Introduction to Forensic Sciences 2nd Edition phần 2 pot

Dutch victims by removing the upper and lower jaws. They returned to Holland with this evidence and worked on the identification processing, while Spanish authorities completed their investigation and released the bod- ies. Much of the identification was completed in Holland by the time the bodies were returned. The American victims were sent to the Dover, Dela- ware, Air Force base, where American forensic odontologists were excluded by the military. This unfortunate decision prevented the accumulation of further evidence by these experts. The field of forensic odontology has made remarkable progress during the past two decades. National societies devoted to this specialty have appeared in Japan, Scandinavia, Canada, the U.S., and other countries. It has also resulted in the development of the International Society of Forensic Stomato-Odontology, which meets periodically and communicates regularly with its members. An international journal of forensic dentistry followed the important activities of Dr. Knut Danielsen of Copenhagen, Denmark, who with Dr. Keiser-Nielsen was active in developing a newsletter for the Scan- dinavian society. Although there have been other textbooks written in this field, the book by Dr. Warren Harvey of England in 1976 has become a classic in the field. Forensic odontology continues to be an important forensic resource, as it offers an important alternate way to study evidence in the administration of justice. The recognition of this specialty is aided by the most recent devel- opment of a board of certification in forensic odontology in America. This was supported by the activities of the Forensic Sciences Foundation, estab- lished by members of the AAFS. The main thorn in the side of the experts in this field today is the relative infrequency of cases receiving requests for support from these dental experts. Forensic Psychiatry The beginnings of this specialty of the forensic sciences is the M’Naughten case in England, 33 in which an insane person shot a government official and was found guilty by virtue of insanity. 32,35 One of the leaders in this field of psychiatry was Dr. I. Ray, who contributed a treatise on the medical juris- prudence on insanity. Quen had written about earlier historical aspects of forensic psychiatry in America as well. 33,36 The English Court cases are sum- marized in this field. 34 The development of criminal profiling is another approach in support of police investigation of cases based on a study of the behavior of the serial murderer so that a suspect can be evaluated before and after he has been placed into custody. ©1997 CRC Press LLC REFERENCES 1. Camps F.E. editor: Gradwohl’s Legal Medicine, ed. 2, The Wiliams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1968. 2. Browne, W.H. editor: Archives of Maryland, Maryland Historical Society, vol. 3, Baltimore, 1885. 3. Browne, W.H. editor: Archives of Maryland, Maryland Historical Society, vol. 4, Baltimore, 1887. 4. Pleasents, J.H. editor: Archives of Maryland, Maryland Historical Society, vol. 54, Baltimore, 1937. 5. Leary, T.: The Massachusetts medicolegal system. In Methods and Problems of Medical Education, ninth series, Rockefeller Foundation, New York, 1928. 6. Nemec, J.: Highlights of Medicolegal Relations, National Library of Medicine, 1968. 7. Biggare, H.P.: The voyages of Jacques Cartier, Ottawa, Canada, Publications Public Archives, no. 11, 1924. 8. Hektoen, L.: Early postmortem examinations by Europeans in America, J.A.M.A., 86:576, 1926. 9. Toner, J.M.: Contributions to annals of medical progress and medical education in the United States before and during the War of Independence, U.S. Gov- ernment Printing Office, Washington D.C., 1874. 10. Deetjen, C.: Witchcraft and medicine. Bull. Inst. History Med., 2:164, 1934. 11. Russell, G.W.: Early medicine in Connecticut, Proc. Conn. Med. Soc., 1892, pp. 69–224. 12. Hoadley, C.J.: Early postmortem exams in New England, Proc. Conn. Med. Soc., 1892, pp. 207–217. 13. Jarcho. S.: Infectious fevers: correspondence of Cadwallader Colden, Bull. Hist. Med. 30:195, 1956. (Colden’s other papers in New York Historical Society.) 14. Long, Esmond, R.: A History of American Pathology, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1962. 15. Wallstein Report on the New York City Coroners, 1915. 16. Levinson, S.A.: History and progress of scientific work of the Cook County coroner’s office, Bull. Coc. Med. Hist. Chicago, 5:208, 1940. 17. Committee of Medicolegal Problems, American Medical Association, The med- ical sciences in crime detection, J.A.M.A., 200:155, 1967. 18. Larson, C.P.: History of the College of American Pathologists Committee on Forensic Pathology, CAP Pathologist, January: 23, 1976. 19. French, A.J.: The history and significance of the issuance of certificates in forensic pathology by the American Board of Pathology. In Legal Medicine Annual, Wecht, C. editor, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1969. ©1997 CRC Press LLC 20. Chaille, S.E.: Origin and progress of medical jurisprudence 1776–1876, J. Crim. Law Criminol., 40(4):397, 1949. (Reprint from Transactions of the Interna- tional Medical Congress, Philadelphia, 1876.) 21. Gettler, A.O.: Historical development of toxicology, J. Forens. Sci., 1(1): 1958. 22. Orfila, M.J.: Traite de Medicine Legale, vol. 3, Paris, 1823. 23. Thorwald J.: Century of the Detective, Section 111: The Winding Road of Forensic Toxicology, Harcourt, Brace and World, New York, 1965, pp. 267–413. 24. Umberger, C.J.: Personal communication, 1950. 25. Eckert, W.G. and Alexander O. Gettler: Am. J. Med. Pathol., 4:4, 1983. 26. Thorwald, J.: Century of the Detective, Section 1: The Adventure of Identifi- cation, Harcourt, Brace and World, New York, 1965, pp. 1–110. 27. Dillon, D.: History of criminalistics in the United States (1850–1950), doctoral dissertation, University of California at Berkeley, Ann Arbor, MI, 1977. Uni- versity Microfilms, Inc. 28. Thorwald, J.: Century of the Detective, Section IV: The Drama of Forensic Ballistics, Harcourt, Brace, and World, New York, 1965. 29. Thorwald, J.: Crime and Science, Section I: Forensic Serology, Harcourt, Brace, and World, New York, 1967, pp. 1–208. 30. Harvey, W.: Forensic Dentistry, Henry Kimpton, London, 1976. 31. Amoedo O.: L’Arte Dentaire en Medicine Legale, Masson, Paris, 1898. 32. Ray, I.: A Treatise on the Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity, Little, Brown, Boston, 1838. 33. Quen, J.: An historical view of the M’Naghten case, Bull. Med. Hist. Med., 42:43, 1968. 34. English reports, fol. 8, vols. 8–12, House of Lords containing Clark and Finnelly, William Green and Sons, Edinburgh, 1901, pp. 718–724. 35. Ray, I.: Confinement of the insane, Am. Law Rev., 3:193, 1869. 36. Quen, J.: Historical reflections on American legal psychiatry, Bull. Am. Acad. Psychiatry Law, 11(4):237, 1975. 37. Hazelwood, R.: FBI Academy, Behavioral Sciences, Quantico, VA, personal communication, 1991. ©1997 CRC Press LLC 3 The Role of the Forensic Laboratory WILLIAM G. ECKERT STUART H. JAMES Introduction Forensic or crime laboratories are concerned with the examination of items of physical evidence associated with crime scenes, victims, and suspects. The scientific findings of the laboratory are utilized in conjunction with the other areas of forensic science and criminal investigation in preparation for a legal proceeding or trial. Physical evidence may be generally defined as any material either in gross or trace quantities that can establish through scientific examination and analysis that a crime has been committed. Physical evidence may be utilized in forensic investigations in the following meaningful areas: 1. Defining the element of the crime — This is the proof that a crime has been committed, such as the identification and quantitation of a drug or controlled substance or the determination of the quantity of alcohol in the blood of a person suspected of driving while intoxicated. 2. Providing investigative leads for a case — An example of this would be the identification of a vehicle type in a hit-and-run case through automotive paint and glass analysis. 3. Linking a crime scene or a victim to a suspect — This link may be provided through analysis of various types of physical evidence such as hair, blood, semen, and fingerprints. 4. Corroborating or refuting a suspect’s statement or alibi — In a fatal gunshot case, the examination of bloodstain patterns at the scene and on a suspect’s clothing may establish whether a victim was struggling with an assailant as may be claimed or conversely show that the victim was in a totally different position or location when the shot was fired. Physical evidence may also assist with the differentiation of a homicide or suicide. Questions, such as could the victim have fired the fatal shot ©1997 CRC Press LLC or could certain bloodstains have been produced by the victim’s activ- ity, may be answered by the evaluation of physical evidence. 5. Identifying a suspect — The identification of a suspect is not limited to but often established through fingerprint comparison or DNA pro- filing. 6. Inducing a confession of a suspect — In some cases presenting factual information to a suspect established through the examination of phys- ical evidence, such as the victim’s blood identified on their clothing or fingerprints identified on a weapon, will encourage the person to admit involvement in a crime. 7. Exonerating the innocent — Physical evidence may be found that may prove a person did not commit a crime. This is often referred to as exculpatory evidence. An example of this type of evidence would be the presence of DNA in seminal fluid from vaginal samples of a rape victim that does not match the suspect. 8. Providing expert testimony in court — The presentation of physical evidence in court by an expert is the ultimate test of the validity of the evidence. The conclusions drawn by the expert must meet rigorous standards of scientific proof and withstand a vigorous cross examina- tion by defense counsel at trial. The physical evidence and scientific conclusions must be explained to the jurors in an understandable fashion to assist them in arriving at a just verdict in a case. Documentation and Collection of Physical Evidence The quality of physical evidence is dependent upon the proper observation, documentation, collection, preservation, and packaging of this evidence at the crime scene, as well as from the victim and suspect. This is governed by the skill and thoroughness of the crime scene investigators, detectives, and pathologists involved in the case, as well as the sophistication of the scientific methods utilized by the forensic scientists. This is achieved through proper training and experience of the crime scene investigators and forensic pathol- ogists, as well as the forensic scientists or criminalists engaged in the scientific examination of physical evidence in the laboratory. The continuity of the chain of custody of the physical evidence must be maintained throughout the entire process including its analysis and subsequent storage. This is nec- essary to ensure the admissibility of physical evidence in judicial proceedings and at the trial of the accused. It is necessary to maintain the relationship of physical evidence to the crime scene prior to its collection and packaging. This is usually accom- plished through photography, written notes, and diagrams. The collection of physical evidence requires careful attention to the type of evidence encountered ©1997 CRC Press LLC with respect to proper packaging. Care must be taken not to alter, distort, or contaminate the evidence prior to its analysis. Items collected should be marked with a sequential number, referenced to the specific location where it was discovered noting the time and date, and initialed by the person collecting the evidence. Biohazardous materials, such as blood and body fluids, should be placed in clearly marked containers. Crime laboratories maintain protocols for evidence collection and packaging which should be adhered to carefully. For example, bloodstained materials such as clothing and bedding should be thoroughly air dried prior to packaging. This avoids bacterial activity which may hinder subsequent analyses. Special containers are required for collection of particles of trace evidence to avoid loss and contamination. Good communication between the laboratory and crime scene technicians is essential to ensure that proper procedures are being followed. Types of Physical Evidence Physical evidence may exist in virtually any form or size depending upon the nature and environment of the criminal event. It may exist at the crime scene, or have been transferred between victim and assailant, as well as any other location depending upon the activities of persons involved. The examination and analysis of physical evidence by the forensic scientist involves the physical or chemical identification of materials to the highest degree of scientific certainty possible with current technology. For example, the identification and quantity of a substance present in samples are the goals of alcohol and illicit drug analysis. This establishes the element of the crime in driving- while-intoxicated cases or those involving possession or sale of controlled substances. The examination and analysis of other types of physical evidence, such as blood and hair, may also establish identification of a material followed by comparisons of known and unknown specimens to determine whether they share a common origin. Occasionally, the comparison process involves the physical matching of fragments of objects, such as vehicular components, glass, or clothing, in a jigsaw puzzle fashion (Figure 3 .1). Often the minute size of materials referred to as trace evidence, such as hairs and fibers, require microscopic comparison. Some types of physical evidence comparisons, such as tool mark impressions or projectiles, may only reveal similarities with class characteristics. This means that the evidence can only be associated with a group of similar material and not a unique source. If the examination and comparison of the physical evidence reveals unique features, they are referred to as individual characteristics and there may be a high probability of a common source. Examples of unique or individual characteristics associated with physical evidence comparisons are matching friction ridge detail with fingerprints, individual wear patterns associated with tool marks or footwear ©1997 CRC Press LLC patterns, striations on projectiles, and matching DNA profiles in blood, semen, or tissue. Statistical analysis may be employed, such as with DNA analysis, to show the relative frequency of a particular profile. The following is a summary of common types of physical evidence encountered in forensic or crime laboratories: 1. Body fluids — primarily blood, semen, or saliva in liquid or dried form often present on clothing or other fabrics or objects (Figure 3.2). These materials are frequently collected on sterile cloth patches or swabs from a crime scene or person for species identification and possible individualization through serological techniques or DNA profiling. The interpretation of bloodstain patterns at the scene of a violent crime and on the clothing of victims and suspects is an addi- tional area of physical evidence examination which is fully discussed in Chapter 10. Other body excretions, such as urine, perspiration, and feces, may be identified in various stains or materials. 2. Body tissues — various organ samples collected at autopsy with blood, urine, and stomach contents for toxicological analysis. 3. Drugs and controlled substances — plant materials, powders, tablets, capsules, or other preparations for identification and weight (Figure 3.3). 4. Fibers — natural occurring (cotton, wool) or synthetic fibers (rayon, dacron) for identification and comparison (Figure 3.4). Figure 3.1 Physical match of broken portion of headlight trim of vehicle suspected of involvement in a hit-and-run accident with portion of trim found on roadway. ©1997 CRC Press LLC 5. Finger, palm, and foot prints — visible or latent prints lifted or casted from various surfaces for identification and comparison. Tire and footwear impressions are often included in this category (Figure 3.5). 6. Fire and explosive materials — liquids, solid material, or burned debris for the identification of accelerants and explosive residues. 7. Firearms and projectiles — firearms and ammunition for identifica- tion, source, and comparison of projectiles and firearm test firings, distance determinations, and operability of firearms. Figure 3.2 Knife blade found in possession of suspect containing blood identified as that of the victim by DNA profiling. Figure 3.3 Assorted capsules and tablets identified as containing the hallucinogen and controlled substance, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). ©1997 CRC Press LLC Figure 3.4 Fibers found on knife blade with the use of the stereo microscope found to be consistent with fibers from the shirt of a victim stabbed to death. Figure 3.5 (A) Cast made of footwear impression discovered in soil at a crime scene; (B) footwear of suspect showing similarities to footwear impression in (A). ©1997 CRC Press LLC 8. Glass — Trace or large sections. Glass fragments may be associated with a suspect and break-in event or may involve the analysis of glass fractures to determine direction of force applied or sequence of shots fired. Analysis of glass is also utilized for the reconstruction of vehic- ular crashes (Figure 3.6). 9. Hair — Collected from a crime scene, victim, or suspect for determi- nation of species identification (animal or human), race, and the part of body origin. If human, the hair morphological features may be utilized to include or exclude a suspect (Figure 3.7). It is also possible to determine whether the hair was crushed, cut, burned, forcibly removed, or fallen out naturally. 10. Oils and grease or cosmetic products — Transferred between objects and individuals and possess unique compositions for comparison. 11. Paint and paint products — On various surfaces that may have trans- ferred from one object to another, such as in a vehicular collision. Clothing of pedestrians struck by a vehicle are routinely examined for this type of paint fragment transfer (Figure 3.8). 12. Serial numbers — Frequently altered or eradicated on vehicles, fire- arms, or other objects and through chemical etching may be restored for proper identification. 13. Soils and minerals, wood, and other vegetation — Identified and compared as to possible source or location that can be associated with a suspect or victim. 14. Tool marks — Impressions or scrapes produced on surfaces that may reveal the type of object that produced them. The object or tool, such as a prybar or screw driver, may possess wear features that can provide Figure 3.6 Comparison of glass fragments from the scene of accident and the suspect vehicle. The glass originated from a rear window of the vehicle. Note the evidence of heating element in the glass. ©1997 CRC Press LLC [...]... 1994 The Practical Methodology of Forensic Photography, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Inc 7 Saferstein, R., 1995 Criminalistics — An Introduction to Forensic Science, Fifth Edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc 8 Saferstein, R., Editor, 19 82 Forensic Science Handbook, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc 9 Saferstein, R., Editor, 1988 Forensic Science Handbook, Volume... examiner’s office laboratories concentrate on forensic toxicology or the analysis of body tissues and fluids for drugs, poisons, and other toxic substances Private forensic laboratories such as National Medical Services, Inc., in Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, offer services in forensic toxicology and criminalistics Some of the private forensic laboratories are completely specialized in an area of forensic science... of the laboratory Forensic Photography Forensic photography is an important element of crime scene investigation for documentation purposes including the location of the victim and the ©1997 CRC Press LLC surrounding area prior to examination by the forensic pathologist and subsequent removal to the morgue Bloodstains and other items of physical evidence are photographed in place prior to collection... technique often employed in addition to photography for documentation purposes Crime scene units and the forensic pathologist often take their own photographs Assistance may be requested from the local crime laboratory The various sections of the crime laboratory may also photograph items of physical evidence and subsequent comparisons and test results to complement their laboratory reports or for courtroom... operate crime laboratories at the state, county, or local level The medical examiner’s or coroner’s offices usually have in-house laboratory facilities Forensic laboratories are also maintained at colleges and universities, as well as in the private sector Forensic laboratories may be full service or specialize in one or more areas For example, the FBI laboratory and most state laboratories are considered... 3.11) The examination of tool marks involves the comparison of impressions created by a hard tool (prybar, screwdriver, knife) created on a softer surface The impressions left by the tool may show class characteristics indicating the type of tool utilized and possibly individual characteristics due to wearing or nicking of the tool surface that could be considered unique to that tool Test impressions... with masters and doctorate degrees are forensic serologists, toxicologists, and microscopists There has been an increase in the number of colleges and universities offering undergraduate and graduate degrees in forensic science including criminalistics and forensic toxicology For example, the John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York City, George Washington University in Washington, D.C., and the... and ©1997 CRC Press LLC lectures The forensic or crime laboratory offers an exciting, rewarding career in forensic science and criminalistics for a college graduate who has majored in one or more of the natural sciences Suggested Reading 1 DeForest, P.R., Gaensslen, R.E., and Lee, H.C., 1983 Forensic Science — An Introduction to Criminalistics, New York: McGraw-Hill 2 Fisher, B.A.J., 1993 Techniques of... molecules to be made Some forensic laboratories do not possess this advanced capability for identification and utilize the GC pattern recognition of the more common accelerants Some ©1997 CRC Press LLC A B Figure 3.10 (A) Typical gas chromatograph utilized for analysis of alcohol, drugs, accelerants, and other materials in forensic laboratories (B) Introduction of heated head space sample into injection... organizations These should be able to find the psychiatrist most qualified to handle a particular situation Numerous organizations of forensic psychiatry (for example, the psychiatry section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences) can help Other organizations devoted to “psychiatry and the law” or to “medicine and the law” are important resources In most communities, attorneys are aware which psychiatrists . Washington D.C., 1874. 10. Deetjen, C.: Witchcraft and medicine. Bull. Inst. History Med., 2: 164, 1934. 11. Russell, G.W.: Early medicine in Connecticut, Proc. Conn. Med. Soc., 18 92, pp. 69 22 4. 12. . Philadelphia, 1876.) 21 . Gettler, A.O.: Historical development of toxicology, J. Forens. Sci., 1(1): 1958. 22 . Orfila, M.J.: Traite de Medicine Legale, vol. 3, Paris, 1 823 . 23 . Thorwald J.: Century. placed into custody. ©1997 CRC Press LLC REFERENCES 1. Camps F.E. editor: Gradwohl’s Legal Medicine, ed. 2, The Wiliams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1968. 2. Browne, W.H. editor: Archives