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CHAPTER 1. THE SIMPLE PRESENT OF THE VERB TO BE 1. Grammar The grammar of a language is an analysis of the various functions performed by the words of the language, as they are used by native speakers and writers. There are many different ways of analyzing a language. In such an analysis, words can be given various names, depending on the function which they perform. For instance, words which perform the function of naming things are commonly referred to as nouns, and words which perform the function of expressing states or actions are commonly referred to as verbs. It should be kept in mind that many English words can perform more than one function. For instance, in the following sentences, the underlined words can be referred to as nouns because they perform the function of naming things. e.g. I have lost my comb. Water is one of the necessities of life. However, in the following sentences, the same words can be referred to as verbs because they perform the function of expressing actions. e.g. I comb my hair every morning. Do you water your plants once a week? In this book, widely used terms such as noun, verb, pronoun and so on, will be used in order to explain the way in which words function in the English language. 2. Verb forms English verbs may have different forms, depending on the subject of the verb, and depending on when the action expressed by the verb takes place. In the following sentences, the subjects of the verbs indicate who or what is performing the actions expressed by the verbs. The verbs in these examples are underlined. e.g. We live in the city. He lives on Queen Street. These examples illustrate how the form of a verb may vary, depending on the subject of the verb. In the first example, the subject is we, and the form of the verb is live. In the second example, the subject is he, and the form of the verb is lives. The different verb forms which indicate when the action expressed by a verb takes place are usually referred to as tenses. e.g. We always walk to work. We walked to work yesterday. 1 In the first sentence, the verb walk is in the Simple Present tense. In the second sentence, the verb walked is in the Simple Past tense. Present tenses are usually used to express actions which are taking place in the present; whereas past tenses are usually used to express actions which took place in the past. The infinitive form of a verb can be used without reference to any particular subject or any particular time. In English, the infinitive form of a verb begins with the word to. For instance, to walk is the infinitive of the verb used in the two preceding examples. 3. Uses of the simple present tense The Simple Present is one of four present tenses in English, and is used in various ways. In the examples given below, the verbs in the Simple Present tense are underlined. For instance, the Simple Present can be used to refer to actions which occur at regular intervals. e.g. We visit our friends every Sunday. They take a holiday once a year. Geese fly south every fall. The Simple Present is also used in stating general truths. e.g. Gas expands when heated. The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world. Canada lies north of the United States. In addition, the Simple Present is used when referring to printed material, and when describing events portrayed in a book, film, or other work of art. e.g. The report presents the information clearly. At the end of the film , the hero finds the hidden treasure. Occasionally, the Simple Present is used to express actions occurring in the future or the past. e.g. Our plane leaves at eight o'clock tomorrow night. Burglar Steals Valuable Paintings In the first example, the Simple Present is used to refer to something which will happen in the future. In the second example, which is written in the style of a newspaper headline, the Simple Present is used to refer to something which happened in the past. 4. The simple present of the verb To Be A conjugation of a verb is a list showing the different forms a verb may take. When a verb is conjugated, it is usually accompanied by all of the personal pronouns which can act as subjects 2 of a verb. Thus, a conjugation can show the different forms a verb must take when it is used with different subjects. The English personal pronouns which may be used as subjects of verbs are as follows: I you he she it we they It should be noted that in modern English, the same verb forms are used with the subject you, whether you refers to one or more than one person or thing. In an older form of English, there was another personal pronoun, thou, which was used with different verb forms, and which generally referred to one person or thing. The Simple Present of the verb to be is conjugated as follows. In spoken English, contractions are often used. Without contractions With contractions I am I'm you are you're he is he's she is she's it is it's we are we're they are they're In written English, an apostrophe: ' is used in a contraction, to indicate that one or more letters have been omitted. a. Affirmative statements An affirmative statement states that something is true. In an affirmative statement, the verb follows the subject. e.g. I am awake. They are ready. In the first example, the verb am follows the subject I. In the second example, the verb are follows the subject they. In written English, statements are always followed by a period: . Statements and questions must begin with a capital letter. In order to review the preceding points, see Exercise 1. b. Questions For the Simple Present of the verb to be, questions are formed by reversing the order of the subject and the verb, so that the verb precedes the subject. e.g. Am I awake? Are they ready? 3 In the first example, the verb am precedes the subject I. In the second example, the verb are precedes the subject they. In written English, questions are always followed by a question mark: ? See Exercise 2. c. Negative statements In the Simple Present of the verb to be, negative statements are formed by adding the word not after the verb. e.g. I am not awake. They are not ready. In the first example, not follows the verb am. In the second example, not follows the verb are. In spoken English, the following contractions are often used: Without contractions With contractions is not isn't are not aren't See Exercise 3. d. Negative questions In the Simple Present of the verb to be, negative questions are formed by reversing the order of the subject and verb, and adding not after the subject. e.g. Am I not awake? Are they not ready? In spoken English, contractions are usually used in negative questions. In the contracted form of a negative question, the contraction of not follows immediately after the verb. For example: Without contractions With contractions Are you not awake? Aren't you awake? Is he not awake? Isn't he awake? Are we not awake? Aren't we awake? Are they not awake? Aren't they awake? It should be noted that there is no universally accepted contraction for am not. In spoken English, am I not? is often contracted to aren't I?. However, although the expression aren't I? is considered acceptable in informal English, it is not considered to be grammatically correct in formal English. In formal English, no contraction should be used for am I not. See Exercise 4. e. Tag questions A tag question is a question added at the end of a sentence. A tag question following an affirmative statement generally has the form of a negative question, with the meaning: Isn't that true? In some languages, such tag questions are invariable. However, in English, tag questions vary, depending on the verbs and subjects of the preceding statements. 4 In the following examples, the tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions. For example: Affirmative statement Affirmative statement with tag question Are you not awake? Aren't you awake? I am awake. I am awake, am I not? You are awake. You are awake, aren't you? She is awake. She is awake, isn't she? We are awake. We are awake, aren't we? They are awake. They are awake, aren't they? These examples illustrate how the subjects and verbs of the preceding statements are repeated in tag questions. For instance, in the first example, the subject I and the verb am are repeated in the tag question. In the second example, the subject you and the verb are are repeated in the tag question. In spoken English, the expression aren't I? is often used as a tag question. However, this is not considered to be grammatically correct in formal, written English. See Exercises 5 and 6. CHAPTER 2. THE SIMPLE PRESENT OF VERBS OTHER THAN THE VERB TO BE 1. Formation of the simple present The Simple Present of any verb other than the verb to be is formed from the bare infinitive of the verb. As shown in the following examples, the bare infinitive of a verb consists of the infinitive without the word to. The bare infinitive is the form in which English verbs are usually listed in dictionaries. For example: Infinitive Bare Infinitive to be be to walk walk to work work In the Simple Present of verbs other than the verb to be, the form of the verb used with the subjects I , you, we and they is the same as the bare infinitive. The form of the verb used with the subjects he, she and it has the ending s added to the bare infinitive. For example, the Simple Present of the verb to work is conjugated as follows: I work you work he works she works it works we work they work The form of the verb used with the subjects he, she and it is generally referred to as the third person 5 singular See Exercise 1. a. The simple present of the verb To Have The Simple Present of the verb to have is slightly irregular, since the bare infinitive is have, whereas the form of the verb used in the third person singular is has. The Simple Present of the verb to have is conjugated as follows: I have you have he has she has it has we have they have See Exercise 2. 2. Spelling rules for adding s in the third person singular Some verbs change their spelling when s is added in the third person singular. a. Verbs ending in y The English letters a, e, i, o and u are generally referred to as vowels. The other English letters are generally referred to as consonants. When a verb ends in y immediately preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to ie before the ending s is added. In each of the following examples, the consonant immediately preceding the final y is underlined. Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular study studies fly flies carry carries However, when a verb ends in y immediately preceded by a vowel, the y is not changed before the ending s is added. In each of the following examples, the vowel immediately preceding the final y is underlined. Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular say says enjoy enjoys buy buys See Exercise 3. b. Verbs ending in o When a verb ends in o, the letter e is added before the s ending. For example: 6 Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular do does echo echoes go goes c. Verbs ending in ch, s, sh, x or z When a verb ends in a sibilant sound such as ch, s, sh, x or z, the letter e is added before the s ending. For example: Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular pass passes push pushes watch watches fix fixes buzz buzzes See Exercise 4. 3. Pronunciation of the es ending A syllable is a unit of pronunciation, usually consisting of a vowel sound which may or may not be accompanied by consonants. When a verb ends in a sibilant sound such as ch, s, sh, x or z, the es ending of the third person singular is pronounced as a separate syllable. The reason for this is that these sounds are so similar to the sound of the es ending, that the ending must be pronounced as a separate syllable in order to be heard clearly. In each of the following examples the bare infinitive consists of one syllable, whereas the form of the verb used in the third person singular consists of two syllables. Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular pass passes push pushes catch catches mix mixes Similarly, when s is added to verbs ending in ce, ge, se or ze, the final es is usually pronounced as a separate syllable. In each of the following examples the bare infinitive consists of one syllable, whereas the form of the verb used in the third person singular consists of two syllables. Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular race races rage rages praise praises doze dozes However, when s is added to a verb ending in e preceded by a letter other than c, g, s or z, the final es is not pronounced as a separate syllable. In each of the following 7 examples, both the bare infinitive and the form of the verb used in the third person singular consist of one syllable. Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular make makes smile smiles dine dines save saves See Exercise 5. 4. The auxiliary Do With the exception of the verb to be, verbs in modern English use the auxiliary do to form questions and negative statements in the Simple Present. The Simple Present of the verb to do is conjugated as follows: I do you do he does she does it does we do they do Auxiliaries are verbs which are combined with other verbs to form various tenses. It should be noted that when an auxiliary is combined with another verb, it is the auxiliary which must agree with the subject, while the form of the other verb remains invariable. When the auxiliary do is combined with another verb, the other verb always has the form of the bare infinitive. a. Questions In order to form a question in the Simple Present of any verb other than the verb to be, the Simple Present of the auxiliary do is added before the subject, and the bare infinitive of the verb is placed after the subject. For example: Affirmative Statement Question I work. Do I work? You work. Do you work? He works. Does he work? She works. Does she work? It works. Does it work? We work. Do we work? They work. Do they work? See Exercise 6. b. Negative statements In order to form a negative statement, the Simple Present of the auxiliary do followed by the word not 8 is placed before the bare infinitive of the verb. For example: Affirmative Statement Negative Statement I work. I do not work. You work. You do not work. He works. He does not work. She works. She does not work. It works. It does not work. We work. We do not work. They work. They do not work. See Exercise 7. In spoken English, the following contractions are often used: Without contractions With contractions do not don't does not doesn't c. Negative questions To form a negative question, the Simple Present of the auxiliary do is placed before the subject, and the word not followed by the bare infinitive is placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the Simple Present of the auxiliary do. For example: Without contractions With contractions Do I not work? Don't I work? Do you not work? Don't you work? Does he not work? Doesn't he work? Does she not work? Doesn't she work? Does it not work? Doesn't it work? Do we not work? Don't we work? Do they not work? Don't they work? See Exercise 8. d. Tag questions The auxiliary do or does is used for a tag question which follows a statement containing the Simple Present of a verb other than the verb to be. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions. Affirmative Statement Affirmative Statement with Tag Question I work. I work, don't I? You work. You work, don't you? He works. He works, doesn't he? She works. She works, doesn't she? It works. It works, doesn't it? 9 We work. We work, don't we? They work. They work, don't they? See Exercise 9. e. The verb To Have It should be noted that, particularly in British English, in the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to have, questions and negative statements are sometimes formed in the same way as for the verb to be, without the use of the auxiliary do. e.g. He has a sister, hasn't he? CHAPTER 3. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS 1. Uses of the present continuous In English, the Present Continuous tense is usually used to express continuing, ongoing actions which are taking place at the moment of speaking or writing. In the examples given below, the verbs in the Present Continuous tense are underlined. e.g. Right now I am cooking supper. At the moment the plane is flying over the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Present Continuous tense is often used in conversation. e.g. "What are you doing?" "I am working on my English assignment." Occasionally, the Present Continuous tense is used to refer to a future event. e.g. We are leaving tomorrow. 2. Formation of the present continuous The Present Continuous tense of any verb is formed from the Simple Present of the auxiliary to be, followed by what is generally referred to as the present participle of the verb. The present participle of a verb is formed by adding ing to the bare infinitive. For instance, the present participle of the verb to work is working. Thus, the Present Continuous tense of the verb to work is conjugated as follows: I am working you are working he is working she is working it is working we are working they are working See Exercise 1. 10 [...]... Has it been working? Have we been working? Have they been working? Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the first auxiliary For example: Affirmative Statement Negative Statement 22 I have been working You have been working He has been working She has been working It has been working We have been working They have been working I have not been working You have not been working He... the first president of the United States The Simple Past is also used to express non-continuous actions which occurred at a definite time in the past e.g Columbus reached America in 14 92 I graduated from school last year 2 Formation of the simple past a The verb To Be The Simple Past of the verb to be is conjugated as follows: I was you were he was she was it was we were they were See Exercise 1 i Questions... they? See Exercise 2 b Other verbs English verbs other than the verb to be have the same form in the Simple Past, regardless of the subject In the case of regular English verbs, the Simple Past has the same form as the past participle For example, the Simple Past of the regular verb to work is conjugated as follows: I worked you worked he worked she worked it worked we worked they worked 25 See Exercise... Contractions I've you've he's she's it's we've they've It should be noted that the contractions for he has, she has and it has are the same as the contractions for he is, she is and it is See Exercise 2 3 Spelling rules for adding ed to form the past participle Some regular verbs change their spelling when the ending ed is added to form the past participle a Verbs ending in a silent e When a regular... worked He has worked She has worked It has worked We have worked They have worked Question Have I worked? Have you worked? Has he worked? Has she worked? Has it worked? Have we worked? Have they worked? 20 b Negative statements In order to form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the auxiliary For example: Affirmative Statement I have worked You have worked He has worked She has worked... worked, haven't I? You have worked, haven't you? He has worked, hasn't he? She has worked, hasn't she? It has worked, hasn't it? We have worked, haven't we? They have worked, haven't they? See Exercise 7 21 7 The present perfect continuous a Use The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to express continuous, ongoing actions which have already been completed at the time of speaking or writing In the... Infinitive to die to lie Present Participle dying lying When a verb ends in y, no change is made before the ending is added For example: Infinitive to fly to play Present Participle flying playing See Exercise 2 c One-syllable verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel Except in the case of the final consonants w, x and y, when a one-syllable verb ends in a single consonant preceded by a single... working, haven't you? He has been working, hasn't he? She has been working, hasn't she? It has been working, hasn't it? We have been working, haven't we? They have been working, haven't they? See Exercise 9 23 CHAPTER 5 THE SIMPLE PAST 1 Uses of the simple past The uses of the Simple Past are somewhat similar to the uses of the Simple Present, except that past states or actions are expressed In the examples... ending is added The reason for this is that two vowels together are generally pronounced long For example: Infinitive to rain to read to meet to soak Present Participle raining reading meeting soaking 12 See Exercise 3 d Verbs of more than one syllable which end in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel When a verb of more than one syllable ends in a single consonant other than w, x or y preceded... See Exercise 1 i Questions and negative statements The Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be do not use auxiliaries to form questions and negative statements Instead, the verb itself is used 24 The verb to be forms questions and negative statements in the same way in the Simple Past as in the Simple Present In order to form a question, the verb is placed before the subject For example: Affirmative . is conjugated as follows: I have you have he has she has it has we have they have See Exercise 2. 2. Spelling rules for adding s in the third person singular Some verbs change their spelling when. conjugated, it is usually accompanied by all of the personal pronouns which can act as subjects 2 of a verb. Thus, a conjugation can show the different forms a verb must take when it is used with. subject they. In written English, questions are always followed by a question mark: ? See Exercise 2. c. Negative statements In the Simple Present of the verb to be, negative statements are formed