Applying task - based instruction in teaching English grammar to the 10th graders at Nguyen Sy Sach high school

This thesis is concerned about the frequency and purposes ofusing TBI in teaching grammar to the 10th students at Nguyen Sy Sach high school as well as the problems arising from this and

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY

NGUYỄN THỊ LÊ HẰNG

APPLYING TASK-BASED INSTRUCTION IN

GRADERS AT NGUYEN SY SACH HIGH SCHOOL

MASTER THESIS IN EDUCATION

NGHỆ AN - 2014

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY

NGUYỄN THỊ LÊ HẰNG

APPLYING TASK-BASED INSTRUCTION IN

GRADERS AT NGUYEN SY SACH HIGH SCHOOL

Major: Teaching English to Speakerss of Other Languages (TESOL)

Nghệ An - 2014

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I hereby acknowledge that this study is mine The data and findings discussed in the thesis are true, used with permission, and have not been published elsewhere.

Author

Nguyen Thi Le Hang

I am deeply grateful for many people who have helped me much to completethis M.A thesis

First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor,

Assoc Prof Dr Ngo Dinh Phuong, who has given me great deal of support and

encouragement to do this research Without his experienced and enthusiasticguidance, his valuable suggestions and comments, my thesis would not have beencompleted

All the MA lecturers who have been teaching K20 MA course in VinhUniversity, Nghe An, and the post-graduate staff for their legitimate contributions tothe success of the course

Very special thanks are due to my colleagues, friends and students who tookpart in the experiment in contributing to the data collection presented in this study

Last but not least I am also deeply indebted for my family Especially mymother, who helped me to look after my little son, and has been encouraging meduring a time of three years learning this M.A course Thanks to my husband, whohas given me so much love, encouragement, and great supports during mystudying time

This study was conducted to seek the answers to the questions of whatstudents' attitudes towards teaching grammar through task-based instruction (TBI)and is students' grammaticality better as measured by their test scores than it istaught in the traditional focus-on-forms methods Moreover, the English languageteaching in general and teaching grammar in particular according to the TBI leavemuch room to be desired Especially, the use of TBI techniques in teachinggrammar is still far from being satisfactory In addition, this study also attempts tosearch for some motivating techniques to highly engage students at Nguyen Sy Sach(NSS) high school This thesis is concerned about the frequency and purposes ofusing TBI in teaching grammar to the 10th students at Nguyen Sy Sach high school

as well as the problems arising from this and makes some suggestions as a view tohelp teachers reduce difficulties and make their lessons more effective Thesuggestions come from the real need of both learners and teachers identified fromthe survey, which was carried out with 10 teachers at NSS high school Thequestionnaire collected information to see if the teachers had the knowledge of TBI,which tasks and how often they applied in teaching grammar in the class, and forwhat purposes Besides, the survey also concerned about possible difficulties theteachers had to face with during the teaching process In order to justify the resultsobtained from the questionnaire, three class observations of three teachers wereconducted Furthermore, to know whether or not teach grammar to high schoolstudents through task-based instruction is more effective or not, this study was alsocarried out with the participation of 60 tenth graders who were non-randomlychosen from one Natural Science class and one Social Science class at NSS uppersecondary school In the totality of 60 students, 30 students who were from the 10Natural Science Stream class took part in the experimental group and were taught

by a new method, i.e teaching grammar through communicative tasks In contrast,

30 students who were from the 10 Social Science Stream class took part in the

control group and were taught by a very traditional method The pretest and posttestwere designed and conducted on these students in order to test their grammaticalitybefore and after experiment which took place for 3 months Both pretest andposttest scores were used to measure the impact of the treatment The present studyshows that this approach can be applicable to the high school context, but its impactmay not be greater than the traditional approach It can be concluded that teachinggrammar through communicative tasks may not be more effective to thedevelopment of students' grammatical competence than the traditional approach toteaching grammar The students' positive attitudes towards this approach to teachinggrammar encourage teachers try to apply this approach in their classrooms.However, it's up to the teacher to decide whether they would prefer to adapt thegrammar in the textbook in order to teach it through communicative tasks or not.Factors to be considered in applying the task-based approach to teaching grammarinclude students' proficiency in English and the nature of the target grammaticalitem to be taught according to the syllabus It is hoped that this study will be of use

in enhancing teaching grammar to the 10th students Nguyen Sy Sach high school

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rational 1

1.2 Aims of the Study 3

1.3 Scope of the Study 3

1.4 Research Questions 3

1.5 The Organization of the Study 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 5

2.1 Previous Studies Related to the Thesis 5

2.2 The Importance of Grammar in Language Teaching and Learning 7

2.2.1 Definitions of grammar 7

2.2.2 Role of grammar in English language teaching and learning 9

2.2.3 The importance of teaching grammar 9

2.2.4 Approaches to grammar instruction 11

2.2.4.1 Deductive and Inductive approaches 11

2.2.4.2 Different approaches to grammar teaching 13

2.3 A Brief Review of Task-based Language Learning 14

2.4 Tasks 15

2.4.1 Defining tasks 15

2.4.2 Characteristics of Tasks 16

2.4.3 Classifying task 16

2.5 Task-based language teaching 18

2.5.1 What is TBLT? 18

2.5.2 Definition of task 20

2.5.3 Principles of the TBLT approach 22

2.5.4 The basic characteristics of TBLT 22

2.5.5 A framework for task-based learning 23

2.5.6 Studies on TBLT 25

2.6 Task-based grammar teaching 27

2.6.1 Why task-based grammar teaching 27

2.6.2 Steps in Task-based grammar teaching 29

2.6.2.1 Pre-task 29

2.6.2.2 Task 29

2.6.2.3 Post-task 29

2.6.3 Characteristics of the Task-based Grammar Class 30

2.6.4 Studies on Task-based grammar teaching 31

2.7 Summary 32

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 33

3.1 Overview of the current situation of teaching and learning English at Nguyen Sy Sach High School (NSSHS) 33

3.1.1 The school context 33

3.1.2 The new textbook English 10 (the standard textbook) and its Language Focus section 34

3.1.3 Design of the study 35

3.2 Methodology 35

3.2.1 Participants 35

3.2.1.1 Teachers 35

3.2.1.2 Learners 36

3.2.2 Data collection instruments 37

3.2.2.1 Survey questionnaire 37

3.2.2.2 Classroom observation 38

3.2.2.3 Interview 38

3.2.2.4 Data collection procedure 39

3.2.2.5 Data analysis procedure 39

3.3 Conclusion 40

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 41

4.1 Findings 41

4.1.1 Results from the three first research questions 41

4.1.2 Results from classroom observations 45

4.2 Findings of the study 47

4.2.1 Difficulties from the teachers 47

4.2.1.1 Teachers’ misconceptions about TBI 47

4.2.1.2 Deficiency in speaking English 48

4.2.2 Difficulties from the learners 48

4.2.3 Difficulties from the education systems 49

4.2.3.1 Class size 49

4.2.3.2 Poor teaching condition 50

4.2.3.3 The testing system 51

4.3 Procedures of Task as well as findings and discussion aimed at the two last questions 51

4.3.1 The tasks 52

4.3.1.1 Pre-task (Warm up) Introduction to topic and tasks 52

4.3.1.2 Task 53

4.3.1.3 Post task 54

4.3.2 Findings 54

4.3.2.1 Comparison of the pretest and posttest scores, the gain values between the two groups 55

4.3.2.2 Subjects' attitudes towards the new teaching method - teaching grammar through tasks 58

4.3.3 Discussion 61

4.3.3.1 The impact of TBLT on grammar acquisition 61

4.3.3.2 Students' attitudes towards teaching grammar through tasks 62

4.4 Summary 63

CHAPTER 5 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 64

5.1 Some recommendations 64

5.2 Limitations of the study 64

5.3 Conclusion 65

REFERENCES 67 APPENDIX

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

10 NSC 10 Natural Science class

10 SSC 10 Social Science class

EFL English as Foreign Language

ELT English language Teaching

ESL English as Second Language

FLTL Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

M Mean

No Number

NSS High School Nguyen Sy Sach High School

NSSUSS Nguyen Sy Sach Upper Secondary School

SD Standard Deviation

SPSS Statistic Package for Social Science

TBI Task-based Instruction

TBLT Task-based Language Teaching

TBT Task-based Teaching

TGTCT Teaching Grammar through Communicative Tasks

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Pages

Tables:

Table 2.1 The framework for task-based learning 23

Table 4.1 Types of tasks used in classrooms 41

Table 4.2 The frequency of TBI used in the classroom 42

Table 4.3 The purposes of TB approaches used in classroom 43

Table 4.4 The teachers’ difficulties when applying TB approaches in teaching grammar 44

Table 4.5 Descriptive statistics for the pretest and post-test of the experimental and control groups (Max score = 40) 56

Table 4.6 Subjects' attitudes toward teaching grammar through communicative tasks (N = 30) 58

Figures: Figure 2.1 A framework for analyzing communicative tasks 21

Figure 4.1 The difference in gain values obtained by both groups after the experiment 57

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale

In the process of globalization, English has played an increasingly important

role in various fields, such as: science, business, education, cross-culturalcommunication and especially, method to communicate verbally with the outsideworld and to access technology Being aware of the new era of high technology andcommunication, the economy open-door policy was pursued by the government ofVietnam It has made a demand for studying English increase faster and faster.Therefore, the Ministry of Education and Training in Vietnam offered English as acore subject in the curriculum of almost all of schools, colleges, universities andtook English do examinational subject in the high school graduation exam, and theinput of departments in all areas at universities

In addition to the growing demand for learning English, there has been aninnovation in English teaching and learning methods everywhere in Vietnam For along time, language teaching in Vietnam was strongly influenced by thestructuralism tradition Emphasis was placed on mastery of language structures.Students have been taught how to form correct utterances and to understand thestructures of the language without any consideration of language use However,regarding the psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic research, language teaching hasmoved from the traditional to a more communicative approach In this currentapproach, language is considered as a form of social behavior The objective oflanguage teaching is teaching learners to communicate fluently, appropriately andspontaneously in the cultural context of the target language as well as, to helpstudents get a good communication when they have opportunities to use English in

a cross-cultural environment

Accompanied by the research about the National Curriculums of schooleducation system in Vietnam, it was recognized students at high school have to

grammar points were studied almost in Primary and Lower Secondary In UpperSecondary, they are requested to learn English grammar only to review, so this iseasy to make students bored and English periods become monotonous

Recognizing the educational trend and the special need for language learning

of students, teachers and administrators at Nguyen Sy Sach high school also holdextra-curricular of English, English clubs, the group discussion, and evaluation ofannual teaching experiences to find the teaching methods increasingly improvedand more efficient However, language teaching in students has many difficulties.Many students neglected and do not like this subject During the process of teachingand studying this subject, both teachers and students at Nguyen Sy Sach high school

do not feel satisfied with teaching English grammar implied in the course books ofNguyen Sy Sach high school's the 10th graders

Additionally, many students are too shy to speak in class whereas most of thegrammar lessons are carried out in traditional methods In each lesson, the teacherpresents new grammar verbally, and then students do, turn by turn, exercises inworkbooks Moreover, in teaching practice, there exist some limitations inconducting Presentation - Practice - Production (P-P-P) grammar lessons Touchingthis pedagogical context, this study emphasizes on the investigation into theapplication of task-based approach to teaching English grammar at Nguyen Sy Sachhigh school The task-based approach might come as an effective teaching methodfor the language teachers at Nguyen Sy Sach high school A research into the TBIwill help them to interpret and have a thorough understanding of the task-basedapproach, its theories and characteristics, hence providing an effective application

to teaching grammar at Nguyen Sy Sach high school pedagogical context From

these opinions, we love to choose the following topic: "Applying Task-based

instruction in teaching English Grammar to the 10 th graders in classes at Nguyen Sy Sach high school " With the attempt to find some possible solutions

for the problems, the researcher hopes the research can partly help teachers andstudents to be more aware of increasing real communication in the class As using

the new teaching approach, task-based approach, teachers may improve students’communicative competence through using tasks in the grammar classroom.

1.2 Aims of the Study

With the above-presented rationales, the specific aims and objectives of thestudy are the followings:

Firstly, the study carries out an investigation into the reality of the teachers’

application of TBI in teaching grammar thanks to experimenting teaching grammar

through communicative tasks for grade 10 students and testing its result

Secondly, through the investigation the research will find out the difficultiesthe teachers encounter with their application of TBI in teaching grammar

Thirdly, the study will be to aim at experimenting teaching grammar throughTBI for grade 10 students and test its result and investigating the experimentalstudents' attitudes towards teaching grammar through communicative task at NSS

high school

Lastly, the study will provide practical recommendations for the possibility

of TBI in order to narrow the gap between teaching styles and learning styles,thereby increasing the students’ motivation in grammar learning as well asheightening the effectiveness of English language teaching

1.3 Scope of the Study

This research focuses on investigating how NSS language teachers exploitTBL in teaching English grammar in their classes Due to the limitation of time, theauthor only fulfilled the study among ten teachers and sixty the 10th graders at NSShigh school

1.4 Research Questions

In order to serve therefore said aims, the research attempts to answer thefollowing questions:

1 What is the application of TBI in teaching English grammar the 10th

graders at NSS high school?

2 How are TBI employed in terms of frequency and purposes?

3 What are the difficulties in applying TBI to teaching English grammar atNSS high school?

4 What are the students' attitudes towards teaching grammar through TBIafter experimental period?

5 What are the suggestions recommended by teachers to applying TBI inteaching grammar to the 10th graders at NSS high school?

1.5 The Organization of the Study

The study will consist of five chapters as follows:

Chapter 1 - Introduction

This part will introduce the problem leading to the study such as rationale,the aims of the study, the scope of the study, the research questions andorganization of the study

Chapter 2 - Literature Review and Theoretical Background

Theoretical background related to the topic and surveys of articles, booksand other resources relevant to a particular the study topic will be presented Thispart will also provide description, summary, and critical evaluation of each workquoted and present the previous studies related to the thesis and some concepts astheoretical basis for the study

Chapter 3 - Research Design and Methodology

This part describes the research design, instruments for data collection, datacollection, data analysis, reliability and validity, and research procedures, whichgives details of the research method and describes how the hypothesis of the thesis

is interpreted and explained

Chapter 4 - Findings and Discussions

The part presents the results and discussions developed after the linguisticsfigures are analyzed

Chapter 5 - Conclusion and Implications

Main issues and contents of the study will be summarized based on the results

of the study The implication of the study and the recommendation for further

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The theoretical background of the study will be fully developed later in thethesis The following is an overview of grammar, grammar teaching, tasks, the task-based view of language teaching and learning, characteristics of the task-basedgrammar class to teach English grammar

2.1 Previous Studies Related to the Thesis

During the past decade, it can have been addressed the necessity of beingable to communicate effectively in English as students mastery is directly associatedwith future educational opportunities, career and income In National EnglishCurriculum Standard in Vietnam, one of most essential changes is theimplementation of student-centered, task-based language teaching However, thetask-based approach has been a controversy of many method experts

Firstly, in the discussion of getting learners to acquire English through tasks,

it was initiated in India by Prabhu in the 1980s Prabhu noticed that his studentscould learn language just as easily with a non-linguistic problem as when they wereconcentrating on linguistic questions Assessment primarily based on task outcome(in other words the appropriate completion of real world tasks) rather than onaccuracy of prescribed language forms This makes TBLL especially popular fordeveloping target language fluency and student confidence As such, TBLL can beconsidered a branch of Communicative Language Teaching

The next view mentioned by Harmer about TBL is that, “Many

methodologists have concentrated not so much on the nature of language input, but

on the learning tasks that students are involved in.” He argued that there seemed to

have been an argument that pure rote learning or de-contextualized practice is givingway to language learning that is required as a result of richer experiences in life

However, historically reviewed, TBL appears to have gained its currency

since the 1996 publication of Willis’s “A Framework for Task-based Learning”

(Longman), in which she defined how tasks can be used as the central focus in asupportive methodological framework In this book, she outlined a mode for

TBL in which she referred to three stages: the pre-task, the task-cycle, and the

language focus.

Another view of Skehan (1998) is that students was learned in task-basedinstructions are given tasks to complete in the classroom and he asserted thattransacting tasks in this way will make naturalistic acquisition He explained thatthe task-based approach is more favorable than any other approaches because itfocuses very much on meaning, not on form

The more important thing is that Jeon and Hahn (2006) addressed their study

to the EFL teachers’ perceptions of task-based language teaching in a Koreansecondary school context They appreciated the emphasis on learners’communicative abilities with task-based teaching and learning in terms of designingcommunicative tasks to promote learners’ actual language use Tseng (2006)indicated the differences between task-based instruction and traditional teacher-led,whole class instruction at two primary school classrooms in terms of four-skillperformances of the students Also the factors that influenced the implementation ofTBL at primary school were discussed

In Vietnam, according to the study of Nguyen Nu Ngoc Tram (2011), sheclaims that there are numerous English M.A theses concerning Vietnameselearning and teaching with TBL Duong Thi Le Thuy (2004) made aninvestigation into task-based approach, which was used in the field of ESP, for thecurrent English course book for construction engineering Additionally, Vo PhucAnh Vu (2009) presented the application of task-based language teaching andlearning to teaching English speaking skills in upper secondary schools in order tofind out how TBL can fit into traditional English speaking classes to promote thestudents’ communicative competence Besides, Ta Thi Ly (2013) also has a thesisabout a research on how to apply task-based approach to teach grammar for 10th

graders in Dien Chau 3 high school

At NSS high school of Thanh Chuong in Nghe An, the traditional structuralmethod also has no longer been the teachers’ favors The teacher-centered method isgiving way to a more learner-centered approach This thesis, therefore, concentrates

on studying the application of TBL in teaching English grammar to probe itsfeasibility and validity in the setting of NSS high school in Nghe An

2.2 The Importance of Grammar in Language Teaching and Learning

2.2.1 Definitions of grammar

Concerning the terms “grammar”, several researchers have attempted todefine it Apparently, depending on one’s theoretical orientation, different peopledefine grammar differently

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (as cited in Harmer,

1987, p.1) defines grammar as “the study and practice of the rules by which wordschange their forms and are combined into sentences.” There are two basic elements

in this definition: the rules of grammar; and the study and practice of the rules Heregrammar constitutes a subset of rules relating to word formation (morphology) andsentence formation (syntax)

Huddleston (1984) shares the similar view when seeing grammar as consisting

of morphology and syntax According to him, morphology deals with forms of wordswhile syntax deals with the ordering of the words to form sentences (p 1)

As can be inferred from the two definitions above, grammar isconventionally seen as the study of morphology and syntax of sentences

Cobbett (1984) regards grammar as “constituting rules and principles thathelp a person to make use of words or manipulate and combine words to givemeaning in a proper manner It concerns with form and structure of words and theirrelationships in sentences”

According to Fromkin and Rodman (1998), "The sounds and sound patterns,the basic units of meaning such as words and the rules to combine them to formnew sentences constitute the grammar of a language" (p.14)

There are several similarities between two above-cited definitions The first

which words are put together to make correct sentences Secondly, grammar iscomposed of rules not only relating to word formation (morphology) and sentenceformation (syntax) but also concerned with the meaning of the sentence (semantics)and the sound system (phonology) within a language

However, one drawback that all four definitions above (in both the first andsecond categories) have in common is that grammar has been concerned almostexclusively with the analysis at the level of the sentence I am in favor ofWiddowson (1990) with the claim that “grammar is not just a collection of sentencepatterns signifying nonsense” (p 81)

For Thornbury (1999), grammar is not just rules on how to combine words atthe sentence level, but it also takes into account the role of context in which asentence is made He says that “when we process language we are not only trying tomake sense of the words and the grammar, we are also trying to infer the speaker’s(or writer’s) intention” (p 6)

Hughes and McCarthy (1998) view grammar as discourse not as sentenceand coined the term discourse grammar They argued that “grammatical statementsthat do not take account of such contextual features are inadequate and unable tosupport grammar teaching effectively.” (p 265)

For the purpose of the study, I use the definition of Richards, Platt, and Platt(1992) in their Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics:

Grammar is a description of the structure of a language and the way in whichlinguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in thelanguage It usually takes into account the meanings and functions these sentenceshave in overall system of the language It may or may not include the description ofthe sound of a language (p.161)

In this definition, grammar is viewed as descriptive, which refers to thestructure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers Moreover, thisdefinition shows both linguistic and social features of grammar as it refers to notonly rules to make correct sentences but also meanings and functions of such

sentences in the language, which is necessary for the teaching and learning offoreign language

2.2.2 Role of grammar in English language teaching and learning

Along the history of second language teaching, the role of grammar has been

an issue of controversy According to Richards (2002), it is “perhaps the mostcontroversial issue in language teaching” (p 145) Thornbury (1999) asserts that “infact, no other issue has so preoccupied theorists and practitioners as the grammardebate, and the history of language teaching is essentially the history of the claimsand counterclaims for and against the teaching of grammar” (p 14) The debate hasbrought about an extreme split of attitudes, namely, those who hold that grammarshould receive a central attention in language teaching and those who hold thatgrammar should not be taught at all

2.2.3 The importance of teaching grammar

Most language learners and teachers agree that mastering the grammar of alanguage may form part of the knowledge of it Eric Hawkins (1984;150) affirmsthe value of grammar: “The evidence seems to show beyond doubt that though it is

by communicative use in real speech acts that the new language sticks in thelearner’s mind, insight into pattern is an equal partner with communicative use inwhat language teachers see as the dual process of acquisition Grammar, approached

as a voyage of discovery into the pattern of language rather than the learning ofprescriptive rules, is no longer a bogey word” According to his ideas, he seesgrammar as an interesting thing to learn (“a voyage of discovery”) Although it isnot always certain that all students may find an intrinsic interest in learninggrammar, it is such a sharp view of him that grammar can be an effective means tohelp and boost language learning

However, there exist some controversial opinions about the teaching ofgrammar One of the biggest challenges to the necessity of grammar teaching comesprimarily from Krashen, whose insistence on the primacy of acquisition has tended

to downplay the value of deliberate grammar teaching In Krashen and Tarrel’s

influential Natural Approach, it is claimed that learners need to be exposed to a lot

of comprehensive and meaningful input at a level just above their own foracquisition to take place The study of grammar has only secondary role in thelanguage program with the goal to produce optimal monitor -user, programmerswho can use grammar as a supplement to acquisition when they have time, when thefocus is on form, and when they know the rules (the Monitor Hypothesis, Krashenand Tarrel:1983) Put another way, grammar can be acquired naturally frommeaningful input and opportunities to interact in the classroom and grammaticalcompetence can develop in fluency - oriented environment without conscious focus

on the language forms

Admittedly, some learners acquire second language grammar naturallywithout being taught Immigrants to the United States (especially young ones) whoattain proficiency in English on their own can be a good example of naturalisticacquisition (Lightbown and Spada: 1999: 60) But this is not true for all learners.Among the same immigrants are learners who may achieve the proficiency inEnglish but those English is far from accurate

In fact, grammar is one of the key components of a language Thus, onecannot master a language without the knowledge of its grammar Partly thanks togrammar, language can function as a means of communication, especially in writtenlanguage A person cannot write well if he lacks the knowledge of grammar From

my observation and my experience, I find it necessary to teach grammar in all types

of English course and especially in technical and vocational colleges like thosecolleges I intend to carry out my study The first reason is that almost the students intechnical and vocational colleges come from rural areas where they never havechance to learn grammar sufficiently Furthermore, the main objective of thesestudents after leaving the colleges is to read materials such as manuals or instruction

in English With the two reasons mentioned above, they can hard do it withoutgrammar Moreover, Grammar exists to enable us to ‘mean’ and without it, it isimpossible to communicate beyond a very rudimentary level because “speech is no

more than sounds, writing is no more than hieroglyphics” (Peck, 1988:127) For allthese reasons, the teaching of grammar is quite important in ELT.

2.2.4 Approaches to grammar instruction

2.2.4.1 Deductive and Inductive approaches

While evidence for the need for formal instruction has been establishedthrough such research studies, there is still some controversy regarding how andhow much instruction is necessary From this debate, a broad distinction is oftenmade between deductive and inductive approaches (Thornbury, 1999)

 Deductive approach

Deductive approach is often called rule-driven learning (Thornbury, 1999)

In this approach, a grammar rule is explicitly presented to students and followed bypractice applying the rule The deductive approach maintains that a teacher teachesgrammar by presenting grammatical rules, and then examples of sentences arepresented Once learners understand rules, they are told to apply the rules given tovarious examples of sentences Giving the grammatical rules means no more thandirecting learners’ attention to the problem discussed However, deductive approach

to grammar teaching receives less support than inductive approach As Ellis inRichards (2002) reported, there has not been convincing empirical verification aswell as theoretical validation that the acquisition of grammar structures involves theprocess of learning the rules and practicing them through gradual autoimmunization

of production Even so, deductive approach is often used by many teachers due toits advantages such as time-saving for teachers and respect for students’expectations about classroom learning

 Inductive approach

In contrast to deductive approach, inductive approach, which is labeled asrule-discovery learning, starts with examples from which a rule is inferred(Thornbury, 1999) The procedure is similar to the process of children acquiringtheir mother tongue First, learners are exposed to comprehensible language inputand they will acquire the system of the rules subconsciously through peripheral

attention to language forms Eisenstein (as cited in Long & Richards, 1987)maintains that the inductive approach tries to utilize the very strong reward value ofbringing order, clarity and meaning to experiences This approach involves learners’participating actively in their own instruction In other words, this approachattempts to highlight grammatical rules implicitly in which the learners areencouraged to conclude the rules given by the teacher

Brown (2007) says that in most contexts, inductive approach is moreappropriate because of several reasons First, it is more in keeping with naturallanguage acquisition and conforms easily to the concept of inter-languagedevelopment Second, it allows learners to get a communicative feel for someaspects of language and builds more intrinsic motivation through discoverylearning Even though inductive approach has several advantages, it is obvious that

it will work well only in the setting where there is sufficient language input In thecontext of English as a foreign language like in Vietnam, where English is not usedoutside the English class setting, providing sufficient comprehensible inputconstitutes a hard challenge for teachers In addition, there is another importantdecision that teachers have to make when using an inductive approach to teachgrammar as Celce-Murcia (2001) points out that “if a teacher has chosen aninductive approach in a given lesson, a further option exists - whether or not to give

or have students articulate an explicit rule” (p 263)

In conclusion, the deductive approach is related to the conscious learningprocess, while the inductive approach relates to the subconscious learning processessimilar to the concept of language acquisition Whether grammatical rules aretaught inductively or deductively rely much on the cognitive style of the learner andthe language structure presented (Brown, 2007) Therefore, the language teacher’sjob is to identify which approach is appropriate for which grammar items and forwhich learning styles And sometimes, the question is not which one to choose buthow well the two approaches are combined As according to Corder (as cited inCelce-Murcia, 2001, p 264)

What little we know about …second language learning … suggests that acombination of induction and deduction produces the best result The oldcontroversy about whether one should provide the rule first and then the examples,

or vice versa, is now seem to be merely a matter of tactics to which no categoricalanswer can be given”

Indeed, the combination of two approaches to presenting grammatical rulesboth provides students with more active learning environment and prevents themfrom inducing inaccurate rules for themselves

2.2.4.2 Different approaches to grammar teaching

In the last over one hundred years, language teaching methodology haschanged in approaches and methods of grammar teaching From the mid to late 19th

century, the dominant trend was a non-communicative approach It was GrammarTranslation Method With this approach, grammar was deductively taught in anorganized and systematic way, by studying grammar rules Learners were instructed

to do exercises involving translation from the second language to the first languageand vice versa River (1981:31) comments this method as follows: “There is muchstress on knowing rules and exceptions” and “communication is neglected”

In the late 19th century, increased opportunities for communication amongEuropeans crested a demand for oral proficiency in foreign language The Directmethod came into being in order to satisfy the demand The Direct method based onthe belief that a language could best be taught by its vivid use in the classroomreflected the Reform Movement There is no translation anymore and the silentstudy of literature was replaced by actual use of spoken language practice, andexplicit and deductive grammar instruction was replaced by an implicit andinductive approach According to Richards and Rogers (1986:9), under the Directmethod grammar is taught inductively in the target language by asking andanswering questions between teachers and students in small and intensive classes

The Audio-Lingual method derived from structural linguistics in the UnitedStates in the 1950s, laid emphasis on mimicry of forms and memorization of certain

sentence patterns which are used intensively instead of grammatical explanation ortalking about the language Grammar was acquired inductively.

Since the mid - 1970s the CLT appeared and has been the dominant languageteaching methodology which aims at focusing on communicative proficiency byreplicating contextual features of real communication in the classroom There aretwo versions in this approach One advocates grammar teaching and the otherrejects grammar teaching

In fact, although emphasis on grammar teaching varies from method tomethod, for many teachers, grammar has never taken anything other than a centralrole in their classroom methodology The call for form-focused instruction in recentyear is an expression of a resurgence of interest in the role of grammar in Englishlanguage teaching While the role of grammar in language teaching and learning is

no longer a matter of debate, the questions that follow are how to integrate grammarteaching into a communicative methodology which pays attention to all aspects ofcommunicative competence, and what precise form that teaching should take Andthese imply further questions about the choice of grammatical structures to present,what kind of grammatical description to use, whether to teach grammar explicitly orimplicitly, what the role of practice might be, and what forms of practice areappropriate for different types of learners In other word, there are two majordifferent approaches to grammar: explicit and implicit When we talk about anexplicit approach to grammar we are talking about starting directly, usually at thebeginning of a particular activity, what the grammar is On the other hand, animplicit approach to grammar is one where students are led to the grammar through

a series of steps- this is what is meant by the ‘discovery techniques’, In other words,the ‘discovery techniques’ aims to lead students towards a generalized grammar rule

or pattern

2.3 A Brief Review of Task-based Language Learning

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is a communicative approach tolanguage instruction, using the successful completion of communicative tasks as its

primary organizing principle In task-based teaching, learners will upgrade theirlanguage competence by focusing on getting something done during using of thelanguage The task-based approach aims at giving learners a real environment to uselanguage in which they get many chances to communicate in their real life.

Task-based approach has been applied since 1980s It has grown out ofcommunicative language teaching Is has been welcomed by many teachers andinstitutions At the beginning, according to Ellis “task-based language teaching is abit of a dark horse as there are so many variables involved in a single task (planningtime, familiarity with task, teacher involvement access, to reference materials…)”(Rod Ellis 2003; 18) However, it has been argued for decades now that “TBLT is afully-fledged approach to language teaching” (Edwards & Willis 2005: 28) It hasbeen highly appreciated, like many other methodological innovations to manyEnglish language curriculums By implementing TBLT, teachers are no longercontrollers but partners and learners are no longer receivers but principal agents.Through this approach, learners are active and positive in their learning during thetask They can acquire language as well as cultures to comprehensively use thetarget language

There is much evidence to show that task-based approach plays a veryimportant role in foreign language teaching and learning It is said that task-basedlanguage teaching works comparatively better than the traditional ones

2.4 Tasks

2.4.1 Defining tasks

In a number of books, the word “task” has been used as a label for variousactivities, including grammar exercises, practice activities and role plays In someother books, tasks are defined as activities where the target language is used by thelearners for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome

Nunan (1989) defines tasks as activities that can stand alone as fundamentalunits and that require comprehending producing, manipulating, or interacting in

authentic language while attention is principally paid to meaning rather than form.Moreover, tasks are seen as “complete and lengthy activities” (Breen, 1987)

2.4.2 Characteristics of Tasks

Skehan (1998) proposes a definition of tasks within task-based instructionfollowing Candlin (1987), Nunan (1989), Long (1989), and others that a task is anactivity in which:

 Meaning is primary

 There is some communication to solve

 There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities

 Task completion has some priority

 The assessment of the task is in terms of outcome

2.4.3 Classifying task

Task classification is important for a number of reasons First, it provides abasis for ensuring variety; syllabus designers can refer to the classification to ensurethat they incorporate a range of task types into the course Second, it can be used toidentify the task types that match to the specific needs or preferences of particulargroups of learners Third, it affords teachers a framework for experimenting withtasks in their classrooms The aim of this section is to develop a checklist of tasktypes This part will focus on four approaches for classifying tasks: (1) pedagogic;(2) rhetorical; (3) cognitive; and (4) psycholinguistic

A pedagogic classification:

Willis (1996) offers a pedagogic classification of tasks based on an analysis

of the kinds of tasks commonly found in textbook materials The types reflect thekind of operations that learners are required to carry out in performing tasks:

1, Listing, i.e where the completed outcome is a list.

2, Ordering and sorting, i.e tasks that involve sequencing, ranking,

categorizing and classifying items

3, Comparing, i.e tasks that involve finding differences or similarities in

information

4, Problem-solving, i.e tasks that demand intellectual activities as in puzzles

or logic problems

5, Sharing personal experience, i.e tasks that allow learners to talk freely

about themselves and share experiences

6, Creative tasks, i.e projects, often involving several stages that can

incorporate the various types of tasks above and can include the need to carry outsome research

A rhetorical classification:

A rhetorical classification of tasks draws on theories of rhetoric thatdistinguish different discourse domains in terms of their structure and linguistic

properties- narrative, instructions, descriptions, reports… That is a classification

that often underlies language courses for academic purposes and is often linked tothe specific language functions that figure in academic written discourse, for

example, definitions, classifications, and giving examples

A cognitive classification:

A cognitive approach for classifying tasks is based on the kind of cognitiveoperations different types of tasks involve Prabhu (1987) distinguishes threegeneral types of tasks based on the kind of cognitive activity involved:

1, Information gap activity involves a transfer of given information from one

person to another or from one place to another, for example, using information in atext to complete a chart or table

2, Reasoning-gap activity involves “deriving some new information from

given information through processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or

a perception of relationships or patterns” (Prabhu, 1987) Prabhu points out that thisactivity also involves sharing information but requires going beyond theinformation provided An example of this kind of task is a task that requiresstudents to work out a teacher’s timetable from a set of class timetables

3, Opinion-gap activity involves identifying and articulating a personal

preference, feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation Examples of this are

story completion and taking part in a discussion Such tasks are open in the sensethat they afford many possible solutions.

A psycholinguistic classification:

Pica, Kanagy and Falodun (1993) propose a classificatory system with thecategories as follows:

1, Interact-ant relationship: this concerns who holds the information to be

exchanged and who requests it and supplies it in order to achieve the task goals Itrelates to the distinction between one-way and two-way tasks This category isderived from research that indicates that when there is a mutual relationship ofrequest and suppliance, negotiation of meaning is more likely to occur

2, Interaction requirement: This concerns whether the task requires

participants to request and supply information or whether this is optional

3, Goal orientation: This concerns whether the task requires the participants

to agree on a single outcome or allows them to disagree

4, Outcome options: This refers to the scope of the task outcomes available

to the participants in meeting the task goals

2.5 Task-based language teaching

2.5.1 What is TBLT?

According to Littlewood (2004), TBLT is a development withincommunicative approach It is not at all, Brown (1994) also claims that “TBLT is aperspective that can be taken within a CLT framework” Besides, he stated thatwhat various understandings of TBLT emphasize is the centrality of task itself in alanguage course and, for TBLT as an overall approach, the importance oforganizing a course around communicative tasks that learners need to engage inoutside the classroom Also, Foster (1999) points out that there are different task-based approaches, which share a common idea: giving learners tasks to transact,rather than items to learn, providing an environment, which best promotes thenatural language learning process Candlin (1987) said that “Task-based learningcontinues with and develops recent attention to learner-centered approaches, and inparticular the ideas of differentiation and learner interdependence” (P.3)

An important feature of TBL is that learners are free to choose whateverlanguage forms they wish to convey what they mean, in order to fulfill, as well asthey can, the task goals.

Nunan (1991) gives out five characteristics of a task-based approach tolanguage teaching as follows:

(i) An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the targetlanguage

(ii) The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation

(iii) The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only onlanguage but also on the learning process itself

(iv) An enhancement of the learners’ own personal experience as importantcontributing elements to classroom learning

(v) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activationoutside classroom

Task-based syllabus which is considered the cornerstone of TBLT is defined

by Richards (1991) as syllabus which is organized around tasks, rather than in terms

of grammar or vocabulary In task-based learning, communication tasks (wherelanguage forms are not controlled) involve learners in an entirely different mentalprocess as they compose what they want to say, expressing what they think or feel

Tasks remove the teacher domination, and learners get chances to open andclose conversations, to interact naturally, to interrupt and challenge, to ask people to

do things and to check what they have done Much of this will involve composing

in real time The resulting interaction is far more likely to lead to increased fluencyand natural acquisition than form-focused exercises that encourage learners to get itright from the beginning

According to Long and Crooks (1992), the task-based syllabuses are

“distinguished from earliest syllabus types by the fact that their rationale derivesfrom what is known about human learning in general and second language learning

in particular rather than, as is the case with lexical, structural, notional, functional,

and relational syllabuses primary from an analysis of language and language use Inaddition, while differing from one another in important ways, all three rejectlinguistic elements (such as word, structure, notion or function) as the unit ofanalysis and opt instead for some conceptions of tasks” (P 27)

2.5.2 Definition of task

The meaning of "Task" has been given in various ways

Long (1985: 89) defines "task" as a piece of work undertaken for oneself orfor others, freely or for some reward In other words, by "task" it is meant forhundreds of things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between

Nunan (Li, 2004) the communicative task is a piece of classroom workwhich involves learners in comprehending, producing and interacting in the targetlanguage while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form

Willis, J (1996: 53) gives the meaning of "task" as goal-oriented activity inwhich learners use language to achieve a real outcome Communicative tasks whichinvolve the four basic language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing arethe centre of the whole teaching framework Learners start with experiencing thepractice of language, and end with reviewing the rules of language

Skehan (1989: 95) lists characteristics of "task" as: 1) meaning is primary; 2)there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities; 3) taskcompletion has some priority; 4) the assessment of tasks is in terms of outcome

Many definitions can be summarized from the above review "Tasks" are aseries of correlative and purposeful activities in which learners perform whenlearning a language, absorbing information, solving problems, and achieving goalswith the target language as they do in the real world "Task" is an essential part ofthe whole course that leads to influence in speaking the target language It is alsothe process in which learners solve simulative or real-world problems with thetarget language It can help learners acquire language knowledge and develop theircomprehensive abilities in solving problems

Nunan also suggests that tasks will contain some form of input data, whichmight be verbal or non-verbal, and an activity, which in some way, is derived from

the input The tasks will also have (implicitly or explicitly) a goal and roles forteachers and learners.

Nunan (1989) develops a framework for analyzing communicative tasks,which composed of 6 components This framework is biographically presented inFigure 2.1 below

Figure 2.1 A framework for analyzing communicative tasks

(Adopted from Nunan, 1989:11)Goals Teacher's role

Input TASKS Learners' role

Activities Settings

By using tasks in process teaching, learners are put in a meaning-focusedcontext and are given a chance to elaborate their grammar, so they may achieve theself-discovery as discourse participants

Before taking up the task of converting the textual content into various tasks,the following points were noted and kept in mind by the investigators:

* The objective of the task must be stated very clearly

* The task must be appropriate for the level of the learners

* The task must equip the learners with the ability to apply classroomlearning in new situations

* Tasks must be interesting and motivating to the students

* The form the input takes, must be clear to the teacher

* The roles of teachers and students must be specified clearly

* Through the task, learners must be encouraged to negotiate meaning

* The language that will be generated by the task must be predicted

* There should be variety and flexibility in the tasks

2.5.3 Principles of the TBLT approach

Nunan defined that there are eight principles of TBLT as following:

* (1) Scaffolding: That is content of lesson and supplements related tolearning

* (2) Task dependency: That is one task will be developed basing on theprevious one

* (3) Recycling: That is recycling language helping the systematic learningprinciple

* (4) Active learning: That is learners acquire the language by actively using it

* (5) Integration of form and function: That is expectation of learners’literacy

* (6) Reproduction to creation: That is learners reproduce language modelsprovided

* (7) Learning strategies: That is learners focus on both learning process andcontent

* (8) Reflection: That is learners get chances of reflecting on their work

2.5.4 The basic characteristics of TBLT

1) Student-centeredness

Teachers should always be aware to plan a lesson for the aim of students’mastery of how to use a language Encourage students’ involvement in the taskactivities

(2) Meaning-focused instead of form-focused

It is for the accomplishment of certain tasks that students use certainlanguage forms to communicate meaningfully with someone The students do notnote down all the rules any more Instead, they are involved in the meaningful andinteresting activities

(3) Authenticity

The task given to students should be clear and authentic to the life reality andhave some information transfer Make sure the task designed is real in daily life.And tasks can be available everywhere from having dinner to making a paper plane

(4) Teamwork

Cooperation is greatly valued during the process of reaching an outcome of atask Students should help others, rely on others and learn from each other

(5) Feedback and evaluation

Teachers should pay much attention to the process of feedback Givestudents a chance to report on their findings and experience their achievements.Without this step, a task can hardly called a task in a TBL class Teachers shouldgive appropriate evaluation to their outcome as well

(6) Inside and outside class

Often an in-class task can lead to post-class tasks It is natural that theexcitement of the whole class may lead to a further discussion after class

2.5.5 A framework for task-based learning

According to Willis (1996), the components of the TBL are presented as follows:

Table 2.1 The framework for task-based learning Task cycle Language focus

* Introduction to topic

and task:

Teacher explores the

topic with the class,

highlights useful words

and phrases to help

students understand task

instructions and prepare

Students may hear a

recording of others doing

Students prepare to report

to the whole class (orally

or in writing) how theydid the task, what theydecided or discovered

* Report:

Some groups present theirreports to the class, orexchange written reportsand compare results

Teacher conducts practice

of new words, phrasesand patterns occurring inthe data, either during orafter the analysis

(1996) also identifies three steps for pre-task stage: Introducing the topic,

Identifying topic language and giving task instructions.

(ii) The task cycle: Within this stage, there are three sub stages: doing the

task, engaging in planning post-task, and reporting The task cycle offers learners

the chance to use whatever language they already know in order to carry out thetasks, and then to improve that language under the teacher’s guidance., whileplanning their reports to the task Feedback from teacher comes when they want itmost, at the planning stage and after the report Exposure to language in use can beprovided at different points, depending on the type of task Either before or duringthe task cycle students might listen to recordings of other people doing the task, orread the text connected with the task topic, and relate this to their own experience ofdoing the task In general, the task cycle offers learners a holistic experience oflanguage in use

(iii) The language focus phase: This is the last phase in the TBL framework

It allows a closer study of some of the specific features naturally occurring in thelanguage used during the task cycle By this point, the learners will have alreadyworked with the language and processed it for meaning, so they are ready to focus

on the specific language forms that carry that meaning Thus the study of theseforms is clearly contextualized through the task itself This final stage, whichincludes analysis and practice components, fulfils the fourth desirable extracondition for learning- explicit study of language form

2 Teacher’s role in the framework

In TBL lessons, the teacher is generally a “facilitator”, always keeping the keyconditions for learning in mind Facilitating learning involves balancing the amount

of exposure and use of language, and ensuring they are both of suitable quality

In a TBL framework, most of the emphasis is on learners doing things, often

in pairs or groups, using language to achieve the task outcomes and guided by theteacher The teacher is involved in setting tasks up, ensuring that learnersunderstand and get on with them, and drawing them a close Although learners dothe tasks independently, the teacher still has overall control and the power to stopeverything if necessary

The part the teacher plays during each component of the task framework alsovaries according to its aim At the end of the framework, where the focus turns tolanguage form, the teacher acts as “language guide”, for example

In a broader sense, the teacher is also the course guide, explaining to learnersthe overall objectives of the course and how the components of the task framework,which can achieve these A summing up of what they have achieved during alesson, or after a series of lessons, can help learners’ motivation

The link between each task and the other components in the task cycle willalso need to be made explicit Learners will be experiencing English throughout thewhole task cycle

2.5.6 Studies on TBLT

The researcher took some fundamental information on TBLT in Asian contextfrom the Asia TEFL Conference (Bangkok, August, 2000) into this study becausethey are very useful and appropriate with the purpose of the study (language teachingcontext is the same) In other words, these information help us to have a significantlook on TBLT not only in Vietnam but also in other Asian countries

Nunan (2003) indicates that TBLT emerged as a central concept from a study

of curriculum guidelines and syllabi in the Asia-Pacific countries including Japan,Vietnam, China, Hong Kong, Korea and Malaysia

In China, the studies of Gatbonton and Gu (1994) and Yu (2001) on TBLTpractice point out that: the country lacks of qualified teachers, the teachers’ lowsalaries which affects directly to their teaching And the conditions for teaching andlearning, such as: size of classes and teachers’ preferences to textbook-basedinstruction, all affect their teaching

In Thailand, McDonough and Chaikitmongkol (2007) designed andexperimented a Task-based EFL course at Chiang Mai University) and found thatTBLT encouraged learner independence Teachers need constant support withregard to supplementary materials and pedagogical knowledge Teachers need thefreedom to follow the curriculum rather than the prescribed textbook TBLTsatisfied learners’ immediate academic needs (a task-based EFL course at ChiangMai University)

In Vietnam, Canh (2008) pointed out that: Teachers are not only unfamiliarwith TBLT but also unconfident in using English, and teachers' knowledge base isstill limited To the learners, they are unmotivated in learning as well as lack a cleargoal of learning English

Through various results of studies on TBLT from many countries, there havebeen many discussions on the TBLT in those countries that, the absence of a clearrationale to implement TBLT begs the question of what is meant by TBLT and who,teachers or curriculum developers, deem it appropriate to use across diverseclassroom contexts TBLT is derived from the SLA research that students learn alanguage by performing a task Tasks are always performed in a particular socialcontext while classroom practice may be chaotic and unpredictable Needs analysesmust be the first step in curriculum design The success of TBLT is heavilydependent on teachers’ and students’ linguistic resources About the conditions ofsuccessful language pedagogy, they have discussed these issues: Teachers should beinformed of the rationale of new pedagogical practices, Teachers’ professional skills

in adapting task Power relationship in the classroom and students’ motivation makemeaningful use of language attain an objective of students’ proficiency level