an unusual pattern reflected in a suspect’s dentition that determines its value. Since this determination is not apparent until the comparison stage, any bitemark regardless of quantity or quality, should be worked up. Its usefulness is not known until all the facts have been gathered. Dental Findings in Child Maltreatment and Other Person Abuse In 1962, Kempe et al. 43 described the “battered child syndrome” and sum- marized the physical findings that, when seen in the proper setting, were suspicious of child abuse. With increased awareness and changing definitions of child abuse and neglect, the medical profession has recognized additional Figure 12.31 Laceration of the lower vestibular fold due to forcible displacement of the lip. Figure 12.32 Rampant tooth decay in nursing-bottle mouth syndrome. (Photograph cour- tesy of Dr. Thomas O’Toole.) ©1997 CRC Press LLC physical findings and syndromes suggestive of nonaccidental injuries. Among these are shaken infant syndrome, Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy, and specific oral lesions. It is not surprising that the dental profession has played an active role in the detection of physical child abuse, considering that head and neck injuries occur in 50% of cases. 5 The oral cavity and perioral region of suspected victims of child maltreatment should be examined. Table 12.3 lists oral findings of child abuse and neglect and their causes. Not every traumatic injury in a child is suspicious, and some judgment is needed. Single-event injuries, showing facial abrasion and laceration with or without tooth fracture are not necessarily deliberate injuries and do occur as simple accidents in ambulatory, active children. Bitemarks are frequently exchanged between children at play. Nursing-bottle mouth syndrome does not always constitute willful neglect and may reflect poor parenting skills. Of course, if it reoccurs or remains untreated after counseling, the caregiver should be considered neglectful. Spouse and elder abuse reports are increasing as society is becoming more aware of these pervasive crimes. Head and neck trauma is seen in most cases 44 and includes fractured teeth and jaws, oral and facial abrasions, con- tusions, and lacerations. Up to 30% of female emergency room patients present with injuries sustained during domestic violence. 45 Table 12.3 Oral Findings of Child Maltreatment Findings Cause Multiple broken, discolored, missing, or avulsed front teeth Repeated episodes of mouth trauma Peculiar malocclusions and nonoccluding jaw segments Healed jaw fractures which were displaced and not reduced Laceration of labial or lingual frena (Figure 12.31) Forceful lip pulling or slapping Isolated laceration of soft palate Insertion of a utensil during forced feeding Horizontal abrasions or contusions extending from lip commissures Application of a gag To oth marks in labial mucosa corresponding to child’s teeth Pressure from smothering Bitemarks on skin Child bite (unsupervised children); adult bite (anger biting) Rampant caries (decay) (Figure 12.32) “Nursing-bottle mouth syndrome” — child is continually allowed to fall asleep with bottle in mouth, containing sugar from milk, juice, etc. (possible child neglect) Ve nereal disease Venereal warts, gonococcal stomatitis and pharyngitis, syphilitic lesions (indicates sexual abuse) ©1997 CRC Press LLC Forensic Dentistry in Mass Disasters When a jurisdiction is suddenly overwhelmed with a large number of fatal casualties, a mass disaster situation exists. Airplane crashes, building fires, shipwrecks, explosions, and wars comprise the bulk of manmade disasters. Natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanos, floods and hurricanes also exact a large toll of human lives. These disasters leave bodies burned, muti- lated, and decomposed beyond recognition. Often, it is difficult to determine who was involved in the disaster. Identification of victims in such circum- stances is a challenge and is most often made through dental means. A survey of 22 aircraft accidents from 1951 to 1972 involving 1080 fatalities showed that 40% of the identifications were made or assisted through dentistry. 30 Since that time, the success rate of dental identifications either alone or assisted has risen to approximately 75%. The Dental Identification Team Although manpower needs and operations vary based on the nature of the catastrophe, some basic maxims apply in the organization and implementa- tion of the dental team. The essence of expedient and accurate functioning is preparation, teamwork, and communication. 46 Preplanning involves the preparation of an operations manual, selection of responsible and knowl- edgeable dentists, access to needed supplies and equipment, and mock disas- ter drills. A team leader must be on ready alert and able to effect instant mobilization of the team. Each member should have an identification card or badge to permit access into secured areas. The mass disaster team consists of three sections and a team chief. The role of the postmortem section is to record dental findings on decedents. The antemortem section functions to locate dental records of proposed victims and to make the dental findings interpretable. The comparison section serves to compare and match sets of records and finalize identifications. Making dental identifications in mass disasters is no different from indi- vidual cases except for the risk of loss and mixups incurred by having multiple bodies and multiple dentists. The dental team chief oversees the entire dental operation and acts as a liaison between other sections and the medical exam- iner or coroner in charge. The team chief functions as manager, spokesperson, coordinator and facilitator. 46 Operations at the Scene After the search for and triage of living victims is made and the area is safe and secure, the recovery of the dead begins. No matter how chaotic the scene ©1997 CRC Press LLC appears, it is the most organized it will be. As it is dismantled, it will become increasingly difficult to reconstruct the circumstances of the disaster. The scene should be subdivided into a grid of numbered squares. If possible, aerial photographs are made to show a panoramic orientation of the disaster scene. Each square is searched, photographed with a still or video camera, sketched, and labeled. Sketching and photography are integral parts of the mass disaster protocol. Even if bodies are correctly identified, their positions and locations are of critical importance in accident reconstruction and the litigation to follow (Figure 12.33). Any personal effects or body parts are tagged and identified as to grid section location. Prewritten tags are used to avoid duplication. Dentists from the postmortem section should be utilized to help identify jaw or tooth fragments. Any fragments found should be individually labeled, especially if there are comingled remains. Burned or skeletonized heads should be bagged in plastic during transport to avoid loss or breakage. Bodies are placed on a gurney for transport to and from the various processing areas. 46 Postmortem Section In the schema of the processing line, dental examination is sequenced after in-processing, photography, collection of personal effects, fingerprinting, and full-body radiography. Anthropologic triage and autopsy may also precede the dental exam. The jaws are exposed and/or removed, radiographed, and cleaned. 46 One dentist performs the exam while another dentist or auxiliary records. The examiner and recorder then switch and repeat the process for verification. Charts, X-rays, and specimens are labeled, initialed, and kept together, then delivered to the comparison section. Antemortem Section The antemortem section is out of the body-processing loop and is primed by incoming names of putative victims derived from a manifest, reported missing persons, or people who believe an acquaintance might be a victim. Once the names are in hand, relatives must be located, family dentists sought, and dental records received and logged in. Data from these records are con- densed onto a composite, standard form that can be compared with the postmortem form. The completed form along with the original records are delivered to the comparison section. Comparison Section The comparison section receives the antemortem and postmortem dental data, as well as any personal effects and clothing information and physical, anthropologic, and medical descriptions derived from other sections. If man- ual sorting is used, the postmortem files are divided into mutually exclusive ©1997 CRC Press LLC Figure 12.33 In situ scene photograph of burned victims in seats 4 and 5 of a bus fire (a) and shown diagrammatically (b). Although the photograph is more detailed and accurate, the sketch is more complete and permits labeling. This evidence was compared to the seating plan recollected by survivors (c) to allow accident reconstruction. ©1997 CRC Press LLC groups (e.g., race, gender). 46 Then, those antemortem records with a char- acteristic dental finding are selected and the proper group of postmortem files is scanned for that finding in search of a tentative match. 46 The more difficult cases are performed last. This process is time consuming in large disasters. Computer matching is valuable when the number of cases exceeds 100. The military CAPMI program has proven useful in mass disasters. Time lost entering antemortem and postmortem data is easily recovered, as the computer performs the initial sorting in seconds. The computer does not make matches; it only prioritizes the order of likely matches. After initial sorting, final matching is performed by dentists who compare the most objective data, usually radiographs, accessing uniqueness and explaining all inconsistencies. After records are matched, it is the chief who is responsible for verifying the identifications and delivering the results to the head of disaster operations. Following the identification report, the comparison section photographs, copies, and duplicates materials to be returned and prepares a packet on each person consisting of the antemortem and postmortem record (including all duplicates) and photographs of specimens. Also submitted is a summary document which lists all body numbers with their grid locations and their determined identities. References 1. Luntz, L. L., History of forensic dentistry, Dent. Clin. N. Am., 21, 7, 1977. 2. Cottone, J. A. and Standish, S. M., Outline of Forensic Dentistry, Yearbook Med- ical Publishers, Chicago, 1982. 3. Vale, G. L., The dentist’s expanding responsibilities: forensic odontology, J. S. Calif. Dent. Assoc., 37, 249, 1969. 4. Swanson, H. A., Forensic dentistry, J. Am. Coll. Dent., 34, 174, 1967. 5. Averill, D. C., Manual of Forensic Odontology, ed. 2, American Society of Foren- sic Odontology, Colorado Springs, Colorado, 1991. 6. Harvey, W., Dental Identification and Forensic Odontology, Henry Kimpton Publishers, London, 1976. 7. Luntz, L. L. and Luntz, P., Handbook for Dental Identification: Techniques in Forensic Dentistry, J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1973. 8. Miles, A. E. W., Dentition in the estimation of age, J. Dent. Res. (Suppl. #1), 42, 255, 1963. 9. Gustafson, G., Forensic Odontology, American Elsevier, Inc., New York, 1966. 10. Woolridge, E., Legal concerns of the forensic odontologist, New Dentist, 11, 20, 1980. ©1997 CRC Press LLC 11. Bernstein, M. L., The identification of a “John Doe”, J. Am. Dental Assoc., 110, 918, 1985. 12. Stimson, P. G., Forensic odontology, Dent. Asst., 40, 100, 1971. 13. Kraus, B. S., Calcification of the human deciduous teeth, J. Am. Dental Assoc., 59, 1128, 1959. 14. Schour, I. and Massler, M., The development of the human dentition, J. Am. Dental Assoc., 28, 1153, 1941. 15. Moorrees, C. F. A., Fanning, E. A., and Hunt, E. E., Age variation of formation stages for ten permanent teeth, J. Dent. Res., 42, 1450, 1963. 16. Harris, E. F. and McKee, J. H., Tooth mineralization standards for blacks and whites from the middle southern United States, J. Foren. Sci., 35, 859, 1990. 17. Mincer, H. H., Harris, E. F., and Berryman, H. E., The ABFO study of third molar development and its use as an estimation of chronological age, J. Forensic Sci., 38, 379, 1993. 18. Ogino, T. and Ogino, H., Application to forensic odontology of aspartic acid racemization in unerupted and supernumerary teeth, J. Dent. Res., 67, 1319, 1988. 19. Ohtani, S. and Yamamoto, K., Age estimation using the racemization of amino acid in human dentin, J. Forensic Sci., 36, 792, 1991. 20. Anderson, J. L. and Thompson, G. W., Interrelationships and sex differences of dental and skeletal measurements, J. Dent. Res., 52, 431, 1973. 21. Verhoeven, J. W., van Aken, J., and van der Weerdt, G. P., The length of teeth: a statistical analysis of the differences in length of human teeth for radiologic purposes, Oral Surg., 47, 193, 1979. 22. Dorion, R. D. J., Sexual differentiation in the human mandible, J. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci., 15, 99, 1982. 23. Whittaker, D. K., Llewelyn, D. R., and Jones, R. W., Sex determination from necrotic pulpal tissue, Br. Dent. J., 139, 403, 1975. 24. Gill, G. W. and Rhine, S., Skeletal Attribution of Race: Methods for Forensic Anthropology, Maxwell Museum of Anthropology: Anthropological papers #4, Albuquerque, NM, 1990. 25. Hanihara, K., Racial characteristics in the dentition, J. Dent. Res. (Suppl. to #1), 46, 923, 1967. 26. Dahlberg, A. A., The evolutionary significance of the protostylid, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 8, 15, 1950. 27. Pindborg, J. J., Pathology of the Dental Hard Tissue, W. B. Saunders, Philadel- phia, 1970. 28. Kraus, B. S., Jordan, R. E., and Abrams, L., Dental Anatomy and Occlusion, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1969. 29. Kraus, B. S., The genetics of the human dentition, J. Forensic Sci., 2, 420, 1957. ©1997 CRC Press LLC 30. Sopher, I. M., Forensic Dentistry, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1976. 31. Keiser-Nielsen, S., Person Identification by Means of the Teeth, John Wright and Sons, Bristol, England, 1980. 32. Sognnaes, R. F., Rawson, R. D., Gratt, B. M., and Nguyen, N. B. T., Computer comparison of bitemark patterns in identical twins, J. Am. Dental Assoc., 105, 449, 1982. 33. Pitluck, H. M., Bitemark citations, presented at Tom Kraus Memorial Bite- Mark Breakfast, American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 1996, Nashville, TN. 34. Imwinkelried, E. J., The evolution of the American test for the admissability of scientific evidence, Med. Sci. Law., 30, 60, 1990. 35. Imwinkelried, E. J., The Daubert decision: Frye is dead, long live Federal Rules of Evidence, Trial, September 1993. 36. Levine, L. J., Bite-mark evidence, Dent. Clin. N. Amer., 21, 145, 1977. 37. Vale, G. L. and Noguchi, T. T., Anatomical distribution of human bitemarks in a series of 67 cases, J. Forensic Sci., 28, 61, 1983. 38. Sperber, N. D., Lingual markings of anterior teeth as seen in human bitemarks, J. Forensic Sci., 35, 838, 1990. 39. American Board of Forensic Odontology, Inc., Guidelines for bite-mark anal- ysis, J. Am. Dental Assoc., 112, 383, 1986. 40. Bernstein, M. L., Two bite-mark cases with inadequate scale references, J. Forensic Sci., 30, 958, 1985. 41. Bernstein, M. L. and Blair, J., Comparison of black and white infrared photog- raphy to standard photography for recording abrasion/contusion injuries, pre- sentation at American Academy Forensic Sciences, 1987. 42. Dorion, R. B. J., Preservation and fixation of skin for ulterior scientific evalu- ation and courtroom preservation, J. Can. Dent. Assoc., 2, 129, 1984. 43. Kempe, C. H., Silverman, F. N., Steel, B. F. et al., Battered child syndrome, J. Am. Dental Assoc., 181, 17, 1962. 44. Raunsaville, B. and Weissman, M. M., Battered women: a medical problem requiring detection, Intl. J. Psych. Med., 8, 191, 1977-1978. 45. McDowell, J. D., Kassebaum, D. K., and Stromboe, S. E., Recognizing and reporting victims of domestic violence, J. Am. Dental Assoc., 123, 44, 1992. 46. Morlang, W. M., Mass disaster management update, CDA J., 14, 49, 1986. ©1997 CRC Press LLC 13 The Scope of Forensic Anthropology MEHMET YAS¸AR I · S¸CAN SUSAN R. LOTH Introduction The medicolegal system has sought the assistance of physical anthropologists for their expertise in skeletal analysis long before the Physical Anthropology Section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) was formally established in 1972. 1 Forensic anthropologists concentrate on human biolog- ical characteristics at the population level, with special attention to uncov- ering the uniqueness that sets one individual apart from all others. This focus on isolating each human being as a unique entity is the essence of forensic anthropology. The practice of forensic anthropology centers on the assessment of every aspect of skeletonized human remains in a medicolegal context for the pur- pose of establishing identity and, where possible, the cause of death and circumstances surrounding this event. It also encompasses facial image anal- ysis, reconstruction, identification, and comparison of both the living and the dead. The forensic anthropologist is most often called upon to assist law enforcement agencies when decomposition, dismemberment, or other griev- ous injury makes it impossible to recognize a person or use the normal array of techniques such as fingerprints. Beyond murder, war, and mass disaster, these specialists are also consulted by governments and individuals to inves- tigate and authenticate historic and even prehistoric remains and relics. The purpose of this chapter is to give an overview of the scope and workings of the field of forensic anthropology. Since the first edition of this book was published in 1980, the discipline has expanded dramatically as the result of an almost exponential increase in research and new technologic developments. Old techniques have been modified or discarded, and, more importantly, new ones have been introduced that have greatly increased the accuracy of skeletal analysis. Obviously, it is impossible to cover all aspects in depth, but there are many references available for further information. 1–8 ©1997 CRC Press LLC The following tabulation summarizes the topical scope of forensic anthropology as covered in this chapter: Identification: Degrees of Certainty Forensic anthropologists are often called upon as expert witnesses to render an opinion in a court of law about the identification of an individual. Several outcomes are possible for attempts to establish identity. If there is nothing to rule out a potential match, the degree of certainty of an identification depends on the accuracy of the techniques and the presence of indisputable factors of individualization. The following categories have been suggested. 1 Possible A match is “possible” if there is no major incompatibility that would exclude an individual from consideration. However, it must be emphasized that, while this assignment prevents immediate exclusion, it does not imply probability. A judgment of “possible” merely makes this individual eligible for further, more rigorous and specialized testing. Indeterminate or Inconclusive Numerous prospective matches survive initial screening, but most of these will wind up in the “indeterminate” category. This is due to the fact that a large number of very similar features are shared by the members of any given age, sex, race group, or nationality, and thus cannot be deemed diagnostic of identity. General examples include pattern baldness, squared jaw, brown eyes, pug nose, and ear protrusion. Population-specific features such as alve- olar prognathism in blacks, shovel shaped incisors in American Indians, and brachycephaly in whites are also not definitive. If no idiosyncratic character- istics or factors of individualization can be isolated and matched, the com- parison can only be considered “indeterminate or inconclusive”. The existence of only general, shared similarities means that a definite conclusion cannot be reached one way or the other. Even if there appears to be a strong probability Identification: Degrees of Certainty Forensic Ta phonomy Demographic Characteristics Personal Identification Cause of Death Possible Time since death Age Individualization Disease Indeterminate Burned bones Sex Facial imaging Trauma Positive Race Superimposition Identification Stature and build Photo Comparison Facial Reconstruction ©1997 CRC Press LLC [...]... individual to another because there are so many genetic and environmental factors involved This makes it impossible to predict all but the most general trends To complicate matters further, changes over time are not all due to aging; some can be linked to alterations in lifestyle and health, such as fluctuations in nutrition, physical activity, smoking, and exposure to ©1997 CRC Press LLC Figure 13 .10 Photographic·... is to attempt facial reconstruction — the difficult task of recreating appearance during life from the features of the skull Though not an exact science, the resemblance is sometimes close enough to facilitate identification Establishing identity is not limited to skeletal remains It is becoming increasingly important to be able to determine if two or more photographs depict the same individual Photo -to- photo... in Forensic Anthropology, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL,1984 7 Stewart, T D., Essentials of Forensic Anthropology, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL,1979 8 Reichs, K J., Ed., Forensic Osteology, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL,1986 9 Shipman, P., Life History of a Fossil: An Introduction to Taphonomy and Paleoecology, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1981 10 Yoshino, M., Miyasaka, S., Sato,... legal responsibilities of forensic anthropologists Yearbk Phys Anthropol., 33, 39, 1990 ©1997 CRC Press LLC APPENDIX Resources in the Forensic Sciences WILLIAM G ECKERT It is essential that the student of forensic sciences be aware of the many sources of information that can give deeper understanding of the various fields of the forensic sciences and the problems that are unique to these fields These resources... discriminatory torts, swimming pool information, worker’s compensation sources, among many other collections of information A second important source is the American Jurisprudence Proof of Facts, now in its second edition, which deals with specific problems and documents facts essential to a successful, skillfully planned approach to the presentation of the attorney witnesses in the forensic sciences. .. linked to massiveness Although average weight can be approximated for a given height, there is no way to ascertain obesity from the skeleton.62 Personal Identification Once remains have been limited to a specific age, sex, and race group, an attempt must be made to establish the identity of the victim by searching for ©1997 CRC Press LLC factors of individualization — traits that set one 5'7" to 5'9"... studies to determine the effects of burning on bone.3,13 There are many forensic situations where this is vital, ranging from fatal building fires to car or plane crashes to attempts to destroy the body of a murder victim The color and texture of a bone gives important clues to the heat and intensity of the blaze, as well as the approximate duration of exposure Limited or indirect exposure to the heat... with existing standards, and several modifications of Todd’s 30 original 10 phases were offered Some of these were designed for seriationdependent analysis of paleodemographic assemblages, 31,32 while others, including symphyseal casts, were specifically created for use on individual forensic cases.33 Yet, while it is not too difficult to match the bones to the casts, the extremely wide 95% confidence ranges... on the skull itself or an exact replica The latter was often undertaken to assess skulls thought to belong to famous people, such as the reconstruction of Bach pictured in Figure 13.9 ©1997 CRC Press LLC Figure 13.8 Skull -to- photo superimposition showing vertical (left) and horizontal (right) split comparisons of a skull with a photograph of the victim.67 The interrelationship of the face and skull has... calculated and bony contours followed, many remaining details are left to conjecture because the skull does not provide all the indicators necessary to predict every soft tissue formation Even the most skilled practitioner cannot determine such vital features as fatness, hair color or style, exact flesh tones, facial hair, or if a person looked older or younger than his chronological age Photographic Comparison . #1), 42, 255, 1963. 9. Gustafson, G., Forensic Odontology, American Elsevier, Inc., New York, 1966. 10. Woolridge, E., Legal concerns of the forensic odontologist, New Dentist, 11, 20, 1980. ©1997. Comparison of black and white infrared photog- raphy to standard photography for recording abrasion/contusion injuries, pre- sentation at American Academy Forensic Sciences, 1987. 42. Dorion, R. B. J.,. individuals to inves- tigate and authenticate historic and even prehistoric remains and relics. The purpose of this chapter is to give an overview of the scope and workings of the field of forensic