Tài liệu Constituent Structure - Part 2 doc

Acknowledgements This book has beneWted from the input, advice, and feedback from a number of people, ranging from answering simple email quer- ies to reading all or some of the manuscript. Here’s a partial list, in alphabetical order: Anne Abeille ´ , Ash Asudeh Andy Barss, Bob Berwick, Tom Bever, Sherrylyn Branchaw, Jean Carnie, Fiona Carnie, Morag Carnie, Robert Carnie, Robert Chametzky, Noam Chomsky, John Davey, Andrea Dauer, Malcolm Elliott, Yehuda Falk, Georgia Green, Heidi Harley, Michael Hammond, Richard Hudson, Peter Kahrel, Tibor Kiss, Simin Karimi, Tracy Holliway King, Terry Langendoen, Shalom Lappin, Howard Lasnik, Tel Monks, David P. Medeiros, Stefan Mu ¨ ller, David Pesetsky, Massimo Piatelli-Palmar- ini, Chloe Plummer, Carl Pollard, GeoV Pullum, Sumayya Racy, Ivan Sag, Maggie Shade, Yosuke Sato, Robert Van Valin, Steve Weschler. Thanks to you all. Special thanks go to my family who let me work on this book while ignoring them over the 2006 winter holidays. AC Tucson, February 2007 General Preface Oxford Surveys in Syntax and Morphology provides overviews of the major approaches to subjects and questions at the centre of linguistic research in morphology and syntax. The volumes are accessible, crit- ical, and up-to-date. Individually and collectively they aim to reveal the Weld’s intellectual history and theoretical diversity. Each book published in the series will characteristically contain: (1) a brief histor- ical overview of relevant research in the subject; (2) a critical presen- tation of approaches from relevant (but usually seen as competing) theoretical perspectives to the phenomena and issues at hand, includ- ing an objective evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of each approach to the central problems and issues; (3) a balanced account of the current issues, problems, and opportunities relating to the topic, showing the degree of consensus or otherwise in each case. The volumes will thus provide researchers and graduate students con- cerned with syntax, morphology, and related aspects of grammar, communication, and cognition w ith a vital source of information and reference. Andrew Carnie’s Constituent Structure surveys one of the most fundamental areas of syntax. It encompasses a variety of views and proposals, both within the Chomskyan tradition and outside of it, and in this regard it is a quite unique and valuable contribution to the study of syntax. Robert D. Van Valin, Jr General Editor University at BuValo, The State University of New York Heinrich Heine University, Du ¨ sseldorf Abbreviations 3rd third person A movement Argument movement (same as NP movement) A answer A-bar movement non-argument movement (typically the same as wh-movement) Adj’ ‘‘Adjective bar’’, intermediate adjective category Adj Adjective AdjP Adjective Phrase Adv’ ‘‘Adverb bar’’, intermediate adverb category Adv Adverb AdvP Adverb Phrase AFD in RRG, actual focus domain agreement agreement feature AgrIO Indirect object functional projection AgrIOP Indirect object Agreement Phrase AgrO Object agreement functional projection AgrOP Object agreement Phrase AgrS Subject agreement functional projection AgrSP Subject agreement Phrase ARG in RRG, arguments Aux Auxiliary AVM attribute value matrix bar bar-level feature BPS Bare Phrase Structure C’ ‘‘Complementizer bar’’, intermediate complemen- tizer category C Complementizer category category feature CF context free cho ˆ cho ˆ meur (relational grammar) comps complement feature Condition A the requirement that an anaphor must be bound in a local domain Condition B the requirement that a pronoun must not be bound in a local domain Condition C the requirement that an R-expression must not be bound Conj Conjunction COP copula CP Complementizer Phrase (¼ S’) CS context sensitive D’ ‘‘Determiner bar’’, intermediate determiner category D Determiner DAG directed acyclic graphs def deWniteness DOM Domain-of-word-order feature in HPSG DP Determiner Phrase DTRS daughters feature in HPSG ECPO Exhaustive Constant Partial Ordering EPP Extended Projection Principle EST Extended Standard Theory FCR Feature Co-occurence Restriction FFP Foot-Feature Principle fin Finite Foc Focus FSA Wnite-state automata FSD feature-speciWcation defaults GB Government and Binding Theory gender gender feature GKPS Gazdar, Klein, Pullum, and Sag ( 1983) GPSG Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar GT generalized transformation HFC Head Feature Convention HPSG Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar IC immediate constituent ID/LP immediate dominance/linear precedence IDC immediate dominance c-command IF in RRG, Intentional Force InX the functional category of InXection, later replaced by Agr, AgrS, AgrO, TP inv inversion feature IP InXectional Phrase (often the same as TP or S) label set of category labels abbreviations xiii LCA Linear Correspondence Axiom LCS in RRG, the layered structure of the clause LF Logical Form LFG Lexical-Functional Grammar LSLT Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory M mothership relation/immediate domination max set of XP categories MP Minimalist Program MSO Monadic Second Order MTS Model-Theoretic Syntax MUB Minimal Upper Bound N’ ‘‘Noun bar’’, intermediate noun category N Noun Neg Negation NP Noun Phrase NUC in RRG, the nucleus of the CORE num number feature obj in LFG, object function OSV Object-Subject-Verb order OVS Object-Verb-Subject order P’ ‘‘Preposition bar’’, intermediate preposition cat- egory P Preposition P&P Principles and Parameters Theory person person feature PF Phonetic/Phonological Form PFD in RRG, potential Focus Domain PM phrase marker PP Prepositional Phrase PRED in RRG, the predicate; in LFG, the predicative content of the f-structure PSG phrase structure grammar PSR phrase structure rule Q Question QP QuantiWer Phrase R-expression referring expression (most nouns, excluding pro- nouns, anaphors, and other elements that typically get their reference from linguistic context) RG Relational Grammar xiv abbreviations RRG Role and Reference Grammar S Sentence (often ¼ IP or TP) S’ ‘‘S-bar’’ (¼ CP) SAI Subject-Aux Inversion SCT structure-changing transformation slash ‘‘slash feature’’ (indicates a gap in structure) SOV Subject-Object-Verb order subcat subcategorization feature subj in LFG, subject function SVO Subject-Verb-Obje ct order T’ ‘‘Tense bar’’, intermediate tense category T Tense functional projection TAG Tree-Adjoining Grammar TG Transformational Grammar Tns in RRG, tense Top Topic TP Tense Phrase (often the same as S) UB upper bound v ‘‘little v’’ or ‘‘light v’’ V’ ‘‘Verb bar’’, intermediate verb category V verb VOS Verb-Object-Subject order vP ‘‘little v’’ phrase VP Verb Phrase VPISH VP-internal Subject Hypothesis VSO Verb-Subject-Object order X’ some intermediate category headed by category X X’’ ‘‘X double bar’’, usually equivalent to XP or X max X o head (word) indicating category X xcomp in LFG, predicate complement X max maximal (usually phrasal) category associated with category X, usually equal to X’’ and XP X P a node of cate gory X, of indeterminate phrasality XP some maximal/phrasal category headed by cat- egory X, often equivalent to X’’ and X max abbreviations xv Symbols Used # Before an example sentence, indicates semantic oddity Or pragmatic infelicity. & Conjunction (and) _ Disjunction (or) : Negation (‘‘it is not the case that’’) ! Two uses: (a) in logical formula: conditional (if then); (b) in phrase structure grammars ! means ‘‘rewrites as’’, ‘‘projects from’’, ‘‘consists of ’’ or ‘‘is li- censed by’’, depending upon the approach. $ Biconditional (if and only if) 8 Universal quantiWer (every) 9 Existential quantiWer (some)  List addition () In phrase structure rules indicates optionality. In syn- tactic forms may indicate structure. In logical forms may indicate functional application or structure, as in the usual usages. ("subj)¼# In LFG, metavariable indicating node bears subject role of dominating category (similarly for (" obj)¼#, etc.) "¼# In LFG, metavariable indicating featural identity be- tween node and dominating category * Kleene star. In phrase structure rules, indicates zero or more. Before an example, indicates ungrammaticality. / _____ In phrase structure rules, ‘‘_____ is in the context of’’ ? Before an example sentence, indicates marginal gram- maticality. [] Constituent boundaries ^ Span; in the right-wrap rule, indicates linear concaten- ation {NP/CP} In phrase structure rules, indicates choice between NP and CP. {x, y} Unordered set of x and y j Such that (in set descriptions); boundary in immediate constituent analysis  Approximately þ Kleene plus. In phrase structure rules, indicates one or more. In other contexts, indicates addition. <A Rule of Backward Application (Combinatorial Categor- ial Grammar) hx, yi Ordered set of x and y  Precedence  s Sister precedence ¼ Equals ¼ def Is deWned as > Greater than >A Rule of forward application (Combinatorial Categorial Grammar) + Plus or minus in binary feature values 2 Element of (set membership) [ Set union  ‘‘Is a’’ relation 6¼ Does not equal # Lesser than or equal too $ Greater than or equal to  Used in feature coocurrence restrictions (FCRs) for ‘‘entails’’ or ‘‘requires’’ / Immediate domination /* Domination / þ Proper domination ) In TG, this indicates a structure changing transform- ation; in GPSG it indicates the application of a meta- rule or a meaning postulate. a, b, c, . . . Constants i, j, k, l, . . . Indices w, x, y, z, . . . variables N Set of non-terminals NP# Substitute an NP in this position. (Tree-Adjoining Grammar) P Set of production rules S Star t symbol S/NP In Combina torial Categorial Grammar, look right for an NP to form an S. S\NP In Combinatorial Categor ial Grammar, look left for an NP to form an S. symbols xvii T Set of terminals ºx Lambda operator (indicates following string is an open function unspeciWed for x) P Projection path SP Polarity Phrase xviii symbols Proper words in proper places . . . Jonathan Swift, Letter to a Young Clergyman, 9 January 1720 . ‘‘S-bar’’ (¼ CP) SAI Subject-Aux Inversion SCT structure- changing transformation slash ‘‘slash feature’’ (indicates a gap in structure) SOV Subject-Object-Verb. predicative content of the f -structure PSG phrase structure grammar PSR phrase structure rule Q Question QP QuantiWer Phrase R-expression referring expression