Environmental Monitoring © 2004 by CRC Press LLC CRC PRESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Environmental Monitoring Edited by G. Bruce Wiersma © 2004 by CRC Press LLC This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. © 2004 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-641-6 Library of Congress Card Number 2003065879 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Environmental monitoring / edited by G. Bruce Wiersma. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-641-6 (alk. paper) 1. Environmental monitoring. I. Wiersma, G. B. QH541.15.M64E584 2004 363.73'63—dc22 2003065879 L1641 disclaimer.fm Page 1 Thursday, March 25, 2004 2:19 PM © 2004 by CRC Press LLC Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com Preface When I first entered the field of environmental monitoring 33 years ago as a new employee of a then very new U.S. federal agency called the Environmental Protection Agency, our efforts were concentrated on primarily chasing pollutant residues in the environment. Eight years later when I founded the international journal Environ- mental Monitoring and Assessment that was still certainly the case. However, over the intervening years, while the importance of tracking and assess- ing chemical residues in the environment still remains, the concept of environmental monitoring has broadened to monitoring and assessment of the endpoints of envi- ronmental pollution. Environmental monitoring systems now look far beyond only measuring chemical residues in the environment to identifying and measuring the biological endpoints that more directly reflect the effect of human action rather than just the signature of human action. The scope of environmental monitoring systems now encompasses landscape- scale monitoring networks, multimedia approaches, and far more biological indica- tors of environmental impact than were ever employed 20 or more years ago. In my opinion all these trends and changes are for the good and in the right direction. Techniques and approaches are rapidly changing as well as the conceptual thinking used to design monitoring networks. For example, geostatistics were not widely applied 20 years ago, but they are commonly used today. Single media sampling programs used to be the norm 20 or more years ago, but today it is far easier to find monitoring programs that are multimedia in nature than are single media—as witnessed by the makeup of this book. I found it much easier to recruit authors dealing with ecological monitoring indicators, geostatistics, multimedia assessment programs, etc. than to iden- tify authors who were working in the more traditional areas of air-, soil-, and water- sampling programs. It was my intent, while thinking about the development of this book, to try to pull together a collection of articles that would represent the latest thinking in the rapidly changing field of environmental monitoring. I reviewed the current literature (within the last 5 years) for papers that I thought represented the latest thinking in monitoring technology. I then contacted these authors and asked them if they would be interested in writing a new paper based upon their current research and thinking. I also believed that the book needed a few chapters on major monitoring networks to show both the practical application aspects under field conditions as well as to provide some descrip- tion of how current environmental monitoring systems are designed and operated. I have been extremely gratified by the positive and enthusiastic response that I have received from the authors I contacted. My original letters of inquiry went out to over 50 authors, and 45 of them responded positively. Eventually that number was pared down to the 32 chapters that make up this book. I want to thank all the authors for their contributions. L1641_C00 Page 5 Thursday, March 25, 2004 2:20 PM © 2004 by CRC Press LLC About the Editor Dr. Wiersma has been involved with environmental monitoring activities for almost 35 years. He began his career with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency where he managed all the agency’s national pesticides monitoring programs for 4 years. He then transferred to the Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory of the USEPA in Las Vegas, Nevada where he worked on the development of advanced monitoring techniques for the next 6 years. In 1980 Dr. Wiersma transferred to the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. There he helped set up their environmental sciences, geosciences, and biotechnology groups, eventually establishing and directing the Center for Environmental Moni- toring and Assessment. In 1990 Dr. Wiersma became Dean of the College of Forest Resources at the University of Maine and currently is Dean of the College of Natural Sciences, Forestry and Agriculture and Professor of Forest Resources. His current research interest is focused on studying the impacts of atmospheric deposition on northern forests. One recent Ph.D. study was on the efficacy of the U.S. Forest Service’s forest health monitoring indicators. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council Committee on a Systems Assessment of Marine Environmental Monitoring that resulted in the publication in 1990 of the book Managing Troubled Waters: The Role of Marine Environmental Monitoring, and was Chair of the National Academy of Sciences/ National Research Council Committee Study on Environmental Data- base Interfaces that resulted in the publication in 1995 of the book Finding the Forest in the Trees: The Challenge of Combining Diverse Environmental Data . Dr. Wiersma has written more than 130 scientific papers and has been the managing editor of the international peer-reviewed journal Environmental Monitor- ing and Assessment for 25 years. L1641_C00 Page 7 Thursday, March 25, 2004 2:21 PM © 2004 by CRC Press LLC Contributors Debra Bailey agroscope FAL Reckenholz Swiss Federal Research Station for Agroecology and Agriculture Zurich, Switzerland Roger Blair U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Corvallis, Oregon David Bolgrien U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Duluth, Minnesota M. Patricia Bradley U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development Environmental Science Center Meade, Maryland Barbara Brown U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Norragansett, Rhode Island Thamas Brydges Brampton, Ontario Canada Giorgio Brunialti DIPTERIS University of Genova Genova, Italy L1641_Frame_FM Page 9 Wednesday, March 24, 2004 9:21 PM © 2004 by CRC Press LLC Dale A. Bruns Pennsylvania GIS Consortium College of Science and Engineering Wilkes University Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania Joanna Burger Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute Consortium for Risk Evaluation with Stakeholder Participation, and Division of Life Sciences Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey Janet M. Carey School of Botany University of Melbourne Victoria, Australia Vincent Carignan Institut des sciences de l’environnement Université due Québec à Montréal Montréal, Québec, Canada Charissa J. Chou Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland, Washington Mary C. Christman Biometrics Program Department of Animal and Avian Sciences University of Maryland College Park, Maryland William D. Constant Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, Louisiana Susan M. Cormier U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Exposure Research Laboratory Cincinnati, Ohio L1641_Frame_FM Page 10 Wednesday, March 24, 2004 9:21 PM © 2004 by CRC Press LLC Joseph Dlugosz U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Duluth, Minnesota Janet D. Eckhoff National Park Service Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield Republic, Missouri J. Alexander Elvir College of Natural Science, Forestry and Agriculture University of Maine, Orono Marco Ferretti LINNAEA Firenze, Italy Paolo Giordani DIPTERIS University of Genova Genova, Italy Michael Gochfeld Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute Consortium for Risk Evaluation with Stakeholder Participation, and Division of Life Sciences Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey James T. Gunter University of Oklahoma Norman, Oklahoma Richard Haeuber U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. Stephen Hale U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Narragansett, Rhode Island L1641_Frame_FM Page 11 Wednesday, March 24, 2004 9:21 PM © 2004 by CRC Press LLC David Michael Hamby Department of Nuclear Engineering and Radiation Health Physics Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon Steven Hedtke National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Research Triangle Park, North Carolina Daniel Heggem U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Exposure Research Laboratory Las Vegas, Nevada Felix Herzog agroscope FAL Reckenholz Swiss Federal Research Station for Agroecology and Agriculture Zurich, Switzerland Paul F. Hudak Department of Geography and Environmental Science Program University of North Texas Denton, Texas Laura Jackson U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Research Triangle Park, North Carolina K. Bruce Jones U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Exposure Research Laboratory Research Triangle Park, North Carolina Romualdas Juknys Department of Environmental Sciences Vytautas Magnum University Kaunas, Lithuania L1641_Frame_FM Page 12 Wednesday, March 24, 2004 9:21 PM © 2004 by CRC Press LLC I. Kalikhman Yigal Allon Kinneret Limnological Laboratory Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research Ltd. Haifa, Israel Albert Köhler Worms, Germany Michael Kolian U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Clean Air Markets Washington, D.C. Frederick W. Kutz Consultant in Environmental Science Columbia, Maryland Mandy M.J. Lane Center for Ecology & Hydrology Natural Environmental Research Council Cumbria, United Kingdom Barbara Levinson U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Center for Environmental Research Washington, D.C. Yu-Pin Lin Department of Landscape Architecture Chinese Culture University Taipei, Taiwan Rick Linthurst U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development Office of Inspector General Washington, D.C. Michael E. McDonald U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Research Triangle Park, North Carolina L1641_Frame_FM Page 13 Wednesday, March 24, 2004 9:21 PM © 2004 by CRC Press LLC [...]... Heuristic Tool 10 1. 4.2 Evaluation of Source–Receptor Relationships 13 1. 4.3 Multimedia Monitoring 14 1. 4.4 Ecosystem Endpoints 14 1. 4.5 Data Integration 18 1. 4.6 Landscape and Watershed Spatial Scaling 21 1.5 Synthesis and Future Directions in Monitoring Design 24 1. 5 .1 EPA BASINS .25 1. 5.2 SWAT 26 1. 5.3 CITYgreen... L16 41_ Frame_C 01. fm Page 1 Tuesday, March 23, 2004 8:55 PM 1 Conceptual Basis of Environmental Monitoring Systems: A Geospatial Perspective D.A Bruns and G.B Wiersma CONTENTS 1. 1 1. 2 Introduction 2 General Monitoring Design Concepts from NRC Reports 3 1. 3 Overview of Specific Conceptual Monitoring Design Components 7 1. 4 Conceptual Monitoring Design Components 9 1. 4 .1 Conceptual... 26 1. 5.4 ATtILA .27 1. 5.5 Metadata Tools and Web-Based GIS .27 1. 5.6 Homeland Security 27 1. 6 Conclusion 28 Acknowledgments 29 References 30 1 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC L16 41_ Frame_C 01. fm Page 2 Tuesday, March 23, 2004 8:55 PM 2 Environmental Monitoring 1. 1 INTRODUCTION The importance of and need for integrated environmental monitoring. .. Constant Chapter 17 Statistical Methods for Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 3 91 E Russek-Cohen and M.C Christman Chapter 18 Geostatistical Approach for Optimally Adjusting a Monitoring Network 407 Y.-P Lin © 2004 by CRC Press LLC L16 41_ Frame_FM Page 21 Wednesday, March 24, 2004 9: 21 PM Chapter 19 The Variability of Estimates of Variance: How It Can Affect Power Analysis in Monitoring Design... Press LLC L16 41_ Frame_C 01. fm Page 13 Tuesday, March 23, 2004 8:55 PM Conceptual Basis of Environmental Monitoring Systems 13 And fourth, both our EPA- and USDA-sponsored GIS research projects maintained a public outreach and environmental education component The basic systems diagram shown in Figure 1. 4 successfully enhanced our educational component in this regard, both with other technical participants,... “arctic haze”) or from regional point sources like coal-fired power plants,27 might be transported long distances and may affect remote ecosystems via wet and dry deposition processes.43,44 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC L16 41_ Frame_C 01. fm Page 11 Tuesday, March 23, 2004 8:55 PM Conceptual Basis of Environmental Monitoring Systems 11 As expected at remote monitoring sites, field logistics and/or regulatory restrictions... biological monitoring. 12 ,15 ,16 Bruns et al .17 19 reviewed the concept of “biosphere observatories” and evaluated various aspects of monitoring programs for remote wilderness ecosystems and a geospatial watershed site for a designated American Heritage River in the context of global environmental change These sites represent a broad spectrum of ecological conditions © 2004 by CRC Press LLC L16 41_ Frame_C 01. fm... surveys of “indicator” species Indicator © 2004 by CRC Press LLC L16 41_ Frame_C 01. fm Page 15 Tuesday, March 23, 2004 8:55 PM Conceptual Basis of Environmental Monitoring Systems 15 TABLE 1. 1 Integrated Multimedia Monitoring Parameters at the Wind Rivers Study Site Measurement Abiotic Measurements SO4, NO3, HNO3, NH3, NO2, SO2 (atm) Source-term particle analysis Ozone Meteorological parameters Trace metals... litterfall, and leaf decay rates will better reflect short-term impacts of atmospheric than compositional changes, given the long life cycle of most tree species vs short-lived aquatic species © 2004 by CRC Press LLC L16 41_ Frame_C 01. fm Page 18 Tuesday, March 23, 2004 8:55 PM 18 Environmental Monitoring General reviews of the monitoring literature63,68, 71, 74,76 indicate that a number of important ecological... Environmental Monitoring Programs 37 A.M.J Lane, S.C Rennie, and J.W Watkins Chapter 3 Using Multimedia Risk Models in Environmental Monitoring 63 C Travis, K.R Obenshain, J.T Gunter, J.L Regens, and C Whipple Chapter 4 Basic Concepts and Applications of Environmental Monitoring 83 T Brydges Chapter 5 Assessment of Changes in Pollutant Concentrations 11 1 J Mohapl Chapter 6 Atmospheric Monitoring . Relationships 13 1. 4.3 Multimedia Monitoring 14 1. 4.4 Ecosystem Endpoints 14 1. 4.5 Data Integration 18 1. 4.6 Landscape and Watershed Spatial Scaling 21 1.5 Synthesis and Future Directions in Monitoring. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Environmental monitoring / edited by G. Bruce Wiersma. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1- 5 667 0-6 4 1- 6 (alk. paper) 1. Environmental monitoring. I. Wiersma,. 29 References 30 1 L16 41_ Frame_C 01. fm Page 1 Tuesday, March 23, 2004 8:55 PM © 2004 by CRC Press LLC 2 Environmental Monitoring 1. 1 INTRODUCTION The importance of and need for integrated environmental