Subalternity, state formation and movements against hydropower projects in india, 1920 2004

SUBALTERNITY, STATE-FORMATION AND MOVEMENTS AGAINST HYDROPOWER PROJECTS IN INDIA, 1920-2004 Arnab Roy Chowdhury A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its entirety. I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information, which have been used in this thesis. This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously. Signature: Date: 29.04.2014 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In the course of writing my doctoral dissertation I have received countless benefits, both direct and indirect, from several people, organizations and institutions. Naming each and every one of them will not probably be possible in this brief acknowledgement. First of all I pay my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Daniel P S Goh (Supervisor) and Dr. Anne Raffin (Co-Supervisor) whose consistent support, advice, love and guidance helped me finish my dissertation and enriched my graduate life in the Department of Sociology, National University of Singapore. I also extend my sincere thanks to Dr. Rahul Mukherji, my dissertation committee member, who has been a friend, family, philosopher and guide who gave me moral and emotional support in a foreign land. My sincere gratitude for my thesis committee member Prof. Vedi Hadiz (Murdoch University, Australia), who, despite the physical distance never forgot to reply to my e-mails. My deepest gratitude to Prof. Chua Beng Huat whose kind and encouraging support helped me navigate through my PhD. I am really thankful to Dr. Misha Petrovic for being kind and generous to me and my friends. Despite their busy schedule, Prof. Prasenjit Duara, Dr. Manjusha Nair, Dr. Kurtulus Gemici, Dr. Gyanesh Kudaisya, Dr. Volker Schmidt, Dr. Vineeta Sinha, Dr. Eric Thompson Dr. Syed Farid Alatas, Dr. Shukadeb Naik and Dr. Anand Kumar made themselves available for me whenever I required their help, I am really thankful for their generosity. My deepest gratitude for the husband-wife duo, Dr. Bharat Patanker and Dr. Gail Omvedt, the coordinators of Shramik Mukthi Dal (Maharashtra), for being welcoming and helpful to me. They shared significant information, views, ideas, personal archives, food and warm memories with me. My sincere thanks to Medha Patker (main coordinator of Narmada Bachao Andolan in Madhya Pradesh) and Rahul Banerjee (main coordinator of Khedut Mazdoor Chetna Sangath in Madhya Pradesh) for candidly sharing information and documents about movements against hydropower projects with me. I also thank – Baba Adhav (MRDPSP), Somnath Waghmore (SMD), Suhas Paranjpe (SOPPECOM, Pune), K.J. Joy (SOPPECOM, Pune), Anant Phadke (CEHAT, Pune), Shripad Dharmadhikari (Manthan, Pune), Vijay Paranjpe (Gomukh Environmental Trust, Pune), Ashis Kothari (Kalpavriksha), Suhas Palshikar (Pune University), Enakshi Ganguly Thukral (HAQ, Delhi), Dr. Priya Sangameswaran (CSSS, Kolkata), Dr. Prachi Deshpande (CSSS, Kolkata), Dr.Vasudha Dagamvar (Pune), Dunu Roy (Hazard Centre), Dr.Renu Modi (Mumbai University), Dr.Livi Rodrigues (Pune), Dr. Subodh Wagle (Prayas), Prof. D.S. Dhanagare (Pune), Prof. Parasuraman (TISS), Dr. Abhay Tilak (Indian School of Political Economy), Joel Cabalion (EHESS, Paris), Anand Kapur (SHASHWAT), Kusum Karnik (SHASHWAT), Budhaji Damse (SHASHWAT), Harsh Mander (NAC, India member), Suniti Suru (NBA, Pune), Dr. Anup Dhar (Ambedkar University), Dr. R.N. Sharma (TISS), Anupam Mishra (Gandhi Foundation), Kishwar Jahan (Bhopal) and Dr. Sarjerao Slaunkhe (Kolhapur University) for formally and informally sharing information, documents and ideas with me in the most uninhibited manner. I extend my sincere thanks to all those countless social activists and movement participants who generously shared their time, pain and angst, without any inhibition or doubt. It is because of their help that writing this thesis was possible. I also thank- the National Archives of India (Delhi), the Maharashtra State Archives (Bombay and Pune Branch), the Madhya Pradesh State Archives (Bhopal), the Gokhle Institute of Politics and Economics (Pune), Yashwant Rao Chavan Academy of Development Administration (YASHADA, Pune), the Indian School of Political Economy (Pune), the Gandhi Peace Foundation (Delhi) and the Nehru Memorial Library (Delhi) for giving me the opportunity to collect materials and documents. The research and fieldwork for this dissertation were carried out with the support of the National University of Singapore Research Scholarship. I extend my sincere thanks to Madam K.S. Raja for all her assistance with administrative work. Writing a dissertation is a lonely, long and difficult exercise, which many a times take a toll on physical and mental health. If friends like Christopher Navarajan, Manjushree Panda, Nina Carlina, Himanshu and Pranjala, Biswajit Mishra, Sojin Shin, George Lu, Ngwang Drakpa, Allan Lee, Alvin Tan, Ryan O‘Conner, Victoria Lee, Lynett Chan, Maninder Singh Khurana and Rahul Singhal, were not around, life in Singapore would have been difficult. Last but not the least, a special loving thanks to my family (my mother and my brother) who tolerated my whims and tantrums with great affection and care. This thesis is dedicated to my father, who left us unexpectedly in 2002, creating a big vacuum in our lives forever. Table of Contents Declaration Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Tables 10 List of Figures 11 List of Abbreviations 15 Glossary of Terms 18 Summary 23 1. Introduction 25 Introduction 25 Central Argument 26 Introducing the ‗Field‘ 29 The State of Maharashtra 29 The State of Madhya Pradesh 33 A Critical Commentary on ‗Subaltern Studies‘ 35 State, Culture and Subalternity: A Conceptual Framework 40 State as an abstract and mutable entity 40 State-Formation as a multi-linear „process‟ 42 Culture as Discourse and Culture as Resistance 44 Subalternity and State Formation 48 Research Methodology 55 Methods of Analysis and Data Collection 55 The Logic of „Periodization‟ 58 Scope and Limitations of the Thesis 60 Chapterization 62 2. Mulshi Satyagraha: ‘Subaltern Counterpublicity’ and Movement against Hydropower Project in Bombay Presidency, 1920-24 Introduction 65 65 On Subaltern Agency, Civil Society and Public Sphere 67 ‗Subaltern Counterpublic‘: a Conceptual Review 69 The Historical Context of Dam Building in Mulshi Peta 73 Mulshi Peta: The place and the dam 75 The Preparatory Phase of the Satyagraha 81 Mulshi Satyagraha: Phase I 87 Mulshi Satyagraha Phase II 96 Conclusion 99 3. Subaltern heterodoxy under the ‘Developmental State’: Mobilisations against Hydropower Projects in Postcolonial India, 1947–1980 104 Introduction 104 The Developmental State and ‗Subalternity‘ 105 The Political Economy of the Developmental State in India 107 Hydropower Projects: ―The Temples of Modern India‖ 113 Mitti Bachao Abhiyan: the First Glimmer of ‗Consciousness‘ against Hydropower Projects in Madhya Pradesh 121 Maharashtra: The Continuing Legacy of Subaltern Heterodoxy 134 MRDPSP and the formation of the Rehabilitation Law, 1976 138 The 1972–73 Drought in Maharashtra 145 Magova: “We will even put Marx under a microscope” 152 Conclusion 155 4. Vignettes of ‘Subaltern Localism’: The Movement of the ‘Dam Evictees’ in Maharashtra, 1981–2004 159 Introduction 160 Comrades in Arms: The Peasant-Workers Alliance 163 Creating an Alternative: Struggle for Bali Raja „Smriti Dharan‟ (Memorial Dam) 168 Demands for ‗Equity in Water Distribution‘ and ‗Hydraulic Property Rights‘ 177 Demands for ‗Equitable Distribution of Dammed Water‘ in a Neoliberal Era 182 ‗Spill-over of Surplus Demands‘: Restructuring the Tembhu Irrigation Scheme 185 ‗Increasing Effervescence‘ of Dam Evictee Movements, 2000–2004 186 ‗Unexpected Co-operation‘ by the ‗Drought-affected and the Dam Evictees‘ 193 Giving Alternatives: Re-designing the Uchangi Dam 195 Mobilisation Strategies of SMD: Conflict, Demands and Negotiations 199 Conclusion 202 5. Emerging facets of ‘Subaltern Cosmopolitanism’: The ‘anti-dam’ movements in Madhya Pradesh, 1981–2004 206 Introduction 207 ‗Subaltern Cosmopolitanism‘: A Conceptual Review 208 Big Dams on Narmada: Contentious Issues 210 The World Bank and its Involvement in the SSP 214 The Nimar Bachao Andolan (Save Nimar Movement): ‗Politics of Opportunism and Opprobrium‘ 217 The ‗Anarchist Terrains‘ of the tribes of Vindhya and Satpura Highlands 219 Emerging Alliances of Mobilisations against large Dams in Madhya Pradesh 228 A Larger Front: Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save Narmada Movement) 234 Two Decades of Mass Mobilisation by the NBA 238 The Court Case: Struggle against the State in the Legal Arena 248 ‗Transnational Alliance‘ against the World Bank and the Creation of WCD 252 Conclusion 258 6. Summary and Conclusion 262 Summary 262 Revisiting the Thesis in Phases 264 Diagrammatic Representation of the Transition in ‗State-form‘ and ‗Subalternity‘ 270 Similarities and Differences between SMD (Maharashtra) and NBA (Madhya Pradesh) led Mobilisations 272 Similarities between SMD and NBA 272 Differences between SMD and NBA 273 Two ‗types‘ of Subaltern Politics: Similarities and Differences 279 Similarities between „between „Subaltern Localism‟ and Subaltern Cosmopolitanism‟ 280 Differences between „Subaltern Localism‟ and Subaltern Cosmopolitanism‟ 280 Concluding Remarks 282 References 284 List of Tables Table: 3.1. State-wide Distribution of Large Dams in India 158 Table: 6.4. Differences between SMD and NBA 273 Table 6.5. Differences between „Subaltern Cosmopolitanism‟ and „Subaltern Localism‟ 280 10 Chakrabarty, D. (2000). Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Imprint Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Chakravorty Spivak, G. (1988). ‗Can the Subaltern Speak?‘. In Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (Eds.). Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, c1988. Chakravorty Spivak, G. (1988 a.). ‗Introduction‘. In Guha, R. & Chakravorty Spivak, G. (eds.). Selected Subaltern studies. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Chakravorty Spivak, G. (1988 b.). ‗Subaltern Studies: Deconstructing Historiography‘. In Guha, R. & Chakravarty Spivak, G. (eds.). Selected Subaltern Studies. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 3-32. Chakravorty Spivak, G. (2000). ‗The New Subaltern: A Silent Interview‘. In Chaturvedi, V. (ed.) Mapping Subaltern Studies and the Postcolonial, pp-324-340 Chandhoke, N. (2003). The Conceits of Civil Society. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Chatterjee, P. (1993). Nationalist Thought and Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Chatterjee, P. (2001). ‗On Civil and Political Societies in Post-Colonial Democracies‘. In Kaviraj, S & Khilnani, S. (eds.) Civil Society: history and possibilities. Cambridge, U. K.; New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 165-178. Chatterjee, P. (2004). The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World. New York: Columbia University Press. Chatterjee, P. (2010). ‗A Brief History of Subaltern Studies‘. In Chatterjee, P. (ed.) Empire and Nation Selected Essays. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 289-301. Chatterjee, P. (2011). ‗Lineages of Political Society: studies in Postcolonial Democracy‘. New York: Columbia University Press. Chatterjee, P.(2012) . ‗After Subaltern Studies‘. Economic and Political Weekly , 47 (35):44-49 Chibber, V. (2003). Locked in Place: State-building and Late Industrialization in India. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 286 Chopra, D. (2011). ‗Policy Making in India: A Dynamic Process of State-Craft‘. Pacific Affairs, 84 (1): 89-107. Corbridge, S. & Harris, J. (2000). Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy. Cambridge: Polity Press. Corrigan, P. (1975). ‗On the Politics of Production: A Comment on Peasant and Politics by Eric Hobsbawm‘. Journal of Peasant Studies, 2(3): 341-49. Corrigan, P. & Derek S. (1985). The Great Arch: English State Formation as Cultural Revolution. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Dandekar, V.M. (ed.) (1980). Economy of Maharashtra (C.V. Joag Felicitation Volume). Pune: Samaj Parbodhan Sanstha. Das, V. (1989). ‗Subaltern as Perspective‘. In Ranajit Guha (ed.). Subaltern Studies VI. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 310-324. Day, R: J. F. (2005). Gramsci is dead: Anarchist Currents in the Newest Social Movements. London: Pluto Press. Deo, S. R. (1947). A Case for the Formation of a New Province: United Maharashtra. Bombay: Samyukta Maharashtra Publication. Derrida, J. (1992). ‗Force of Law‘, (Mary Quaintance, Trans.). In D. Cornell, M. Rosenfeld, and D. Gray Carlson (ed.), Deconstruction and the Possibility of Justice. New York: Routledge. pp. 3–67. Deshpande, R.S. (2000). Land Reforms and Agrarian Structure in Maharashtra. Pune: Gokhle Institute of Politics and Economics. Deshpande, R.S. & Narayanmoorthy, A. (2001). ‗Issues before Second Irrigation Commission of Maharashtra‘, Economic and Political Weekly, 1034–1043. Dhanagare, D.N. (1993). ‗Subaltern Consciousness and Populism: Two Approaches in the Study of Social Movements in India‘. In D.N. Dhanagare (ed.) Themes and Perspectives in Indian Sociology. Jaipur & Delhi: Rawat Publications, pp. 129-153. Dirks, N. (1988) The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press 287 D' Souza, R. (2003). ‗Damming the Mahanadi River: The emergence of multi-purpose river valley development in India (1943–46)‘. Indian Economic Social History Review, 40 (1): 81– 105. D' Souza, R. (2006). ‗Interstate Dispute over Krishna River: Law, Science and Imperialism. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan. Dube, Saurabh (1998). Untouchable Pasts: Religion, Identity, and Power among a Central Indian Community, 1780-1950, New York: Suny Press Dwivedi, R. (2006). Conflict and Collective Action: The Sardar Sarovar Project in India, Delhi: Routledge Chapman & Hall. Englebert, P. (2000). State Legitimacy and Development in Africa. Boulder: London. Evans, P. Dietrich R. & T. Skocpol. (1985). Bringing the State Back In. New York: Cambridge University Press. Evans, P. (1995). Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformations. Princeton: Princeton University Press Escobar, A. (2001). ‗Culture sits in Places: Reflections on Globalism and Subaltern Strategies of Localization‘. Political Geography, 20: 139–174. Ferguson, J. (1990). The Anti-Politics Machine: "Development," Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. USA: University of Minnesota Press. Foucault, M. (2010). The Government of Self and Others: Lectures at the Collège de France 1982-1983. London: Palgrave MacMillan. Fraser, N. (1997). Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition. London and New York: Routledge. Fuller, C. J. & Benei, V. (2001). The Everyday State and Society in Modern India. London: Hurst and Company. Gadgil, M. & Guha, R. (1995). Ecology and Equity: The Use and Abuse of Nature in Contemporary India. London: Routledge. 288 Gandhi, M.K (1958). Letter No. 273. M.K. Gandhi to V.V. Dastane, 5th April (1924). The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, Delhi 1958), Vol. 23, pp 362-363 Ganguly, S. & Mukherji, R. (2011). India Since 1980‟s. New York and New Delhi: Cambridge University Press. Garcia C., N. (1988). ‗Culture and Power: The State of Research‘. Media, Culture and Society, 10: 467-97. Ghosh, Kaushik (2006). ‗Between Global Flows and Local Dams: Indigenousness, Locality, and the Transnational Sphere in Jharkhand, India‘, Cultural Anthropology, 21(4):501–534 Giddens, A. (1984). The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration. Cambridge: Polity Press. Gidwani, V. K. (2006). ‗Subaltern Cosmopolitanism as Politics‘. Antipode, 38 (1): 7-21. Government of Maharashtra. (1962). Maharashtra State Irrigation Commission Report. Nagpur: Government Press. Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Books. London: Lawrence and Wishart. Guha, R. (1983). Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Guha, R. (1988). ‗On Some Aspects of Historiography in Colonial India‘. In Guha, R. & Chakravarty Spivak, G (eds.). Selected Subaltern Studies. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 37-44. Guha, R. (2005). ‗Prime Ministers and Big Dams‘. The Hindu, Sunday December 18. Guha, S. (1999). Environment and Ethnicity in India. 1200–1991, New York: Cambridge University Press. Gulhati, N.D. (1974). Development of Inter-State Rivers: Law and Practice in India. Delhi: Allied Publishers. 289 Gunder Frank, A. (1970). Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution: Essays on the Development of Underdevelopment and the Immediate Enemy. New York/London: Monthly Review Press. Gupta, A. (1995). ‗Blurred Boundaries and the Discourse of Corruption, The Culture of Politics and the Imagined State‘. American Ethnologist (22): 375-402. Gupta, D. (1985). ‗On Altering the Ego in Peasant History: Paradoxes of the Ethnic Option‘. Journal of Peasant Studies Fall, 13(1):5-24. Gupte, V.R. (1921). (Resolution): Report of Bombay Legislative Council‘s Debate, 2nd Session, Vol II, P. 1450-1503. Haas, P. (1992). ‗Introduction: Epistemic Communities coordination‘. International Organization, 46(1):1–35 and International Policy Habermas, J. (1989). The Structural Transformation of Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeoisie Society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Habermas, J. (1998). Between Facts and Norms. Massachusetts: MIT Press. Hall, S. (1981) ‗Notes on Deconstructing ‗The Popular‘. In Samuel, R. (ed.). People‟s History and Socialist Theory. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Hannerz, U. (1990). ‗Cosmopolitans and Locals in World Culture‘. Theory, Culture and Society, (1990): 237-52. Hansen, T. B. & Stepputat, F. (2001). States of Imagination: Ethnographic Explorations of the Postcolonial State. Duke: Duke University Press. Hansen, T. B. (2005). Violence in Urban India: Identity Politics, 'Mumbai', and the Postcolonial City. Permanent Black. Harriss-White, B. (2003). India Working, UK: Cambridge University Press Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neo-liberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hardtmann, E. (2009). The Dalit Movement in India: Local Practices, Global Connections. Oxford University Press. 290 Hensman, R. (2010). Workers, Unions, and Global Capitalism: Lessons from India. New York: Columbia University Press. Hildyard, N. & Edward G. (1984). ―Koyna Dam‖. The Social and Environmental Effects of Large Dams: Volume 1. Camelford, Cornwall PL32 9TT, UK: Wadebridge Ecological Centre. Hobsbawm, E. & Ranger, T. (eds.). (1983). The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge University Press. Hung, Ho-Fung. (2011). Protest with Chinese Characteristics: Demonstrations, Riots and Petition in Mid-Qing Dynasty. New York: Columbia University Press. Jaffrelot, C. & S. Kumar (eds.). (2009). Rise of the Plebeians: The Changing Face of Indian Legislative Assemblies. India: Routledge. Jayakar, M.R. (1958). The Story of my Life, Vol I, (Diary entry 21 October 1921), Bombay: Varun Prakashani Jessop, B. (2008). State Power: A Strategic Relational Approach. Cambridge, Malden. Joseph G. M. & Nugent, D. (1994). Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico. Durham & London: Duke University Press. Joy, K.J. & Rao, N. (1988). ‗The great sand robbery and impending ecological disaster‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 23(33): 1669–1671. Kaviraj, S. (1988). ‗A Critique of the Passive Revolution‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 23 (45/47): 2429–2444. Keck, M. & Sikkink, K. (1998). Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press. Kela, Shashank (2012) A Rogue and Peasant Slave, Adivasi Resistance, 1800 - 2000. New Delhi: Navayana Khagram, S. (2004). Dams and Development: Transnational Struggle for Water and Power. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. Klingensmith, D. (2007). One Valley and a Thousand: Dam, Nationalism, Development. USA: Oxford University Press. 291 Kohli, A. (1988). ‗Interpreting India‘s Democracy a State-Society Framework‘. In A. Kohli (ed.), India‟s Democracy an Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, pp 3–17. Kohli, A. (1997). ‗Crisis of Governability‘. In S. Kaviraj (ed.), Politics in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp 383–395. Kohli, A. (ed.) (2001). The Success of India‟s Democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press. Kuchimanchi, R., Pillalamarri, A., Visaa, K., Damani, O., Sridhar, N. & Bhagat, M. (2005). 245 Villages: a Narmada Tutorial. AID INDIA: Chennai (India). Kumar, R. (1971). ‗The Bombay Textile Strike- 1919‘. Indian Economic and Social History Review, 8: 1-29 Laclau, E. & Chantal, M. (1985). Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics. London: Verso Books. Laclau, E. (1990). New Reflections in the Revolutions of our Time. London: Verso. Lalvani, M. (2008). ‗Sugar co-operatives in Maharashtra: A political economy perspective‘. Journal of Development Studies, 44 (10):1474–1505. Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of Space. (D Nicholson-Smith, Trans.). Blackwell, Oxford. Levi-Strauss, C. (1966). The Savage Mind. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Levien, M. (2011). ‗Special Economic Zones and Accumulation by Dispossession in India‘. Journal of Agrarian Change, 11 (4): 454–483. Rodrigues, L. (1984) Rural Political Protest in Western India, PhD Thesis Submitted in London School of Economics and Political Sciences Rodrigues, L. (1998) ‗Mulshi Satyagraha‘ in Rural Political Protest in Western India. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press Lombardi Satriani, L.M. (1975). Anthropologia Cultural: Analisis de la Cultura Subalterna. Buenos Aires: Galiana. 292 McCully, P. (2001). ‗The Use of a Trilateral Network: An Activist's Perspective on the Formation of the World Commission on Dams‘. American University International Law Review, 16 (6), 1453–1475. Mallon, F. E. (1983). The Defense of Community in Peru‟s Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capitalist Transition. 1860-1940. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Mallon, F. E. (1994). ‗The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History‘. American Historical Review, 99 (5): 1491-1515. Mann, M. (1986). ‗The Autonomous Power of the State: Its Origins, Mechanisms, and Results‘. In John A Hall (ed.). States in History. Oxford: Blackwell. Marchetti, R. (2008). Ethical Theory, Institutional design and Social Struggles. New York: Routledge. Masselos, J. 2002. ‗Dis/appearance of the Subalterns: Reading of a Decade of Subaltern Studies‘. In David Ludden (ed.). Reading Subaltern Studies. London: Anthem Press, pp. 187-211. McCormick, S. (2007). ‗The Governance of Hydro-electric Dams in Brazil‘, Journal of Latin American Studies 39(2): 227-261. Migdal, J. (2001). State in Society: Studying how States and Societies Transform and Constitute One Another. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mishra, A. (1981). Mitti Bachao Andolan. New Delhi: Shanti Prints. Mishra, A. (1987). Narmada, Vols. I, II and III. Delhi: Gandhi Peace Foundation. Mishra, A. (1988) ‗Tawa Se Sabak‟. In A. Agarwal & S. Narayan (Eds.), Hamara Paryavaran. Translated by A. Mishra. New Delhi: Gandhi Shanti Pratisthan. Mishra, A. (1989). Mitti Bachao Abiyan. In A. Mishra & T.N. Atreya (Eds.), Desh Ka Paryavaran. New Delhi: Gandhi Shanti Pratisthan. Mitchell, T. (1991). ‗The Limits of State: Beyond Statist Approach and their Critics‘. American Political Science Review, 85 (1): 77-96. Mukherji, R. (2010). ‗The Political Economy of Reforms‘. In N. G. Jayal & P. B. Mehta (Eds.), The Oxford Companion of Politics in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 483–498. 293 Mungekar, B. (ed.) (2003). The Economy of Maharashtra: Changing Structures and Emerging Issues. Mumbai: Ambedkar Institute. Nair, M. (2009). ‗Mixed repertoire of an Indian Labour Movement‘, Journal of Historical Sociology, 22 (2):180–206. Nair, N. (2011). Changing Homelands: Hindu Politics and the Partition of India. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Nandy, A. (2007). The Romance of the State and the Fate of Dissent in Tropics. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Negt, O. & Kluge, A. (1993). Public Sphere and Experience. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Nilsen, A. G. (2010). Dispossession and Resistance in India: The River and the Rage. London: Routledge. Nilsen, A.G. (2012) Adivasis In and Against the State: Subaltern Politics and State Power in Contemporary India, 44(2): 251-282 Nguyen, T. D. (1996). ‗The State versus Indigenous People: The Impact of Hydraulic Projects on Indigenous Peoples of Asia‘, Journal of World History, (1): 101-130. O‘Hanlon, R. (2000). ‗Recovering the Subject: Subaltern Studies and Histories of Resistance in Colonial South Asia‘, In Chaturvedi, V. (ed.). Mapping Subaltern Studies and the Postcolonial. pp-72-115. Oliver, M. & Vicziany, M. (1998). The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India. UK: Cambridge University Press. Omvedt G. (1976) Cultural Revolt in a Colonial Society: The Non-Brahman Movement in Western India, 1873-1930. Scientific Socialist Education Trust, 1976 Omvedt, G. (1987). ‗Of Sand and King Bali‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 22(9), pp.365– 366. Omvedt, G. (1991) ‗Shetkari Sangathanas new directions‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 26 (40):2287–2291. 294 Omvedt, G. (1993). Reinventing Revolutions: New Social Movements and the Socialist Tradition in India. Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe. Omvedt, G. (2000). ‗Drought Proofing‘, The Hindu (Online Edition).Saturday, June 17, ELink: http://www.the-hindu.com/2000/06/17/stories/05172524.htm. [Accessed on 15.09.07]. Omvedt, G. (2001). ‗New Victories for Dam Evictees‘, The Hindu (Online Edition). Thursday, January 11, 2001.E-Link: http://www.hindu.com/2001/01/11/stories/05112523.htm [Accessed on 12.09.07]. Omvedt, G. & Patankar, B. (2005).‗Movement for water: Takari Peasants' Struggle in Maharashtra‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 26(15): 955–956. Ooi Lin, C. Y. (2006). ‗Autonomy Re-constituted: Social and Gendered Implications of Dam Resettlement on the Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysia‘, Gender Technology and Development, 10(1): 77-99. Padel, F & Das, S. (2010). Out of this Earth: East India Adivasis and the Aluminum Cartel. India: Orient Blackswan. Padmanabhan, C. (2012). ‗Recovering Budhni Mejhan from the Silted Landscape of Modern India‘. June 2. The Hindu. http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/article3481766.ece (accessed on 11.02.2013). Pai, S. (2010). Developmental State and the Dalit Question: In Madhya Pradesh- Congress Response. UK and New Delhi: Routledge. Painter, J. (2006). ‗Prosaic Geography of Stateness‘. Political Geography, (25): 752-774. Patankar, B. (1981). ‗Textile workers and Datta Samant‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 16 (49): 1981–1982 Patankar, B. (1988). ‗The Bombay Textile Workers‘ Strike 1982: The Lessons of History‘: Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 20 (2): 54–56 Patanker, B. (2000). ‗Policy for Equitable Water Use‘. Shramik Mukthi Dal Pamphlet: Kasegaon, Maharashtra. Patanker, B. & Phadke, A. (2006). ‗Asserting the Rights of the Toiling Peasantry for Water Use: The Movement of the Dam Oustees and the Drought Affected Toilers in South Maharashtra‘. In 295 P. P. Mollinga, A. Dixit, K. Athukorala (eds.), Integrated Water Management in South Asia. Delhi: Sage, pp. 352–388 Patel, S. (2006). ‗Empowerment, Co-option and Domination, Politics of Maharashtra‘s Employment Guarantee Scheme‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(50):5126–5132. Peets, R. & Watts, M. (1996). Liberation Ecologies. USA: Routledge. Phadke, A. (2000). ‗Dam-oustees' Movement in South Maharashtra: Innovative Struggle‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 35 (47), pp. 4084–4086 Phadke, A. (2002). ‗Dams and Development‘, Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (11), p–1016 Phadke, A. (2003). ‗Obituary: Ashok Manohar‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 38 (34):3542– 3543. Phadke, A. (2004). ‗Thiyya Andolan in Krishna Valley‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 39 (8), pp. 776–777 Phadke, R. (2002). ‗Assessing water scarcity and watershed development in Maharashtra, India‘. Science Technology and Human Values, 27(2): 236–261. Phadke, R. (2005). ‗People‘s Science in Action: The Politics of Protest and Knowledge Brokering in India‘. Society and Natural Resources, 18, pp.363–375 Phadke, Y.D. (1994). Senapati Bapat: Portrait of a Revolutionary. Prakash, Gyan (2010). Mumbai Fables, Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press. Randeria, S. (2003). ‗Globalization of law: environmental justice, World Bank, NGOs and the Cunning State in India‘. Current Sociology, 51 (3/4): 305–328. Rebel, H. (1988). ―Why Not old Maries… or someone very much like her? A Reassessment of the Question about Grimm‘s Contributors from a Social Historical Perspective‘. Social History, 13 (1): 1-24. Rodrigues, L. (1998) Rural University Press Political Protest in Western India. Delhi; New York: Oxford Roseberry, W. (1989). Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History and Political Economy. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. 296 Rubin, J. W. (2002). ‗The State as Subject‘. Political Power and Social Theory, 15, 107-131. Rudolph, L. I. & Rudolph, S. H. (1987). In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State. University of Chicago Press. Sainath, P. (1996). Everybody Loves a Good Drought: Stories from India's Poorest Districts. New Delhi: Penguin Books. Sangameswaran, P. (2009). ‗Water Rights for the Landless in Western India: From Pani Panchayat to Water Entitlements‘. European Journal of Development Research 21(2), pp. 195– 212 Sangvai, S. (2000). The River and Life: People‟s Struggle in Narmada Valley. Mumbai: Earthcare Books. Santos, B. d.S. (2002). Towards a New Legal Common Sense. (2nd ed.). London: Lexis Nexis Butterworths. Sarkar, S. (2000). ‗The Decline of Subaltern in Subaltern Studies‘. In Chaturvedi, V. (ed.) Mapping Subaltern Studies and the Postcolonial. Pp-300-323. Sayer, D. (1987). The Violence of Abstractions. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell. Scott, J. C. (1977). The Moral Economy of Peasants: Rebellion and Subsistence in South-East Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press. Scott, J. (1998). Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven: Yale University Press. Scott, J. C. (2009). The Art of not being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press. Schwarz, H. (2002). ‗Subaltern Studies: Radical History in the Metaphoric Mode‘. In David Ludden (ed.). Reading Subaltern Studies. London: Anthem, pp-304-342. Seal, A. (1973). ‗Imperialism and Nationalism in India‘. In John Gallagher, Gordon Johnson and Anil Seal (Eds.). Locality, Province and Nation, Essays on Indian Politics, 1870-1940. Delhi: Cambridge University Press 297 Sewell, W. H. Jr. (1996). ‗Three Temporalities: Towards an Eventful Sociology‘, In Terrence J. McDonald (ed.). The Historic Turn in Human Sciences. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, Pp-245-280. Sharma, R.S. (2009). ‗Early History of Oriental Despotism: A Critique‘. Rethinking India‟s Past. Oxford University Press. Singh, S. et. al. (2002). ‗Subaltern Studies II: A Review Article‘, In David Ludden (ed.). Reading Subaltern Studies. London: Anthem Press, pp. 58-107. Singh, S. (2002). Taming the Waters: Political Economy of Large Dams in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Sitaramayya, Dr. B. P. (1946). The History of the Indian National Congress Vol. I, Bombay: Padma Publications Sivaramakrishnan, K. (2002). ‗Situating the subaltern: History and Anthropology in Subaltern Studies Project‘, In David Ludden (ed.). Reading Subaltern Studies. London: Anthem Press, 212255. Sivaramakrishnan, K. (2011). ‗Environment, Law and Democracy in India‘. The Journal of Asian Studies, 70 (4): 905-928. Skocpol, T. (1979). States and Social Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Special Correspondent (1981). ‗The Textile Workers in the Village‘. Economic and Political Weekly, 16 (49):1525–1526 Sundar, N. (1997). Subalterns and Sovereigns: An Anthropological History of Bastar, 18541996. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Tarrow, S. (2005). The New Transnational Activism. Cambridge: University Press. Taylor, C. (2004) Modern Social Imaginaries. Durham & London: Duke University Press. Tilly, C. (1978). From Mobilization to Revolution. Engelwood-Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall Tilly, C. (2000). Coercion, Capital and European States, AD 990-1992. Blackwell: Cambridge MA and Oxford UK. 298 Tsing, A. L. (2005). Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Udall, Lori (1995) the International Narmada Campaign: A Case Study of Sustained Advocacy, Toward Sustainable Development? Struggling Over India's Narmada River, ed. by William F. Fisher, New York: M.E. Sharpe, pp.201-230. Vaswani, K. (1993). The Law of Rehabilitation of Project Affected Persons in Maharashtra. New Delhi: MARG. Vora, R. (2009). The World‟s First anti-dam movement: The Mulshi Satyagraha, 1920-1924. New Delhi: Permanent Black. Wade, Robert (2011) ‗Muddy waters: inside the World Bank as it struggled with the Narmada projects‘. Economic and political weekly, 46 (40). 44-45 Wallach, B. (1985) ‗British irrigation works in India's Krishna Basin‘, Journal of Historical Geography, 11(2): 155-173. Warner, M. (2005). Publics and Counterpublics. New York: Zone Books. Weber, M. (1968). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. New York: Bedminster Press. Weist, K. M. (1995). ‗Development Refugees: Africans, Indian and the Big Dams‘, Journal of Refugee Studies (2): 163-182. Whitehead , Judith (2007) ‗Hegemony and the Decline of the Narmada Bachao Andolan in Gujarat, 1998-2001‘, Critical Asian Studies, 39(3) Williams, R. (1977). Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Williams, R. (1980). Problems in Materialism and Culture. London: Verso. Archival Sources M.S.A. Home Polt. (Sp.). File No. 555 of 1921. W.F. Hudson Dist. Magistrate to the Secretary State Department, 15 January 1921 299 M.S.A. Home Polt. (Sp.). File No. 555 of 1921. W.F. Hudson‘s reply to the commissioner central division, L.A.Q R 98/74/17 M.S.A. Home Polt. (Sp.) File 555 A of 1922, p.55/22.5.22 Press Note from the director of Information M.S.A. Home Polt (Sp.) File No. 555 of 1921, Letter to the Collector of Poona, Dated 19th April 1921 from S.N. Kolhatker and M.B. Kulkarni M.S.A. Home Polt. (Sp.) File No. 555 of 1921. Letter No. 4828 of 9th June 1921. From District Superintendent of Police to the District Magistrate of Poona. N.A.I. Home Polt. File No. 18 of 1921, Report for the fortnight ending November 1921. DemiOfficial No. S.D. 3126 dated November 1921 Website Sources [All Accessed on 04.08.2013] http://www.mumbainet.com/template1.php?CID=15&SCID=6 http://hyd-news.blogspot.in/search?q=corruption&updated-max=2013-0216T15:55:00%2B05:30&max-results=20&start=11&by-date=false http://seekingbegumpura.wordpress.com/ http://www.punediary.com/html/dist.html http://www.savarkar.org/en/gallery?g2_path=Savarkars+associates/savarkar015.jpg.html http://www.mid-day.com/news/2012/aug/060812-Pune-Give-artists-due-credit-says-veteransculptor-Khedkar.htm http://sadharanapurushakarunakar.blogspot.sg/2012/06/pandit-jawaharlal-nehru-visitshirakud.html http://www.corbisimages.com/stock-photo/rights-managed/BE025585/nehru-at-dedication-ofbhakra-dam http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/article3481766.ece 300 http://www.timesofindiatravel.com/madhya-pradesh-map.html http://www.indiamapssite.com/madhya-pradesh/district/hoshangabad.html http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/maharashtra/maharashtra.htm http://www.mid-day.com/news/2012/jul/120712-61-flood-affected-living-in-MHADA-colonyhave-a-big-reason-to-smile.htm http://silverawards.harmonyindia.org/silverawerds2008/winner.html http://www.madhura.ru/achintya/india/mayapur_bali_raja.jpg http://www.iloveindia.com/indian-heroes/jyotirao-govindrao-phule.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NBA_logo.jpg http://www.narmada.org/maps/nvdp.jpg http://www.rightlivelihood.org/narmada.html http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/silverjubilee/article1007405.ece http://www.frontline.in/ http://dharmanext.blogspot.sg/2012/05/medha-patkars-perjury-in-supreme-court.html http://www.verveonline.com/74/people/powerlist03.shtml http://www.verveonline.com/74/people/powerlist03.shtml http://www.kamat.com/database/pictures/16345.htm http://ashleyjdawson.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/hutwtr2.jpg http://himalmag.com/component/content/article/5143-legacies-of-a-colonial-state.html http://www.justseeds.org/celebrate_peoples_history/02narmada.html 301 [...]... located in central India Its capital city is in Bhopal The state was reorganized and created in 1956 by combining the erstwhile princely states of Madhya Bharat, Vindhya Pradesh and Bhopal It is one of the least developed states in India with a HDI of 0.375 and a nominal GDP that is fourth lowest in the country The official language spoken here is Hindi The state is rich in mineral resources and more than... social history of movements against hydropower projects in two states of India, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, from 1921 to 2004 in three phases The specific aim of this project is to demonstrate the shifting notion of subaltern political subjectivity and state- formation in postcolonial India Here I argue that the subalterns played significant causal and constitutive roles in transforming the structure... to explain my cases I criticize the subaltern studies school for claiming an exclusive and culturally ‗autonomous‘ domain of the subalterns, thus neglecting their interaction with the state political economy and their resultant role in state- formation I argue that in the last eighty years of late colonial and postcolonial state formation in India, the subalterns have played significant causal and constitutive... and state interaction at many levels 25 There have been many struggles waged around the issues of hydropower projects in India Particularly, the states of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh have a long tradition of waging these movements In Maharashtra, which encompasses the largest number of hydropower projects in India, these movements started early in 1921, during the colonial period After Independence,... largest number of hydropower projects in India Interestingly, though the state of Madhya Pradesh shares its border with Maharashtra, the movement against large dams emerged here much later in the 1980‘s It was led by the Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save Narmada movement), which mobilized the peasants and tribes in Madhya Pradesh, mainly against the construction of the Sardar Sarovar hydropower project... on statesociety relations, subaltern and postcolonial studies, political economy and development studies 24 Chapter 1: Introduction Introduction In 1980‘s, a number of movements around the issues of hydropower projects emerged throughout the developing world in Africa (Weist 1995), Brazil (McCormick 2007), Thailand (Oo Lin 2006) , India (Dwivedi 2006) and many other countries These movements were mainly... ‗counterpublicity‘ in the civil society of Maharashtra and that was the first phase of transition of their political subjectivity The next phase of transition occurred under the late postcolonial state in India in 1980‘s where two types of ‗subalternity‘ emerged in the context of movements against hydropower projects in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh A more centripetal and state- centric political discourses and practices,... Organization) initially and later under the banner Shramik Mukthi Dal (SMD; Labour Liberation Party) to lodge an intense struggle against the massive displacement that these projects entailed Their pressing demands resulted into the formation of Maharashtra Resettlement and Rehabilitation Act in the year 1976, the first of its kind in India These movements also achieved great success in foregrounding the issues... 6.1: Overall Transformations of state form and subalternity 270 Figure 6.2: Transformations of state form and subalternity in Maharashtra 271 Figure 6.3: Transformations of state form and subalternity in Madhya Pradesh 272 14 List of Abbreviations CASAD Centre for Applied System Analysis in Development CMO Chief Minister‘s Office CPI Communist Party of India CPI-M Communist Party of India, Marxist CPI-ML... constitutive roles, and in that process their ‗subaltern political subjectivity‘ (or subalternity) transformed in two phases Therefore this thesis is a ‗double genealogy‘ of the transformation of the state and ‗subalternity‘ in causal and constitutive relations with each other In the context of Mulshi Satyagraha, that is, the first movement against hydropower projects in 1920 s the subaltern gained ‗counterpublicity‘ . 1 SUBALTERNITY, STATE- FORMATION AND MOVEMENTS AGAINST HYDROPOWER PROJECTS IN INDIA, 1920- 2004 Arnab Roy Chowdhury . coordinator of Khedut Mazdoor Chetna Sangath in 4 Madhya Pradesh) for candidly sharing information and documents about movements against hydropower projects with me. I also thank – Baba Adhav. heterodoxy under the ‘Developmental State : Mobilisations against Hydropower Projects in Postcolonial India, 1947–1980 104 Introduction 104 The Developmental State and ‗Subalternity‘ 105 The