Food Product Development Based on Experience Edited by Catherine Side Food Product Development Based on Experience BASIC SYMPOSIUM SERIES Food Product Development Based on Experience Edited by Catherine Side Catherine Side, MA, MSc, FIFST, AIB, has been an active member of the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) and its counterpart, the Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) in Britain In 1994 she created and has since directed the Virtual Consulting Group, a successful network of over fifty bioscience consultants She is also a member of Stratecon International Consultants © 2002 Iowa State Press A Blackwell Publishing Company All rights reserved Iowa State Press 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014 Orders: 1–800–862–6657 Office: 1–515–292–0140 Fax: 1–515–292–3348 Web site: www.iowastatepress.com Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by Iowa State Press, provided that the base fee of $.10 per copy is paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by CCC, a separate system of payments has been arranged The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is 0–8138–2029–4/2002 $.10 Printed on acid-free paper in the United States of America First edition, 2002 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Food product development based on experience / edited by Catherine Side.—1st ed p cm ISBN 0-8138-2029-4 Food industry and trade I Side, Catherine TP370 F628 2002 664'.0068—dc21 2002004213 The last digit is the print number: CONTENTS Contributors vii Foreword xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Effective Communication Tom Heyhoe Focusing on the Participants: When and How to Involve Them Herbert Weinstein 13 Managing the Product Development Process Frank Kramer 21 Organizing Human Resources: By Project? By Discipline? As a Matrix? Charles Beck 31 Product Life Cycle: Consumer Market Research Herbert Weinstein 51 Shelf-Life Considerations and Techniques Michele Perchonok 59 Product and Concept Testing—Methods and Cost Control Tom Heyhoe 75 v vi CONTENTS Case Study: Introducing a New Flavor and Color Ingredient Catherine Side Food Safety Systems: Anticipating Production into the Process Richard F Stier 95 103 10 Some Lesson Vignettes from Focus Groups and Other Market Research Charles Beck 125 11 Equipment Integration in the Process: Patent Questions and Vendor Confidentiality Frank Kramer 143 12 The Role of Food Packaging in Product Development Aaron Brody 151 13 Contract Packaging or In-House Manufacturing? Herbert Weinstein 171 14 Initial and Progressive Cost Estimates Frank Kramer 179 Index 189 CONTRIBUTORS Charles Beck, PhD—Stratecon Dr Beck was educated in Chemical Engineer- ing at Cornell University, where he received bachelor’s and master’s degrees before applying his trade to military foods during his tour of duty He then went to the Food Science Department of the University of California, where he earned a PhD in Agricultural Chemistry Within the food industry he has consistently sought pioneering assignments: freeze-dried coffee with General Foods (now Kraft); textured vegetable proteins with General Mills; aspartame (Equal) and foods for renal patients with G D Searle (now Monsanto’s NutraSweet Kelco); a pastry pizza concept with Kitchens of Sara Lee; and ten new venture projects for R J Reynolds Development Corp (including packaging, fast-food restaurants, mail order, food irradiation, cut flowers, plant tissue culture, and dental technologies) Since the “Barbarians at the Gate,” Dr Beck has been consulting to the food industry from Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and he has created a network of other international professionals who complement his skills and geography Stratecon’s projects often help companies decide how to manage technical developments that were not requested by the marketing department Recent activities include evaluating the market size, pricing, and structure for a natural flavoring from a novel source; coordinating the activities of a benchmarking group with similar products and distinct territories; assisting entrepreneurs with entry strategies; supporting a grain-based company in its transition from commodity to specialty products; searching worldwide for unpublished emerging technologies in a specific product sector; and guiding several clients wishing to introduce health-based ingredients Dr Beck is also very involved, nationally and locally, in the Institute of Food Technologists and serves the Piedmont Entrepreneur’s Network in North Carolina vii INITIAL AND PROGRESSIVE COST ESTIMATES 185 As an example, assume that a 50-ft.(16.4 m) baking oven was purchased for $200,000 in 1994 What would a 100-ft (32.8 m) oven cost in 2001? Using the 0.6 exponential equation, the 100-ft (32.8 m) oven would cost $313,000 in 1994 Using the annual equipment cost index, published in the magazine Chemical Engineering’s March issues, the price increase would be 10.0 percent from 1994 to 2001 Therefore the 100-ft.(32.8 m) oven price in 2001 would be $344,000 Using this equation and also figures from an internet site, www.matche.com, table 14.3 was developed showing the total key equipment cost with/without installation The total equipment cost, $429,000, can be used to estimate the cost of a complete new plant to produce Boston baked beans as defined by this flowsheet (Figure 14.1) The estimate would be in the study category of reliability, ϩ/-30 percent It extrapolates the total equipment cost (TTC) by a Lang factor to take into account all the related installation elements: Piping, electrical, and instrumentation Land, building, and landscaping Engineering and construction supervision Contractor’s fees (5 percent of TTC) Contingency (10 percent of TTC) Working capital (15 percent of total investment) Lang’s factor for this type process is 4.9 (Peters and Timmerhaus, year) Therefore the total investment cost ϭ 4.9 x $429,000 ϭ $2,102K TABLE 14.3 Estimated equipment costs Equipment Required Raw Bean Elevator Bean Feed Hopper Syrup Tank Baked Bean Oven Water System Screw Conveyor Canning Machines Size 75 ft 150 ft3 200 gal 100 ϫ 12 ft 20 gal./ 14 ft Capacity No 8.2 m 5.12 m3 52.8 m3 32.8 ϫ 3.9 m 5.3 m3/ 4.6 m Material Cost/103 1 Steel SS SS SS SS $6 SS $12 Rented $429 $167 $596 Total Equipment Cost Installation Cost TOTAL INSTALLED COST $14 $5 $48 $344 186 CHAPTER 14 This study estimate, as already discussed, is very important and useful at the benchtop development stage As the project moves through the pilot plant and beyond, the equipment and process variables become better defined and preliminary vendor pricing can gradually replace the extrapolation factors and other estimating tools, resulting in much more accurate estimating The accuracy of these estimates becomes extremely important once management has approved the plant construction budget Since budget estimates are accurate to ϩ/-20 percent, the budget submitted for management approval should contain a 20 percent contingency Later, the project should be well enough defined to establish at least a definition cost estimate PRELIMINARY ESTIMATES OF DIRECT OPERATING COSTS From pilot plant data, very precise information should be available on formula, yield, process chemicals, and utilities, and with the input from the operations and engineering departments, the number, types, and wages for operating labor and line supervision can be specified Shortcut methods can be used for some of these estimates, even at the benchtop stage, once a flowsheet is developed and a preliminary material and energy balance are calculated Calculating the gas usage and hourly cost to operate the baked bean oven can be used as an example Table 14.4 shows the material streams in/out of the oven Note that the water added before and during baking goes two ways Most is absorbed by the beans and 2,200 lbs per hour replaces evaporated water that leaves through the vent The question is, how much gas is required to supply the energy to evaporate that much water along with heating up the materials to the evaporation temperature? Determining gas usage and its cost is a good example on how many of the operating costs can be estimated even at the earliest development stage The 2,200 lbs of water per hour evaporated required 2,200,000 BTUs of energy based on steam formation at 1,000 BTU per pound of water evaporated The energy for heating up the ingredients at 10,000 lbs of product TABLE 14.4 Oven process material balance Stream Materials in/out Beans In Sauce In Water In Water In Vented Vapors Out Baked Beans Out Lbs./hour 3,100 1,200 1,460 6,640 2,200 10,200 Notes Pea, Kidney, Yellow Eye Molasses, Sugar, Spices Before Baking During Baking Water Evaporated Product Produced/Hour INITIAL AND PROGRESSIVE COST ESTIMATES 187 per hour is an additional 2,500,000 BTUs One Therm of gas represents 100,000 BTUs and in May, 2001, cost on average $0.89 per Therm (RGEBusiness Solutions) Therefore the gas used was 47 Therms per hour, costing $41.83 per hour Assume that the energy efficiency of the oven is 50 percent, leaks and radiation accounting for the energy loss Then the total gas cost is $82.66 per hour This is a cost of about $.01 per pound of product DETERMINING NEW PRODUCT VALUE The value of a new product has to take into account the economics as determined in the previous sections of this chapter If favorable, such as having a less than five-year investment payoff based on best market research estimates, there are other factors that must also be considered These include: • • • • • • Consumer approval Product fit in company marketing image Compatibility with existing products and technologies Competitive interests Financial environment, generally and within the company Any regulatory problems involving this product or its manufacturing process CONTINUAL SEARCH FOR REDUCING PRODUCT COSTS Even after the product is in full commercial production, good managers are always seeking means to reduce product costs without affecting the quality or image of the product Ideally, you would want the cost savings as well as product improvement and often that is what happens The opportunities for reducing costs can be achieved in many ways Automation is one of the most easily available, especially if the existing processes are labor intensive Automation controlled by computers and state-of-the-art sensors can require a large investment However, as with all capital costs, the larger the production volume put through the equipment, the greater the per-unit savings If the five-year sales forecast shows a growing business with a large expected volume requirement, the time to pay off the equipment investment may be low enough to justify proceeding The use of automation often results in improved and consistent quality Not only can the product be made precisely the same way each time but with the controls and sensors, the equipment lends itself to a planned product improvement program by online variable adjustments In the food industry, 30 to 60 percent of the variable costs are for ingredients, so removing or replacing an expensive ingredient is one of the first 188 CHAPTER 14 things to look for when considering reducing costs For the same reason, obtaining maximum yield (or eliminating losses) is very important Especially now, energy can be very expensive Therefore, any energy reduction will significantly cut costs In recent years, the gelatin industry has substituted ultra-filtration membrane concentration for steam evaporators for this purpose Also some companies have installed cogeneration plants, producing electric power from high-pressure steam generators and using the low-pressure steam from the generators for processing SUMMARY The importance and methods for new product and process cost estimates were described These included estimating both capital investment for equipment and facilities as well as for product operating costs The necessary information to obtain these estimates was listed along with shortcut methods to make preliminary estimates for development guidance and budget purposes Emphasis was put on establishing early-on concepts of the process and key equipment required for the new product as a means to prepare cost estimates, but also to ensure good and consistent quality References for further, more detailed, study of this subject are given BIBLIOGRAPHY American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Education and Training Course #140; www.aiche.com Chemical Engineering March 2001 (March issues every year) Conveyor Type Oven U.S Patent 3,807,293; Kramer and others Matche www.matche.com Peters, Max S., and Klaus D Timmerhaus Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991 RGE (Rochester Gas & Electric) www.rge.com Index Assessment, strategic, ASTM International, 89 Audience communication and, 9–10 target, 139 Automation, 187 Acceptance testing, 82 Acids, organic, 121–122 Additives, 76 Aftertaste, 76 Allergens, 107 American Statistical Association, 89 Anaerobic conditions, and food packaging, 61 Analytical tests, of shelf life, 70 Annatto, 100 Anticipation, of clients needs, Antimicrobials, cost of, 120 Appearance, of food products, 60 Appliances, testing, 136–137 Ascorbic acid, 63 Aspartame, 32, 126 Bacillus globigii, 119 Bacillus stearothermophilus, 119 Bacteria in food products, 60–61 growth cycle of, 61 Bags, materials for, 165 Baked Bean Oven, 23–29, 148, 186–187 Baked goods, packaging, 157 189 190 Ball, C Olin, 114 Baselines, product/process, 118, 120 Beef, packaging of, 153 Beef noodle soup-dry mix, 129–130 Beer, packaging of, 158 Benchmarking, 88 Benchtop, product development, 22 Benco, 116 Benefits, of a project, Best, Dan, 131 Beverage mixes, packaging, 156 Beverages carbonated, 158 flavor-boosted, 86–87 packaging, 158 still, 158 Biaxially oriented heat-set oriented polypropylene film (BOPP), 162 Biofilms, 108 Blow molding conventional, 166 extrusion, 162, 163, 167 injection stretch, 167 BOPP, 162 Bosch, 116 Boston Baked Beans, 183 oven, 23–29, 148, 186–187 Bottles glass, 158, 161 polyester, 154, 158 Botulism, 121 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, 83 Brands, flagship, 44 Bread, loaf volume, 63 Brief, project, 4–6 Browning, 62, 64 Maillard, 62–63 BSE, 83 Buildings, depreciation of, 182 Buildings, depreciation of, 182 Business paradigm, continuity of, 40–41 Butter, packaging, 157 Campfire Marshmallows, 133 Candy, packaging, 158 INDEX Canned foods, packaging, 155–156 Canning, 114 Cans aluminum, 158, 160 coatings for, 160–161 metal, 155, 160–161 paperboard, 159–160 plastic, 156 steel, 160 Canvassing, telephone, 85 Capital expenditure, Capital investment, estimates for, 180 Carotene, 63 Cartons liners for, 159 paperboard, 159 polyethylene-coated, 154 Cases, distribution, 160 CCPs, 112–113 Celeste Pizza, 138–139 Cereal products, 127 packaging, 141, 157 Chain of command, 39 Challenge studies, 114–123 Characteristics identifiable, 79–80 sensory, 80–81 Cheerios, 127 Cheeses, packaging, 155 Chemical reactions, in food products, 69 Chicken, precooked, 128 Children, as consumers, 86 Chocolate, packaging, 158 Cigarettes, 139 Clostridia, 155 Clostridium botulinum, 61, 114, 116, 119 Clostridium sporangenes, 114 Coatings for cans, 160–161 plastic, 159 polyethylene extrusion, 159 Coca-Cola, 147 Coding systems, 108 Coextrusion, 164 Coffee decaffeination, 148 INDEX Coffee Pouch Packer, 148 Cogeneration plants, 188 Color, changes in, 64 Colorimeter, 64 Colors, natural, 100 Combibloc, 116 Command, chain of, 39 Commercial plant, 22–23 Communication audience, 9–10 effect of culture on, executive, 3–8 message, 8–9 verbal, vignettes, 126–128 visual, Companies functions of, 171–172 joint-venture, 177 Competence, 32 Competition internal, 14 product, 16 and project termination, 12 Competitors, 17 Compression, 80 Concepts, origin of, 36–37 Concept testing basic research, 76–77 cost control, 91–94 market profiling, 77 Confidentiality agreements, 148–149 maintaining, 147 Consumables, Consumer education, 128 Consumer market, and product life cycle, 51–58 Consumers analyzing, 15 identifying, 111–112 Consumer testing and home use, 137 local, 135–136 vignettes, 134–141 Containers, semi-rigid, 165 Continuous oven, design of, 26 COOL WHIP®, 176 191 Copackaging, 173–177 Corn syrup, 61 Corporate culture, 39–40 Corporations, goals and objectives of, 13–15 Cost control, 7, 91–94 Cost-reduction programs, 76, 187–188 difference testing and, 81–82 Costs, 16 direct (variable), 180–181, 182 distribution, 16 estimating, 179, 183 external, fixed, 181, 182 manufacturing, 16, 184 operating, 180–182 optimum, 17 project, reducing, 76, 187–188 shelving, 17 Crab products, 127–128 Critical control points (CCPs), 112–113 Critical Path, 23, 27 Crocin, 100 Cross-contamination, due to repackaging, 128 Cross-functional teams, 43, 46–47 Crystallization, of food, 64 Cullet, 161 Culture, effect on communication, Cultures, starter, 121 Customer service, 129 Dairy products, packaging, 154–155 DATEM, 130 Decaffeination, coffee, 148 Decision tree, 14 Departments head of, 41–43 organization by discipline, 41–43 structural criteria, 39–41 Depreciation, 16, 181, 182 Descriptive analysis, 80–81 Descriptive scale, 79–80 Dessert mix, dry, 137 Desserts, gelatin, 53 192 Development cycle, 5, ladder, 180 team, 15–17 Dextrose equivalents, 61 Difference testing, 81–82 Direct costs, 180–181, 182 Dissection, physical, 78 Distortion temperatures, of plastics, 167 Distribution, 17 costs, 16 shelf life testing and, 68–69 Documentation, specialized, 10 Dole Fresh Vegetables, 105 Draft, Richard, L., 39 Dropout purchasers, 84–85 Dry foods, packaging, 156 Drying, 113 Duo-trio tests, 81 Duplicity, preventing, 21 Efficiency and organizational structure, 33–35 of SBUs, 44 Eggs, pasteurized, 131 Electronic noses, 89–90 Electronic tongues, 90 End point, shelf life, 60 End results, challenge studies, 118 Energy, cost of, 188 Engineering, and product development, 38 Enzymes inactivated, 62 proteolytic, 61–62 Equal, 126 Equipment cleaning, 131 cost of, 184–186 depreciation of, 181, 182 selection of, 143–145 specially made, 144 unique, 184 Escherichia coli 0157:H7, 121 Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), 164 EVOH, 164 Executives INDEX needs of, 3–7 wants of, 7–8 Expenditures, tracking, 11 Extrusion lamination, 165 Extrusion methods blown film, 162, 163, 167 slot-die, 163 Fats oxidation of, 156–157 packaging, 156–157 safety of, 107 specialty, 130–131 Feasibility, technical, Fermentation, 113 Films, coextruded, 164 First-order reactions, 69 Fish, packaging, 153 Fixed costs, 181, 182 Flagship brands, 44 Flavor changes in, 60, 61, 62 masking, 76 toasted/burnt, 63 Flavoring compounds, 156 Flexible packaging, 165 Flexography, 165 Flowsheet process, 143–144 project, 183 Focus groups product testing, 83–84 respondents, 134 teleconferencing, 93–94 website for, 94 Folic acid, 63 Food law, 120 Food preservation by heat, 114–116 challenge studies, 116–123 hermetically sealed packages, 116 history of, 113–114 non-thermal systems, 122 Food products appearance of, 60 canned, 155–156 chemical reactions in, 69 deterioration vectors, 152 INDEX dry, 156 flavor-boosted, 86–87 fresh, 152–154 frozen, 156 hygroscopic, 66 microbial growth in, 60–61 odors, 60 packaging See Packaging presentation, 151 processed, fully, 155–158 minimally, 152, 154–155 special dietary, 132 storage, 61 wholesomeness of, 103–104 Food safety, 105–108 HACCP systems, 104–105, 108–113, 122–123 Food Technology, 107 Foreign markets, 87–88 Formulas, secret, 147 Free fatty acid value, 62 Freezer burn, 153 Freeze-thaw cycle, 64 Frozen foods, packaging, 156 Fruit, fresh, packaging, 153 Gantt charts, 21, 22, 23, 27–29 Gelatin dessert, 53 Gelatin extractor, continuous, 147 General Foods Corporation, 51, 135, 176 General Mills, Inc., 43 Glass, packaging, 161 Glassines, 159 Globalization, effect on organizations, Gluten, 63 Glycerin, 61 GMPs, 108 Good manufacturing practices (GMPs), 108 Groups, performance of, 31–32 Growth rate, product, 17 Gums, 61, 76 HACCP systems, 104–105, 122–123 plan development, 112–113 prerequisites, 108–110 193 team duties, 110–113 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) systems See HACCP systems HDPE, 162 Headache powders, 138 Heat resistance, of microorganisms, 114–115 Hedonic scales, 82 Herbs, in food products, 76 High-density polyethylene (HDPE), 162 High hydrostatic pressure (HHP), 122 Home use, and consumer testing, 137 Huber, Louis, 127 Hula-hoop type, product life cycle, 56 Human resources, organization of, 31–49 by discipline, 41–43 by SBUs, 43–45 hybrid structures, 45–46 matrix structures, 46–47 product development, 47–48 Humectants, 61 Humidity relative, 64–66 shelf life and, 67, 72 Hurdles, 104, 113–114, 120 Hybrid structures, of corporate organization, 45–46 Hydrogen peroxide, for sterilization, 119 Identification systems, 108 IFT, 36–37 Illness, foodborne, 116–117 Individually quick frozen (IQF) products, 156 Individuals, performance of, 48–49 Inefficiency, causes of, 21 Information initial, 4–6 ongoing, 6–7 specialized, 10 Informed consent, 126 Ingredients cost of, 187–188 substitution of, 76 194 Injection molding, 165–166 Inside knowledge, Institute of Food Technologists, 36–37 Integration, cross-disciplinary, 41 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 89 Interviews, on-site, 77 Inventions, patenting, 145 Investment, 17 Irradiation, of food, 107 ISO, 89 Iteration, reducing, 21–22 Jargon, technical, Jars, glass, 155, 161 JELL-O Pudding Pops™, 54, 176 JELL-O™, 53 Joint-venture companies, 177 Juices, packaging, 158 Keener, Larry, 104–105 Kitchens of Sara Lee, 37, 45, 136 Kraft, 54, 133, 173, 174 Kraft paper, 159 Lactic acid, 122 Lamination, extrusion, 165 Lang’s factor, 185 Launch date, Laws, food, 120 LDPE, 162 L’Eggs, 140 Life cycle charting, 55–58 definition of, 52–54 influences on, 55 product, 51–58 Lifestyles, product and, 17 Light effect on nutrient loss, 63 and lipid oxidation, 62 shelf life and, 67, 72 Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), 162 Line ‘Ems, 140–142 Line extensions, 52 Line scales, 79–80, 82 Lipid oxidation, 62 INDEX Lipolysis, 62 LLDPE, 162 Loaf volume, 63 Logistics, 171 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 162 Lunchables™, 54 Lutein, 100 Maillard browning, 62–63 Maintenance programs, 108 Manufacturing, 15–16, 171 costs, 16, 184 flexible, 182 in-house, 172, 177 short-term needs, 173–174 third-party, 173–177 Margarine, packaging, 157 Marketing, 17, 171 costs, 16 research, for new products, 139 rollout, 53–54 sales forecast, 183 Markets children, 86 foreign, 87–88 segmentation of, 86, 88 senior, 86–87 size of, 17 Marshmallows, 133 Masking compounds, 76 Materials, raw, 16 Matrix structures, 46–47 Mature period, product life cycle, 56 Meat contaminated, 121 cured, 154 irradiation of, 107 preservation/packaging of, 153 Medium, recovery, 115 Meeting rooms, for focus groups, 84 Memorandum of Invention (MOI), 146–147 Message, of communication, 8–9 Metal ions, and lipid oxidation, 62 MicrosoftProject, 23, 27–29 Milestones, Moderator, of focus groups, 84 INDEX MOI, 146–147 Moisture changes in, 64–66 effect on enzyme activity, 62 and lipid oxidation, 62 Moisture sorption isotherm, 65–66 Molding blow, 166 injection, 165–166 Molds, in food products, 60–61 Nabisco, 54 Names, of products, 136 National Food Processors Association, 116 Neutraceuticals, 76 New products development of, 174 value of, 187 Nitrites, for curing, 154 Nitrogen, for packaging, 155 Numerical scale, 79–80 Nutrient declarations, 78 Nutrients, loss of, 63 Nylon, 163–164 Odors, in food products, 60 Odwalla outbreak, 123 Oil products packaging, 156–157 safety of, 107 Older people, as consumers, 86 Operating costs, 180–182 direct, 186–187 total, 182 Organization, virtual, 34 Organizational Theory & Design, 39 Organizations effect of globalization on, functions of, 33–35 goals and objectives, 13–15 structural criteria, 39–41 Oscar Mayer, 54 Outbreaks, foodborne illness, 116–117 Oven, Boston Baked Bean, 23–29, 148, 186–187 Overruns, cost/time, 12 195 Oxidation, 152 canned foods, 155 lipid, 62 Oxygen, and food storage, 61 Oxymyoglobin, 153 Packaging, 15–16 changing, 140 control of, 129–130 dual use, 156 easy-open, 87 external influences, 167 failure of, 138–139 flexible, 165 function of, 151, 167–168 glass, 161 hermetically sealed foods, 116 materials, 16, 158–168 new, 52 oxygen-impermeable, 61 oxygen-permeable, 153 plastic, 161–165 and product development, 38, 140 secondary, 153 semi-rigid, 165–167 shelf life and, 67 short-term needs, 173–174 tests, 89 vacuum-packed, 62 Packaging requirements See also under individual food fresh food, 152–154 fully processed foods, 155–158 minimally processed foods, 152, 154–155 Paint chips, 64 Palatability, product, 88–89 Paper greaseproof, 159 packaging, 159 recycled, 159 Paperboard, 159–160 Paprika, 100 Pasteurized Eggs Corp., 131 Patents, 145–148 as assets, 148 defensive, 146 in recognition systems, 42 196 Pathogens, foodborne, 60 Performance of groups, 31–32 of individuals, 48–49 Period assessments, 11 Personnel, 171 Perspective, and organizational structure, 32–33 PERT charts, 21, 22, 23, 27–29 PET, 163 Pet food, 88 pH and enzyme activity, 62 and microbial growth, 60 and nutrient loss, 63 and lipid oxidation, 62 Pickling, 113 Pillsbury, 39 Pilot plant, and product development, 22 Pizza, frozen, 138–139 Placement, of products, 55 Plants cogeneration, 188 commercial, 22–23 construction budget, 186 pilot, 22 semi-works scale, 23 tours of, 148 visitors and confidentiality, 148, 149 Plastic distortion temperatures of, 167 packaging, 161–165 thermoformable sheets, 166 Polling, telephone, 77 Polyester (PET), 163 Polyethylene, 162 film, 154, 163 Polyolefin film, 153, 154 Polypropylene (PP), 162–163 Polystyrene, 164 foamed, 166 thermoforming of, 166 trays, 153 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 163 film, 153 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), 164 INDEX Pop-Rocks™, 53–54 Pork, packaging of, 153 Postlaunch tracking, product testing, 84–85 Potato chips, Yugoslavian, 135–136 Pouches, 165 flexible, 154 metalized, 157 moisture resistant, 156 Poultry, packaging, 153 PP, 162–163 Preference testing, 82–83 Pricing, 16 Pringles™, 40 Printing, rotogravure, 165 “Prior Art,” 145 Process changes in, 133 development, baselines, 118 flowsheet, 112, 143–144 patenting, 147–148 Processed foods, fully, 152, 154–155 minimally, 155–156 Processing parameters, challenge studies, 118–119 seasonal, 182 Procter & Gamble, 40 Produce, packaging, 153 Producers, low-cost, 172–173 Product development funnel, 105 ladder, 22–29 team, 15–17, 31–49 Product development process baselines, 118 external evaluation, 18 functions of, 36–38 goals and objectives of, 13–15 managing, 21–29 marketing, 17 organizing, 47–48 principle of, 13 requirements, 18–19 stakeholders, 33, 38–39 steps of, 174 Production in-house, 174 INDEX lines, flexible, 182 low-cost, 172–173 rate, 182 Product manager, 43 Products attributes of, 54–55 comparing, 80–81 concept, 14 definition of, 15, 18 description of, 4, 111 developers, 127 development cycle, existing, 52 fermented, 113 international, 135–136 life cycle of, 51–58 naming, 136 new, 52, 128 accelerating, 132–133 development, 174 value of, 187 quality and shelf life, 59 sample, 22 Product testing applied sensory neuroscience, 90 basic research, 76–77 chemical/physical analysis, 78 cost control, 91–94 electronic, 89–90 focus groups, 83–84 market profiling, 77 market-specific, 85–89 matrix analysis, 91 postlaunch tracking, 84–85 real-time, 91 sensory, 78–83 Profiling, 80–81 Profit, 179 Program manager, 43 Progress reports, Projects assessing progress of, 11 briefs for, 4–6 and external developments, 11–12 high-risk, 23 initial evaluation, 4–6 managers, 43 monitoring, 11–12 197 presentation format, terminating, 10, 12 time frame, 5–6 Proprietorship, sole, 33, 35 Protein, loss of, 63 Protocol vignettes, 129–133 Prototype, 14 Pudding Pops, 176 Pulsed electric field (PEF), 122 Pulsed light, 122 Purchasers dropout, 84–85 repeat, 84 Purchasing and food safety, 110–111 and product development, 38 PVC, 163 film, 153 PVDC, 164 Pyridoxine, 63 Q10, 70–71 Quaker Oats, 138 Quality, automation and, 187 Quality assurance, and product development, 38 Quality control, and electronic noses, 90 Questionnaires, designing, 134–135 Questions, open-ended, 134–135 Rancidity, 156–157 Ranking, 79 Rating, 79–80 Raw materials, substitutions, 81–82 Reality, and food safety studies, 120–122 Real-time testing, 91 Recall programs, 108 Recognition systems, corporate, 42 Recommended Daily Intake (RDI), shelf life and, 63 Recovery medium, 115 Renal caloric supplement, 132 Repackaging, 128 Repeat purchasers, 84–85 Reports, length of, 8–9 Resin, polystyrene, 166 198 Resin process, coffee decaffeination, 148 Retinol, 63 Retorting, 166 Reynolds, RJ, 139 Rice, black, 132–133 Risk management, 174 Roles, definitions of, 32 Roller coating, 161 Rollout schedule, 17 Rotogravure printing, 165 Royalty fee, 146 Saffron, 96 Safrante-Amber™, 97 Safrante™, 95 development of, 96 marketing, 97–100 and saffron market, 100–102 uses, 97 Sales costs, 16 expectations, 17 force, 17 forecast, 183 Sales point, peak, 56 Sales price desired, 184 product, 179 Salmonella, 153 Salmonella argona, 107 Salt, 61, 113 for curing, 154 Sample, product, 22 Sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs), 108 Sara Lee, Kitchens of, 37, 45, 136 Saran wrap, 164 SBUs, 43–45 Scales descriptive, 79–80 line, 79, 82 numerical, 79–80 Screening document, 4–5 Searle, G.D & Co., 126, 132 Searle, G.D Biochemics, 32 Seasonings, 156 Second-order reactions, 69 INDEX Semi-works scale plant, 23 Seniors, as consumers, 86–87 Sensographic segmentation, 88 SensoMetrics, 88 Sensory acuity, loss of, 86 Sensory Neuroscience Laboratory, 90 Sensory testing food products, 78–83 shelf life, 68, 70 Sheer Energy, 140 Shelf life and chemical changes, 61–63 definition of, 59, 72 end point, 60, 68 estimating, 68 and microbial growth, 60–61 and physical changes, 63–66 and Recommended Daily Intake (RDI), 63 testing, 66–70 accelerated, 70–72 Shortcuts, Shortenings, packaging, 157 Shrink film, 160 Size, effect on organizational structure, 40–41 Slot-die extrusion methods, 163 Snack cakes, 130 Snacks, packaging, 157–158 Soft drinks, packaging, 158 Sole proprietorship, 33, 35 Solids, increasing, 61 Soup mixes, packaging, 156 Spectrophotometer, 64 Spray coating, 161 SSOPs, 108 Stakeholders, product development, 33, 38–39 Starches, 61, 64 Steam chest expansion, 166 Store allocations, 17 Store sales data, 77 Strategic assessment, Strategic Business Units (SBUs), organizing by, 43–45 Study forecast, 180 Subsidiaries, foreign, 177 Success, rates of, 51 INDEX Sucrose, 61 Suppliers outside, 11 use of, 177 SureBeam process, 107 Surimi, 127–128 Sweeteners, intense, 76 Target organisms, 114, 119–120 Taste, 76 Taxes, 16 TDT cans/tubes, 115 Technology sharing, 174, 175 untried, Teflon, 140–142 Teleconferencing, for focus groups, 93–94 Telephone, polling/canvassing, 77, 85 Temperature ambient, 67 distribution, 67 and enzyme activity, 62 and lipid oxidation, 62 and microbial growth, 60 and nutrient loss, 63 shelf life and, 67, 70–72 storage, 60, 67 Tentering, 162 Testing organizations, 81 reliability of results, 17 Test launch, 175 Tetra Pak, 116 Texture, changes in, 60, 61, 63–66 Thermoforming, 166 Thermoresistometer, 115–116 Thiamine, 63 Three-arm flask, 115 3M, 40 199 Time frame cultural differences in, project, 5–6 Toaster products, 136–137 Tocopherol, 63 Total equipment cost (TTC), 185 Toxins, 60 Tracking programs, 108 Trade secrets, 145, 146, 147–148 TTC, 185 Turmeric, 100 Ultraviolet light, 122 Unfeasibility, technical, 12 Universal Oven Company, 24 Use, intended, 111–112 Vegetables, packaging, 153 Vendors, confidentiality and, 147, 148–149 pricing, 186 Veneman, Ann M., 107 Virtual organization, 34 Vitamins, adding, 63 Volume, marketing and, 17 Water activity definition of, 64 in food products, 152 measuring, 64–65 and microbial growth, 60–61 and nutrient loss, 63 Website, for focus groups, 94 Yeasts, in food products, 60–61 0.6 exponential scale-up rule, 184–185 Zero-order reactions, 69 .. .Food Product Development Based on Experience Edited by Catherine Side Food Product Development Based on Experience BASIC SYMPOSIUM SERIES Food Product Development Based on Experience. .. 0–8138–2029–4/2002 $.10 Printed on acid-free paper in the United States of America First edition, 2002 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Food product development based on experience / edited... Stier has contributed over one hundred articles to trade and refereed publications and serves as a contributing editor to Baking & Snack magazine FOREWORD Food Product Development Based on Experience