everyone in the General Office of Sociology, Ms Raja, Ms Magdalene, Ms Choon Lan, Ms Cecilia, Ms Jane Ong. “Ask Ms Raja” is the most common suggestion among grad students whenever any of us have unanswerable questions. Thank you for the new friendships in Kupang, Banda Aceh and those who have made these new friendships possible: Intan, Mbak Aleida, Dina, Thathi, Kiki, Ulfa, Melly, Rizki, Pak Yosef, Kak Zacky, Bang Uzair. To all for the fellow travellers in this journey, thank you. Kim Ji Youn, the best year of the PhD journey was the one that started with us drinking wine from soup bowls, sitting on unpacked boxes and suitcases in the new flat in Clementi. Minushree Sharma, it seems not so long ago that we got lost in the ii labyrinthine corridors of NUS on our way to the Sociology Department on that first day. So many things have changed between then and now, but I am glad that I have been able to count on you throughout these years. Omer Saifudeen, Wu-ling Chong, Manuel Sapitula, Claire Lee, Minhye Kim, Hu-Shu, Xiarong Gu, Liu Xi, Shelly Sibya, thank you for the discussions and distractions that have kept my sanity relatively intact. Amritorupa Sen, thank you for showing me how to see the world (and listen to music!) in a different way. Rafael Martinez and George Jose, I thoroughly enjoy the many hours of conversation and laughter at The Deck. If only the three of you joined the department earlier. I have never told you this, but Valen, Leni and Pritta, listening to your “versions” of Indonesia when we were in Leuven, and realizing how divergent they are, was the starting point of this thesis. ‘Makasih to the people in Jakarta whose presence make the infamously unfriendly city still a ‘home’ to me. Tiwi, Jeanne, Emil, Danang, Riri and Elia, and of course, Titi and Francesco, thank you all for continuously updating me on the latest trend of the youth. For my parents, thank you for keeping the curiosity in me alive, and for keeping me away from the G30S/PKI film and other forms of state indoctrinations during my childhood. For Anton, you have effectively shown me the boundaries of language, for I am lost for words to thank you. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT . ii TABLE OF CONTENTS . iv ABSTRACT .viii List of Tables x List of Figures xi ON IMAGINING A NATION 1.1 Introduction . 1.1.1 Research Statement 1.2 The Production of the Nation 1.2.1 Primordial Theories of Nationhood 1.2.2 Constructivist Theories of Nationhood 11 1.2.3 The Genesis of Nationhood According to Benedict Anderson 15 1.3 The Hegemonic Construction of the Nation . 22 1.4 Tracing the Discursive Production of Indonesia . 26 1.5 Outline of Work 33 METHODOLOGY: THE PROBLEM WITH THE RESEARCH PROBLEM37 2.1 Photo Elicitation Interview Method 38 Advantages of Photo Elicitation Method 41 2. Data Collection 44 2.2.1 Choice of Images 45 2.2.2 Informants 55 2.3 Analysis . 66 2.4 Summary and Conclusion . 67 iv A JUXTAPOSITION OF IMAGINATIONS .69 3.1 Plural Imaginings of Indonesia . 70 3.1.1 Imagining Indonesia from Jakarta 70 3.1.2 Imagining Indonesia from Kupang . 73 3.1.3 Imagining Indonesia from Banda Aceh 75 3.2 Contrastive Imaginings of Indonesia 78 3.2.1 The Centre versus the Periphery 78 3.2.2 Plural Peripheral Imaginings 79 3.2.3. Regularity in Dispersion: Shared Ideas of “Indonesia” . 82 3.3 Summary and Conclusion . 86 UP, CLOSE AND PERSONAL: THE IMAGINING OF INDONESIA IN JAKARTA .88 4.1 The Socio-Historical Context of Jakarta . 90 4.2 The Hegemonic Construction of a Community 96 4.2.1“Culture” as the Foundation in the Construction of a Chain of Equivalence . 96 4.2.2 The Negative Space of Indonesia: of Forgetting and Emptiness . 101 4.3 The Constitutive Others 108 4.3.1 “Luar” as the Lacanian Other . 109 4.3.2 “Malaysia” as the Antagonistic Other 116 4.4 Summary and Conclusion . 119 INDONESIA FROM THE PERIPHERY: IMAGINING INDONESIA IN KUPANG .121 5.1 The Socio-Historical Context of Kupang . 123 5.2 Counter-narratives to the Dominant Discourses of Indonesia 129 5.2.1 Inhabiting the Negative Space: “Do You Know Where Kupang is?” . 129 v 5.2.2 Challenging the Domestication of “culture” 134 5.2.3 Absence of the International World as the Other . 139 5.3 The Instrumental Bond in the Construction of Indonesia . 141 5.3.1 Pragmatic Belongingness to the Nation . 142 5.3.2 Practical Engagement with the State 145 5.4 Summary and Conclusion . 151 INDONESIA QUESTIONED: DECONSTRUCTING THE NATION IN BANDA ACEH .153 6.1 The Socio-Historical Context of Banda Aceh 155 6.2 Inhibiting the Negative Space: Aceh as a Distinct Entity . 162 6.2.1 Reinventing Aceh Culture 163 6.2.2 Aceh and the World 167 6.3 Indonesia as Antagonism 171 6.3.1 Idealization of Aceh-Indonesia Conflict 172 6.3.2 Dissenting the Hegemonic Narratives of Indonesia . 176 6.4 Indonesia as a Compromise 179 6.4.1 Consent to Dominant Narratives of Indonesia . 179 6.4.2 The Pragmatics of Pacification . 182 6.5 Summary and Conclusion . 184 CONCLUSION .187 7.1 A Compendium . 188 7.2 Implications for Studies on Nationhood . 191 7.2.1 Heterogeneous Constructions of the Imagined Community 191 7.2.2 Multiple Modes of Counter-hegemony 195 7.3 Implications for Indonesia 197 7.3.1 Indonesia: Unity or Diversity? . 198 vi 7.3.2 “Reformasi” as a Failed Empty Signifier . 199 7.3.3 Civic Nationhood: a Viable Alternative . 201 7.4 Relevance for Future Studies 204 REFERENCES 207 vii ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the construction of “Indonesia” among young people (age 15 to 27) in Jakarta, Kupang (East Nusa Tenggara) and Banda Aceh (Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam) using photo-elicitation interview method, coupled with participant observation. Expanding on Benedict Anderson’s notion of “imagined community”, the thesis proposes that the imagination about the nation is not homogeneous: there are conjunctures and disjunctures between the ideas of “Indonesia” of people in Jakarta, Kupang and Banda Aceh. The analysis employed is mainly drawn from Laclau and Mouffe’s theory of hegemony, and the construction of the nation is framed as an open and unstable chain of equivalence formed by the emphasizing of similarities and the de-emphasizing of differences. Overall, the main points of divergence that have emerged in this thesis are in regard to the perceptions of the center-periphery disparity, the emphasis on ethnic versus pragmatic ties of nationhood, and salience of the international community. 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Singapore: NUS Press. 222 [...]...LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Photographs used in Jakarta, Banda Aceh and Kupang 49 Table 2 Photographs used only in Jakarta 53 Table 3 Photographs used only in Kupang 54 Table 4 Photographs used only in Banda Aceh 54 Table 5 Photographs used in Kupang and Banda Aceh 55 Table 6 Interviewees in Jakarta 57 Table 7 Interviewees in Kupang 60 Table 8 Interviewees in Banda Aceh. .. Indonesia in Jakarta, Banda Aceh and Kupang It aims to contribute to the scholarly discussion about the nation as an imagined community (Anderson [1983] 2006) by providing empirical grounds to the argument that the imaginings are not singular This thesis will show that young people (age between 18 and 27) in Jakarta, Kupang and Banda Aceh have different imaginings of Indonesia 5 that show various patterns... Merauke, itulah Indonesia Tapi dalam kehidupan sehari-hari nggak ada Sabang, nggak ada Merauke Bahkan jarang orang ada yang tau Sabang itu dimana, Merauke itu dimana Mereka hanya ada dalam lagu, gitu” 2 1 imaginary seamless body named Indonesia The metaphor “from Sabang to Merauke” is one of his most favourite rhetorical devices and was repeatedly used to frame and justify West Papua’s controversial... temporarily fixing meanings through practices of articulation that construct sameness and difference out of a heterogeneous terrain (Laclau and Mouffe [1985] 2001) Applying this framework to the context of nationhood, the imaginings of a nation are formed by temporarily fixed notions of what the nation is and what belongingness to the nation means, in contrast to what the nation is not 11 In line with... that according to Standpoint Theorists give rise to different imaginations According to Cheah (2003), Anderson’s main interest is the paradigmatic style and the material conditions that generate the idea of the nation, not so much the thematic contents of the imaginations per se Transposed to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, of language as an abstract system in contrast to language as... point in West Papua The space between the two towns, covering thousands of kilometres, is filled by Sukarno with an “Negara Republik Indonesia ini bukan milik sesuatu golongan, bukan milik sesuatu agama, bukan milik sesuatu suku, bukan milik sesuatu golongan adat-istiadat, tetapi milik kita semua dari Sabang sampai Merauke!” 1 “Kalau kita bilang ‘Sabang sampai Merauke’, Dari lagunya aja ‘Sabang sampai... contrasting “us” consists of a wider range of people ; women, peasants, academics, professionals, etc Bowman shows that there are multiple imaginings of a nation Anderson’s work has concentrated on homogeneity, whether it is within a nation (through “horizontal comradeship”) as well as between nations (e.g with last wave nations modelled on earlier, colonizing nations as models) A number of scholars... of scholars have pointed out that the imagining of the nation is much more heterogeneous, complex and dynamic The dissertation is in line with this latter argument Throughout the chapters, I will address how young people in Jakarta, Kupang and Banda Aceh have different imaginings of Indonesia In many ways, the thesis resonates with Bowman’s research I also argue that the imagining of a community is... the song goes “from Sabang to Merauke, that is Indonesia But in the daily life, there is no Sabang, there is no Merauke Not many people know where Sabang is, where Merauke is They are just part of the song.2 (Nana, 20 year old, female student of a secretarial and administration college in Banda Aceh, in an interview in 2010) 1.1 Introduction In 1955, a decade after Indonesia s proclamation of independence,... that threatens established social patterns and “old” traditions The traditions often symbolize social cohesion, legitimize authority or inculcate beliefs and values (Hobsbawm 1992) As I will elaborate in a later section, the invention of tradition is a significant part of nation- building in Indonesia The idea of the Majapahit kingdom as the mythical proto -Indonesia, for instance, erases the newness of . 3 A JUXTAPOSITION OF IMAGINATIONS 69 3.1 Plural Imaginings of Indonesia 70 3.1.1 Imagining Indonesia from Jakarta 70 3.1.2 Imagining Indonesia from Kupang 73 3.1.3 Imagining Indonesia from. Tapi dalam kehidupan sehari-hari nggak ada Sabang, nggak ada Merauke. Bahkan jarang orang ada yang tau Sabang itu dimana, Merauke itu dimana. Mereka hanya ada dalam lagu, gitu” 2 imaginary. 18 and 27) in Jakarta, Kupang and Banda Aceh have different imaginings of Indonesia 5 that show various patterns of conjunctures and disjunctures from official state discourses of Indonesia.