53 5 Using Satellite Imagery and Environmental Monitoring to Interpret Oceanographic Influences on Estuarine and Coastal Waters Brian D. Keller and Billy D. Causey CONTENTS Introduction 53 The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 54 Sanctuary Monitoring Programs 55 The 2002 Blackwater Event 56 The 2003 Blackwater Event 58 Summary and Conclusions 58 Acknowledgments 59 References 59 Introduction The Florida Keys, off the southeastern tip of the United States, extend southwest more than 350 km Extensive seagrass beds and mangroves surround the Florida Keys, and coral reefs of the Florida Reef Tract occur offshore of the Florida Keys along the Atlantic side. These environments support diverse and productive biological communities, making this area nationally significant because of its high conservation, recreational, commercial, ecological, historical, scientific, educational, and aesthetic values (Causey, 2002). The greatest threat to the environment, natural resources, and economy of the Florida Keys has been degradation of water quality (Kruczynski and McManus, 2002), especially over the past two decades. Some of the reasons for degraded water quality include managed diversions of freshwater flows away from the Everglades, Florida Bay, and the southern coast of Florida; nutrients from domestic wastewater in the Florida Keys via shallow-well injection, cesspools, and septic tanks; storm water runoff containing heavy metals, fertilizers, insecticides, and other contaminants; marinas and live-aboard vessels; poor flushing of canals and embayments; accumulation of dead seagrasses and algae along the shoreline; sedimentation; infrequency of hurricanes in recent decades; and environmental changes associated with global climate change and rising sea level (Causey, 2002). There also are important regional influences on the marine environment of the Florida Keys (Lee et al., 2002). Circulation patterns and exchange processes of South Florida coastal waters create strong physical linkages between the Keys and regions to the north. South Florida coastal waters are bounded by major currents, the Loop and Florida Currents, which connect South Florida to more remote regions of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (Lee et al., 2002). Weaker currents advect coastal waters of southwestern Florida across the Southwest Florida Continental Shelf to the Florida Keys. 2822_book.fm Page 53 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press from Biscayne Bay to the Dry Tortugas and form the southeastern margin of Florida Bay (Figure 5.1). 54 Estuarine Indicators A low-salinity plume from the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers can extend hundreds of kilometers into the Gulf of Mexico (Paul et al., 2000; Wawrik et al., 2003). At an extreme, floodwaters from the Mississippi River during 1993 resulted in surface salinities in the Florida Keys that were substantially lower than normal (Ortner et al., 1995; Gilbert et al., 1996). In addition, satellite imagery shows that eastern Gulf of Mexico circulation patterns connect estuaries along the coast of southwestern Florida Here we wish to demonstrate how estuarine and coastal conditions can be investigated and interpreted through the use of satellite imagery coupled with large-scale monitoring of water quality and other oceanographic observations. We worked with colleagues to apply this approach to interpret a blackwater event that affected the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary in 2002. This understanding resulted in better-informed communications with the public, colleagues, and news media. Retrospective investiga- tions of this sort may lead to greater capacity to forecast coastal and estuarine conditions. The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary The National Marine Sanctuary Program of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has managed segments of the Florida Reef Tract since 1975. The Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary was established at that time to protect 353 km 2 of coral reef habitat offshore of the upper FIGURE 5.1 Map of South Florida. Surface currents generally flow in a southerly direction across the Southwest Florida Continental Shelf and through passes between the Florida Keys (Lee et al., 2002). The network of 24 fully protected marine zones within the sanctuary includes the Tortugas Ecological Reserve, the Western Sambo Ecological Reserve (hatched quadrangle east of Key West), and 18 small sanctuary preservation areas and four research-only areas, of which only Looe 83°30′ 83°00′ 82°30′ 82°00′ 81°30′ 81°00′ 80°30′ 83°30′ 83°00′ 82°30′ 82°00′ 81°30′ 81°00′ 80°30′ 24°30′ 25°00′ 25°30′ 26°00′ 26°30′ 27°00′ 24°30′ 25°00′ 25°30′ 26°00′ 26°30′ 27°00′ Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary National Parks National Wildlife Refuge Sanctuary Preservation Area (18 total) Ecological Reserves 30 0 30 60 Kilometers N S EW Tortugas Ecological Reserve Dry Tortugas National Park Marquesas Keys Key West Looe Key Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Atlantic Ocean Key Largo Cape Sable Shark River 10.000 Islands Southwest Florida Shelf Everglades National Park Big Cypress National Preserve Biscayne National Park Naples Caloosahatchee River Charlotte Harbor Peace River Gulf of Mexico Florida Bay 2822_book.fm Page 54 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press Key is labeled (see http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/research_monitoring/map.html for details). with the Florida Keys and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (http://coast- watch.noaa.gov/hab/bulletins_ms.htm). Using Satellite Imagery and Environmental Monitoring to Interpret Oceanographic Influences 55 Florida Keys. In 1981, the 18-km 2 Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary was established to protect the Sanctuaries were, and continue to be, managed very intensively (Causey, 2002). By the late 1980s it had become evident that a broader, more holistic approach to protecting and conserving the health of coral reef resources had to be implemented. Irrespective of the intense man- agement of small areas of the reef tract, sanctuary managers were witnessing declines in water quality and the health of corals that apparently had a wide range of sources. The most obvious causes of decline were non-point-source discharges, habitat degradation because of development and overuse, and changes in reef fish and invertebrate populations because of overfishing. The threat of oil drilling in the mid- to late 1980s off the Florida Keys, combined with reports of deteriorating water quality throughout the region (Kruczynski and McManus, 2002; Leichter et al., 2003), occurred at the same time scientists were assessing adverse affects of coral bleaching (Glynn, 1993), the 1983 die-off of the long-spined sea urchin (Lessios, 1988), loss of living coral cover on reefs (Dustan and Halas, 1987; Porter and Meier, 1992), a major seagrass die-off (Robblee et al., 1991), declines in reef fish populations (Ault et al., 1998), and the spread of coral diseases (Porter et al., 2001; Sutherland et al., 2004). These were topics of major scientific concern and the focus of several scientific workshops (e.g., Ginsburg, 1993). In the fall of 1989, subsequent to the catastrophic Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska, three large ships became grounded on the Florida Reef Tract within a brief, 18-day period. These major physical impacts to the reef in conjunction with the cumulative effects of environmental degradation prompted the U.S. Congress to take action to protect the unique coral reef ecosystem of the Florida Keys. In November 1990, President George H.W. Bush signed into law the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Protection Act (FKNMS Act; DOC, 1996). The FKNMS Act designated 9515 km 2 of coastal waters surrounding the Florida Keys as the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and addressed two major concerns. There was an immediate prohibition on oil drilling, including mineral and hydrocarbon leasing, exploration, development, or production within the sanctuary. In addition, the legislation prohibited the operation of vessels longer than 50 m in an internationally recognized “Area to Be Avoided” within and near the boundary of the sanctuary. The U.S. Congress recognized the critical role of water quality in maintaining sanctuary resources and directed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to develop a comprehensive Water Quality Protection Program for the sanctuary. The FKNMS Act also called for the development of a compre- hensive management plan and implementation of regulations to achieve protection and preservation of the resources of the Florida Keys marine environment. The Final Management Plan (DOC, 1996), including a network of fully protected marine zones, was implemented in 1997 (Causey, 2002). The Water Quality Protection Program includes three long-term monitoring projects, which are a key element of monitoring the marine environment and natural resources of the sanctuary. Additional monitoring projects along with the Water Quality Protection Program are providing extensive data on environmental conditions and the status and trends of natural resources in the sanctuary. Sanctuary Monitoring Programs Monitoring projects within and near the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary provide baseline data on the marine ecosystem. Three monitoring projects of the Water Quality Protection Program provide long-term, status-and-trends data on key components of the ecosystem. These are water quality Projects in the Marine Zone Monitoring Program compare ecological processes, populations, and communities inside and outside fully protected marine zones. Studies include coral recruitment; reef fish herbivory; benthic community structure; and reef fish, queen conch, and spiny lobster populations. There also are studies of human uses and perceptions of sanctuary resources. Summary findings of the Marine Zone Monitoring Program, Water Quality Protection Program, and other projects are posted at 2822_book.fm Page 55 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press heavily used Looe Key Reef in the lower Florida Keys (Figure 5.1). These two National Marine (http://serc.fiu.edu/wqmnetwork/FKNMS-CD/index.htm), seagrasses (http://www.fiu.edu/~seagrass/), and coral reef and hard-bottom communities (http://www.floridamarine.org/features/category_sub .asp?id=2360). 56 Estuarine Indicators Water Quality Protection Program, provides long-term, status-and-trends data on natural resources in the sanctuary. Finally, there are four additional monitoring activities: 1. Bimonthly oceanographic research cruises conducted jointly by the NOAA Atlantic Oceano- graphic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) and the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School 2. Near-real-time meteorological and oceanographic monitoring at six data buoys within the 3. 4. Near-real-time oceanographic monitoring at a recently activated data buoy near Looe Key Reef Collectively, these programs and projects, along with monitoring within Dry Tortugas, Everglades, and Biscayne National Parks and elsewhere in coastal South Florida, provide a wealth of baseline data to evaluate changes in coastal environments and natural resources. For example, the Water Quality water quality parameters between 1995 and 2000, when a trend analysis revealed statistically significant increases in the concentration of total phosphorus in several regions of the sanctuary and Southwest Over this period, concentrations of total phosphorus tripled, from ~0.1 to ~0.3 µ M . In contrast, no trends in total phosphorus were observed in the relatively isolated waters of Florida Bay. Large increases in nitrate concentrations also occurred in several regions of the sanctuary and the Southwest Florida Continental Shelf; in many areas values increased by two orders of magnitude, from <0.05 to >1 µ M increases, concentrations of total organic nitrogen declined between 1995 and 2000. The authors (R.D. Jones and J.N. Boyer, Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University) Currents. The 2002 Blackwater Event Oceanic influences on the Florida Keys originating from the southwestern Florida coast were particularly evident during early 2002. In mid- to late January 2002, commercial fishers began observing a mass of dark water off the southwest coast of Florida. These observations were the first accounts of what became known as the “Blackwater Event of 2002.” A reporter with the Naples Daily News brought this unusual event to the attention of Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary staff. Initial reports came from commercial fishers who had observed a large area of dark discoloration offshore and south of Naples, the sanctuary, and sanctuary staff called commercial fishers and colleagues to learn about the nature of the event and its likely consequences. News media enquiries began immediately, and it was critical for sanctuary staff to respond with the best-available science. One concern was that this discolored water was the result of polluted runoff from South Florida agricultural lands. However, a similar blackwater event had been observed in 1878 coming from the South Florida mainland and moving past the Florida Keys between Key West and the Dry Tortugas (Mayer, 1903, cited in SWFDOG, 2002). This past account of a blackwater episode suggested that these might be infrequent events, with a long history, that are not necessarily influenced by recent human 2822_book.fm Page 56 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press (Figure 5.1; http://www.looekeydata.net/) of Marine and Atmospheric Science (RSMAS) (http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/5fp/data.html) sanctuary and a seventh in northwestern Florida Bay (http://www.coral.noaa.gov/ /seakeys/) 32 fixed thermograph stations positioned throughout the sanctuary (http://coralreef.gov/pro- http://www.fknms.nos.noaa.gov/research_monitoring/, and socioeconomic reports are posted at: http://marineeconomics.noaa.gov/pubs/welcome.html. The Marine Zone Monitoring Program, like the ceedings/Day%202%20PDF/1-Billy%20Causey.pdf, slide 23) Monitoring Project (http://serc.fiu.edu/wqmnetwork/FKNMS-CD/index.htm) documented changes in Florida Continental Shelf (http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/research_monitoring/monitoring_report_2000.pdf). (http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/research_monitoring/monitoring_report_2000.pdf). In contrast to these two inferred that these trends, which ended in 2001 (http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/research_monitoring/ 2001_sci_rept.pdf), were caused by regional circulation patterns arising from the Loop and Florida Florida (http://web.naplesnews.com/02/03/naples/d599686a.htm). The “black water” was moving toward Using Satellite Imagery and Environmental Monitoring to Interpret Oceanographic Influences 57 activities. Furthermore, major agricultural activities such as the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) south of Lake Okeechobee are quite distant from the Southwest Florida Continental Shelf. Surface runoff from the EAA likely does not reach coastal waters of southwestern Florida (Brand, 2002; Nelsen et al., 2002; see Lapointe et al., 2002 for contrasting views). Working with colleagues, FKNMS staff developed the following scenario of the Blackwater Event of 2002 (SWFDOG, 2002). On 9 January 2002 Drs. Frank Müller-Karger and Chuanmin Hu of the University of South Florida (USF) collected a SeaWiFS true-color image that showed an area of blackness tion coefficients (Figure 2c in SWFDOG 2002) were relatively high near the mouth of Shark River. Imagery prepared and analyzed by Dr. Richard Stumpf of NOAA/Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment (CCMA) indicated that the color of the black water was consistent with a source from wetlands of the 10,000 Islands and Everglades regions of South Florida, i.e., high levels of tannins and humic acid (R. Stumpf, pers. commun.). Additional imagery (NOAA/CCMA) showed a relatively high concentration of chlorophyll (a measure of phytoplankton density) in the same area (R. Stumpf, pers. commun.). Managers compared these satellite data with routine water-quality samples collected by Drs. Ronald Jones and Joseph Boyer (Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University) during 10–13 January 2002 along transects across part of the Southwest Florida Continental Shelf water quality monitoring program for South Florida coastal waters, which includes the sanctuary’s Water Quality Monitoring Project. Sampling showed that high concentrations of chlorophyll a matched the shape of the black water, indicating that a phytoplankton bloom was juxtaposed on the black water. It also showed a plume of low-salinity water emanating from the mainland and a high daytime concentration of dissolved oxygen. Research conducted by Dr. Gary Hitchcock’s laboratory (RSMAS), including studies by Dr. Jennifer Jurado, has shown that plumes from Shark River transport silicate and nitrogen, which are critical nutrients for diatom blooms that occur year after year, generally October–December, A true-color satellite image collected on 4 February 2002 (USF) showed a larger area of black water that had moved somewhat farther offshore and to the south since January (Figure 2b in SWFDOG, 2002; Enhanced imagery (NOAA/CCMA) on 4 February showed this large blackwater area superimposed on a high concentration of chlorophyll (R. Stumpf, pers. commun.). A 21 February to 1 March 2002 oceanographic research cruise conducted in the region by Dr. Peter Ortner (AOML) with additional sample analyses by RSMAS showed a high concentration of chlorophyll a centered on the area of black water and showed a continuing plume of low-salinity water coming from the mainland (P. Ortner, pers. commun.). A satellite-tracked surface drifter released by AOML/RSMAS near the mouth of Shark River (Figure 5.1) on 22 February 2002 moved slowly in a west-southwesterly arc, then slowly to the north sistent with the slow movement of the blackwater area evident in satellite imagery. By mid-March 2002, the area of black water had moved south-southwesterly into the lower Florida Keys. There was little blackish coloration left and plankton samples showed signs of an aging diatom west as the Marquesas Keys (Figure 5.1) was apparent in late March to early April (NOAA/CCMA; The Blackwater Event of 2002 may have been unusually large and persistent because of a prolonged drought that was followed by heavy rains in late 2001. One of the worst droughts in Florida since the initiation of weather records occurred between 1998 and 2001; parts of the state reported the driest 2822_book.fm Page 57 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press just west of Cape Sable (Figure 5.1) at the southwest tip of Florida (Figure 2a in SWFDOG, 2002; also bloom (Florida Marine Research Institute, Dark Water Update: http://www.floridamarine.org/fea- tures/view_article.asp?id=21893). The bloom enveloped the lower Florida Keys, and an outflow as far .edu/~hu/black_water/imgs/swf/true-color/S040402.JPG). http://coastwatch.noaa.gov/hab/bulletins/hab20020320_200201_a.pdf and USF; http://imars.marine.usf conditions in more than 100 years of record keeping (http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/ research/2001/preann2001/events.html#us). The drought conditions, coupled with the very slow rate of available at http://imars.marine.usf.edu/~hu/black_water/imgs/swf/true-color/S010902.JPG). Total absorp- (http://serc.fiu.edu/wqmnetwork/CONTOUR%20MAPS/ContourMaps.htm). This is part of a long-term, and sometimes with a second peak in April (Jurado et al., 2003; see also http://nsgl.gso.uri.edu/ flsgp/flsgpg01006.pdf for a Florida Bay Watch Report on this topic). also available at http://imars.marine.usf.edu/~hu/black_water/imgs/swf/true-color/S020402.JPG). during the last 2 weeks of March (http://mpo.rsmas.miami.edu/flabay/latest_29526.gif). This was con- 58 Estuarine Indicators water flow across the Everglades (Holling et al., 1994), may have caused an accumulation of nutrients and organic material on the mainland. The 3-year drought began to end with the onset of heavy rains in mid-July 2001, followed by the passage of Tropical Storm Barry in late August, Tropical Storm Gabrielle in mid-September, and a glancing blow from Hurricane Michelle (South Florida) in early heavy rains probably flushed large quantities of nutrients and organic compounds off the mainland and into coastal waters. Inputs of silicate and nitrogen probably contributed to a massive diatom bloom (Jurado et al., 2003) that darkened coastal waters, and organic compounds such as tannins and humic acid apparently added a blackish cast to the bloom. The 2002 Blackwater Event apparently caused some die-offs in benthic communities. On 27 March, an experienced diver (Ken Nedimyer) reported dead and dying sponges and corals in a channel northwest in shallow water on the Gulf of Mexico side of the lower Florida Keys (Summerland Key). On 2 April, Dr. Niels Lindquist (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) dived at four sites near Key West. He reported a sponge die-off that appeared to be somewhat species specific, with the most severe effects on the sponges Callyspongia and Niphates and, to a lesser degree, Amphimedon. By contrast, the sponges Aplysina spp. and Ircinia spp. appeared healthy. The sponge die-off appeared to become less severe south and east of western Key West, away from the blackwater event. In addition, there was a report of coral die-offs at two long-term coral reef and hard-bottom community monitoring sites (Hu et al., 2003). The 2003 Blackwater Event Another blackwater event occurred in October 2003, with some important differences from the 2002 event. Extensive, dense plankton blooms occurred along the South Florida coast between Charlotte Harbor (Figure 5.1) and the Florida Keys during much of the month of October 2003 were present in nearshore and offshore waters during this month. Enhanced satellite imagery (NOAA/CCMA) showed an area of black water stained by organic compounds south of Charlotte Harbor on 18 October 2003, which dissipated over the next 2 weeks (R. Stumpf, pers. commun.). In the 2003 blackwater event, the source of tannins and humic acid appeared to be Charlotte Harbor, which is influenced by the Caloosahatchee and Peace Rivers (Figure 5.1), rather than the 10,000 Islands and Everglades regions of South Florida, as in 2002. Furthermore, the black water was not as extensive and persistent as it was during the 2002 event. Finally, the 2003 blackwater event may have had strong anthropogenic influences, unlike the 2002 event, because of releases of fresh water from Lake tional nutrient inputs into the Caloosahatchee and Peace Rivers. Interestingly, blooms were reported south of Charlotte Harbor in January 2000 and October 2001 (Stumpf et al., 2003). Summary and Conclusions The Blackwater Event of 2002 probably was a large and persistent plankton bloom, with additional blackish staining by organic compounds, which slowly crossed the Southwest Florida Continental Shelf into the western end of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Routine water quality monitoring in January and February 2002 reported very high concentrations of phytoplankton, and reports from boat-based observers were that the water appeared greenish brown at the surface. The blackness apparent in true-color satellite imagery may have been caused by a high degree of light absorption by the dense plankton bloom. Spectral analysis of satellite imagery also indicated actual blackish discoloration from decomposing vegetation while the bloom was adjacent to outflows from the Everglades. Water samples to identify the types of phytoplankton responsible for the bloom were not collected until its late stages in March 2002, once the scientific community had been alerted to the event. Several 2822_book.fm Page 58 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press of Key West (Figure 5.1). Another experienced diver (Don DeMaria) reported dead and dying sponges November 2001 (http://www.drought.unl.edu/dm/archive.html). The runoff resulting from this series of .asp?id=1018) stated that both dinoflagellates, including the red tide species (Karenia brevis), and diatoms (http://modis.marine.usf.edu/). Red Tide Status reports (http://www.floridamarine.org/features/default Okeechobee into the Caloosahatchee River (http://myfwc.com/fishing/pdf/toho-nov03.pdf) and addi- Using Satellite Imagery and Environmental Monitoring to Interpret Oceanographic Influences 59 samples had high concentrations of diatoms, and earlier research showed that diatom blooms have been well; however, there were no reports of extensive fish kills associated with the 2002 bloom, which indicates that it was not a HAB during its later stages. The bloom had an associated die-off of certain sponge species and corals (Hu et al., 2003) near Key West. A plankton bloom of this magnitude requires suitable environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, salinity, and light) and a substantial source of nutrients. In this region of South Florida, nitrogen rather than phosphorus may be a growth-limiting nutrient for phytoplankton (Boyer and Jones, 2002). Diatoms also require silicate, and both nutrients flow into coastal waters from Shark River (Jurado et al., 2003). Although this bloom was unusual, it appeared to result from a combination of natural events, including a slowly spinning gyre that apparently contributed to the cohesiveness and duration of the bloom. By contrast, the smaller, more ephemeral blackwater event in 2003 was associated with Charlotte Harbor and inflows from the Peace and Caloosahatchee Rivers, and probably had strong anthropogenic influences. A unifying theme for both events was the utility of satellite imagery in monitoring and ton blooms, and in directing field sampling to locations of particular interest. Satellite imagery, long- term water quality monitoring, and collaboration of resource managers and scientists enabled retrospec- tive analyses, which were central to interpreting and explaining the Blackwater Event of 2002. Acknowledgments We thank Drs. Frank Müller-Karger and Chuanmin Hu (University of South Florida), Dr. Richard Stumpf (NOAA/Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment), Drs. Ronald Jones and Joseph Boyer (Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University), Dr. Peter Ortner (NOAA/Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory), Ken Nedimyer, Don Demaria, Dr. Niels Lindquist (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill), and John Hunt and Beverly Roberts (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute) for so generously sharing data and information. We also thank Dr. Steve Bortone (Sanibel-Captiva Conservation Foundation) for inviting us to participate in the Estuarine Indicators Workshop and for providing comments on the manuscript. Kevin Kirsch (Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary) prepared the figure. References Ault, J. S., J. A. Bohnsack, and G. A. Meester. 1998. A retrospective (1979–1996) multispecies assessment of coral reef fish stocks in the Florida Keys. Fishery Bulletin 96:395–414. Boyer, J. N. and R. D. Jones. 2002. A view from the bridge: external and internal forces affecting the ambient water quality of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). In The Everglades, Florida Bay, and Coral Reefs of the Florida Keys: An Ecosystem Sourcebook, J. W. Porter and K. G. Porter (eds.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 609–628. Brand, L. E. 2002. The transport of terrestrial nutrients to South Florida coastal waters. In The Everglades, Florida Bay, and Coral Reefs of the Florida Keys: An Ecosystem Sourcebook, J. W. Porter and K. G. Porter (eds.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 361–413. Causey, B. D. 2002. The role of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary in the South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Initiative. In The Everglades, Florida Bay, and Coral Reefs of the Florida Keys: An Ecosystem Sourcebook, J. W. Porter and K. G. Porter (eds.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 883-894. Department of Commerce (DOC). 1996. Final environmental impact statement/final management plan for the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver 2822_book.fm Page 59 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press common in this region of Florida over the past decade (Jurado et al., 2003; http://nsgl .gso.uri.edu/flsgp/flsgpg01006.pdf). Some samples contained harmful algal bloom (HAB) species as interpreting large-scale phenomena (http://coastwatch.noaa.gov/hab/bulletins_ms.htm), including plank- Spring, MD. Available online: http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/regs/. 60 Estuarine Indicators Dustan, P. and J. C. Halas. 1987. Changes in the reef-coral community of Carysfort Reef, Key Largo, Florida: 1974 to 1982. Coral Reefs 16:91–106. Gilbert, P. S., T. N. Lee, and G. P. Podesta. 1996. Transport of anomalous low-salinity waters from the Mississippi River flood of 1993 to the Straits of Florida. Continental Shelf Research 16:1065–1085. Ginsburg, R. N. (compiler). 1993. Case studies for the colloquium and forum on global aspects of coral reefs: health, hazards and history. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL. Glynn, P. W. 1993. Coral reef bleaching: ecological perspectives. Coral Reefs 12:1–17. Holling, C. S., L. H. Gunderson, and C. J. Walters. 1994. The structure and dynamics of the Everglades system: guidelines for ecosystem restoration. In Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration, S. M. Davis and J. C. Ogden (eds.). St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, FL, pp. 741–756. Hu, C., K. E. Hackett, M. K. Callahan, S. Andréfouët, J. L. Wheaton, J. W. Porter, and F. E. Müller-Karger. 2003. The 2002 ocean color anomaly in the Florida Bight: a cause of local coral reef decline? Geo- physical Research Letters 30(3):1151. Jurado, J. L., G. L. Hitchcock, and P. B. Ortner. 2003. The roles of freshwater discharge, advective processes and silicon cycling in the development of diatom blooms in coastal waters of the southwestern Florida Shelf and northwestern Florida Bay. In Florida Bay Program and Abstracts, Joint Conference on the Science and Restoration of the Greater Everglades and Florida Bay Ecosystem, April 13–18, 2003, Palm Harbor, FL, pp. 119–121. Kruczynski, W. L. and F. McManus. 2002. Water quality concerns in the Florida Keys: sources, effects, and solutions. In The Everglades, Florida Bay, and Coral Reefs of the Florida Keys: An Ecosystem Sour- cebook, J. W. Porter and K. G. Porter (eds.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 827–881. Lapointe, B. E., W. R. Matzie, and P. J. Barile. 2002. Biotic phase-shifts in Florida Bay and fore reef communities of the Florida Keys: linkages with historical freshwater flows and nitrogen loading from Everglades runoff. In The Everglades, Florida Bay, and Coral Reefs of the Florida Keys: An Ecosystem Sourcebook, J. W. Porter and K. G. Porter (eds.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 629–648. Lee, T. N., E. Williams, E. Johns, D. Wilson, and N. P. Smith. 2002. Transport processes linking South Florida coastal ecosystems. In The Everglades, Florida Bay, and Coral Reefs of the Florida Keys: An Ecosystem Sourcebook, J. W. Porter and K. G. Porter (eds.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 309–342. Leichter, J. J., H. L. Stewart, and S. L. Miller. 2003. Episodic nutrient transport to Florida coral reefs. Limnology and Oceanography 48:1394–1407. Lessios, H. A. 1988. Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum in the Caribbean: what have we learned? Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 19:371–393. Mayer, A. G. 1903. The Tortugas, Florida, as a station for research in biology. Science 17:190–192. Nelsen, T. A., G. Garte, C. Feathersone, H. R. Wanless, J. H. Trefry, W J. Kang, S. Metz, C. Alvarez-Zarikian, T. Hood, P. Swart, G. Ellis, P. Blackwelder, L. Tedesco, C. Slouch, J. F. Pachut, and M. O’Neal. 2002. Linkages between the South Florida peninsula and coastal zone: a sediment-based history of natural and anthropogenic influences. In The Everglades, Florida Bay, and Coral Reefs of the Florida Keys: An Ecosystem Sourcebook, J. W. Porter and K. G. Porter (eds.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 415–449. Ortner, P. B., T. N. Lee, P. J. Milne, R. G. Zika, M. E. Clarke, G. P. Modesto, P. K. Swart, P. A. Tester, L. P. Atkinson, and W. R. Johnson. 1995. Mississippi River flood waters that reached the Gulf Stream. Journal of Geophysical Research 100(C7):13595–13601. Paul, J. H., A. Alfreider, J. B. Kang, R. A. Stokes, D. Griffin, L. Campbell, and E. Ornolfsdottir. 2000. Form IA rbcL transcripts associated with a low salinity/high chlorophyll plume (“Green River”) in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Marine Ecology Progress Series 198:1–8. Porter, J. W. and O. W. Meier. 1992. Quantification of loss and change in Floridian reef coral populations. American Zoologist 32:625–640. Porter, J. W., P. Dustan, W. C. Jaap, K. L. Patterson, V. Kosmynin, O. W. Meier, M. E. Patterson, and M. Parsons. 2001. Patterns of spread of coral disease in the Florida Keys. Hydrobiologia 460:1–24. Robblee, M. B., T. R. Barber, P. R. Carlson, M. J. Durako, J. W. Fourqurean, L. K. Muehlstein, D. Porter, L. A. Yarbro, R. T. Zieman, and J. C. Zieman. 1991. Mass mortality of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum in Florida Bay (USA). Marine Ecology Progress Series 71:297–299. South-West Florida Dark-Water Observations Group (SWFDOG). 2002. Satellite images track “black water” event off Florida coast. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 83: 281, 285. 2822_book.fm Page 60 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press Using Satellite Imagery and Environmental Monitoring to Interpret Oceanographic Influences 61 Stumpf, R. P., M. E. Culver, P. A. Tester, M. Tomlinson, G. J. Kirkpatrick, B. A. Pederson, E. Truby, V. Ransibrahmanakul, and M. Soracco. 2003. Monitoring Karenia brevis blooms in the Gulf of Mexico using satellite ocean color imagery and other data. Harmful Algae 2:147–160. Sutherland, K. P., J. W. Porter, and C. Torres. 2004. Disease and immunity in Caribbean and Indo-Pacific zooxanthellate corals. Marine Ecology Progress Series 266:273–302. Wawrik, B., J. H. Paul, L. Campbell, D. Griffin, L. Houchin, A. Fuentes-Ortega, and F. Muller-Karger. 2003. Vertical structure of the phytoplankton community associated with a coastal plume in the Gulf of Mexico. Marine Ecology Progress Series 251:87–101. 2822_book.fm Page 61 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press 63 6 Development and Use of Assessment Techniques for Coastal Sediments Edward R. Long and Gail M. Sloane CONTENTS Introduction 63 Classification of Sediment Contamination and Interpretive Tools and Guidelines 64 Florida Sediment Quality Guidelines and Interpretive Tools 65 U.S. and International Sediment Quality Guidelines 65 Incidence of Chemical Contamination of Sediments 66 Classification of Toxicity of Sediments 69 Spatial Extent of Sediment Toxicity 69 Classification of Sediment Quality with Benthic Indices 71 Spatial Extent of Degraded Benthic Communities 72 Discussion and Conclusions 73 References 74 Introduction Potentially toxic chemicals enter waters dissolved in water or attached to suspended particulate matter. Most waterborne toxic substances are hydrophobic and bond to particulates. As particulates and asso- ciated toxicants become increasingly dense, they can sink to the bottom of lakes, rivers, estuaries, and bays in low-energy areas where they become incorporated into sediments. Therefore, sediments that have accumulated in depositional zones where they are not disturbed by physical processes or other factors can provide a relatively stable record of toxicant inputs (NRC, 1989; Power and Chapman, 1992). As a result, sediments are an important medium in which to estimate the degree and history of chemical contamination of our national waters. In 1989, the U.S. National Research Council (NRC) Committee on Contaminated Marine Sediments examined the issue of chemical contamination and its effects in the nation’s estuarine and marine waters (NRC, 1989, p. 1). The committee concluded, “sediment contamination is widespread throughout U.S. coastal waters and potentially far reaching in its environmental and public health significance.” Further- more, the NRC (1989, p. 1) determined, “The problem of contaminated marine sediments has emerged as an environmental issue of national importance.” Relatively high chemical concentrations in sediments were reported for many sites near urban centers. However, the committee recognized the lack of sufficient data for assessing the severity and extent of sediment contamination in many areas and the need for better, more reliable assessment tools. The committee further recommended a more comprehensive national network to monitor and evaluate the condition of U.S. sediments. Assessments of sediment quality are most comprehensive when conducted with a “sediment quality triad” approach, which consists of chemical analyses, toxicological tests, and metrics of benthic 2822_book.fm Page 63 Friday, November 12, 2004 3:21 PM © 2005 by CRC Press [...]... 823 -R-9 7-0 06 U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C © 20 05 by CRC Press 28 22_ book.fm Page 78 Friday, November 12, 20 04 3 :21 PM 78 Estuarine Indicators U.S EPA 20 00 Estuarine and Coastal Marine Waters: Bioassessment and Biocriteria Technical Guidance EPA- 822 -B-0 0-0 24 U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, D.C U.S EPA 20 01 National Coastal Condition Report EPA- 620 /R-01/005... 11 20 21 –30 31–40 41–50 51–60 61–70 >71 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Total PAHs (58) 20 00 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Sediment Samples 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 (29 ) 60 ( 32) (27 ) Total DDT (21 ) (9) (5) (1) (2) (3) 80 (2) (2) ... 91 91 92 95/96 93 97 94 94 92/ 93 98 93 98 99 96 97 94 95 94 93 93 93 93 93 93 57 117 30 6 60 117 105 22 6 55 73 60 20 165 100 40 53 100 75 100 37 66 9 31 63 9 11 9 2 13.0 40 .2 5.0 0.3 71.9 350.0 53.8 484 .2 56.1 23 46.8 13.1 24 .6 550.0 737.4 27 3.0 22 65.0 858 1351.1 773.9 25 4.5 24 5.9 187.6 127 .2 41.1 7.3 6.1 1.7 0.5 National estuarine average (1999) a 1796 11139 Area Toxic Toxic Area Estimated (km2) Toxic... 20 05 by CRC Press 28 22_ C007.fm Page 80 Friday, November 19, 20 04 2: 21 PM 80 Estuarine Indicators 62% of Gulf of Mexico estuaries are negatively affected by contaminants (U.S EPA, 20 01a), and 23 3 waters are listed as impaired (U.S EPA, 20 01a) More specifically, about 28 50 km2 of Florida’s estuaries are partially impaired and only 16 of 10460 km2 attain all designated uses (FDEP, 20 02) Despite the environmental... Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp 183 24 0 Llansó, R J., L C Scott, J L Hyland, D M Dauer, D E Russell, and F W Kutz 20 02a An estuarine benthic index of biotic integrity for the mid-Atlantic region of the United States I Classification of assemblages and habitat definition Estuaries 25 : 121 9– 123 0 © 20 05 by CRC Press 28 22_ book.fm Page 76 Friday, November 12, 20 04 3 :21 PM 76 Estuarine Indicators Llansó, R J., L C... al., 20 01a; Butts and Lewis, 20 02) , treated wastewater (Lewis et al., 20 00), golf complex runoff (Lewis et al., 20 01b), and agriculture runoff (Goodman et al., 1999; Lewis et al., 1999), and for the value of genotoxicity (Lewis et al., 20 02) and phytotoxicity (Lewis et al., 20 01c) as indicators of sediment contamination © 20 05 by CRC Press 28 22_ C007.fm Page 84 Friday, November 19, 20 04 2: 21 PM 84 Estuarine. .. PEL 0 1–3 4–6 7–9 30 41 24 5 80 20 0 0 100 0 0 0 99 1 0 0 100 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 88 12 0 0 37 30 19 76 12 12 12 N Note: Values represent percent of the total number of sites (N) for which result was observed TEL = threshold effects level; PEL = probable effects level Estuarine Indicators © 20 05 by CRC Press 28 22_ C007.fm Page 86 Friday, November 19, 20 04 2: 21 PM 86 TABLE 7 .2 Non-Point Runoff Analyte As... 385::1068 27 .2 36.0 39::300 13.0 30.7 23 19::8 523 33: :22 6 44::175 27 .2 14.6 25 .1 3.5 1855.4 0.7 21 ±5 5±5 0.0 29 ±30 4.0 6.0 7::37 51: :26 1 78: :29 0 1 .2 19.5 26 .9 3 520 .0 12. 3 14.7 381::397 20 ::397 96.0 5.0 25 0.5 23 5.5 50 47 Regional Inventories: Estuaries 1.3 Long et al., in prep Wash Dept of Ecology, SEDQUAL database Long et al 20 02 Hyland et al., 20 00 U.S EPA/EMAP Web site U.S EPA/EMAP Web site U.S EPA/EMAP... November 19, 20 04 2: 21 PM Comparison of Exceedances (%) of Threshold and Probable Effects Level Guidelines for Trace Metals and Selected Organic Contaminants at Sediment Collection Areas Sediment Habitat Assessment for Targeted Near-Coastal Areas TABLE 7.3 28 22_ C007.fm Page 88 Friday, November 19, 20 04 2: 21 PM 88 Estuarine Indicators (8) (5) (3) (2) (5) (7) (8) (2) (2) Total PCBs (44) (29 ) (6) (4) (4)... TPAH TDDT p,p-DDD p,p-DDE p,p-DDT Urban Storm Water a 7 (0) 59 (11) 30 (10) 46 (26 ) 24 (0) 34 (47) 19 (49) — 5 (15)a 13 (21 ) 51 (3) 56 (5) 51 (18) 23 (36) 67 (0) 5 (5) Golf Complex 2 7 0 7 0 0 2 5 6 6 0 0 27 15 30 3 (2) (6) (6) (9) (6) Agriculture Treated Wastewater Outfalls Suwannee River Estuary Withlacoochee River Estuary Seagrass Beds 5 0 19 25 0 0 0 0 20 5 0 0 0 20 0 0 5 14 8 21 11 0 2 8 0 0 19 . research-only areas, of which only Looe 83°30′ 83°00′ 82 30′ 82 00′ 81°30′ 81°00′ 80°30′ 83°30′ 83°00′ 82 30′ 82 00′ 81°30′ 81°00′ 80°30′ 24 °30′ 25 °00′ 25 °30′ 26 °00′ 26 °30′ 27 °00′ 24 °30′ 25 °00′ 25 °30′ 26 °00′ 26 °30′ 27 °00′ Florida. for estuaries 26 % 27 % 49% 42% 25 % 31% Percent of Samples 28 22_ book.fm Page 67 Friday, November 12, 20 04 3 :21 PM © 20 05 by CRC Press Table 6.1). Tier 3 (Table 6.1 and Figure 6 .2) . Samples classified. animals in laboratory bioassays 28 22_ book.fm Page 71 Friday, November 12, 20 04 3 :21 PM © 20 05 by CRC Press 72 Estuarine Indicators (Hyland et al., 1999, 20 03). In Puget Sound, significant