Materials Science and Engineering Handbook Part 8 pdf

Cold drawn 650 94 550 80 12 35 187 Hot rolled 585 85 325 47 15 40 170 1146 Cold drawn 650 94 550 80 12 35 187 Hot rolled 635 92 350 50.5 15 35 187 1151 Cold drawn 705 102 595 86 10 30 207 Low-alloy steels (b) Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 834 121 558 81 22.0 63 248 1340 Annealed at 800 °C (1475 °F) 703 102 434 63 25.5 57 207 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 889 129 600 87 19.7 57 262 3140 Annealed at 815 °C (1500 °F) 690 100 420 61 24.5 51 197 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 670 97 435 63 25.5 59.5 197 Annealed at 865 °C (1585 °F) 560 81 460 67 21.5 59.6 217 4130 Water quenched from 855 °C (1575 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1040 151 979 142 18.1 63.9 302 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 1020 148 655 95 17.7 46.8 302 Annealed at 815 °C (1500 °F) 655 95 915 60 25.7 56.9 197 4140 Water quenched from 845 °C (1550 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1075 156 986 143 15.5 56.9 311 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 1160 168 731 106 11.7 30.8 321 Annealed at 830 °C (1525 °F) 731 106 380 55 20.2 40.2 197 4150 Oil quenched from 830 °C (1525 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1310 190 1215 176 13.5 47.2 375 4320 Normalized at 895 °C (1640 °F) 793 115 460 67 20.8 51 235 Annealed at 850 °C (1560 °F) 580 84 425 62 29.0 58 163 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 1282 186 862 125 12.2 36.3 363 Annealed at 810 °C (1490 °F) 745 108 470 68 22.0 50.0 217 4340 Oil quenched from 800 °C (1475 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1207 175 1145 166 14.2 45.9 352 Normalized at 955 °C (1750 °F) 515 75 350 51 32.5 69.4 143 4419 Annealed at 915 °C (1675 °F) 450 65 330 48 31.2 62.8 121 Normalized at 900 °C (1650 °F) 570 83 365 53 29.0 66.7 174 4620 Annealed at 855 °C (1575 °F) 510 74 370 54 31.3 60.3 149 Normalized at 860 °C (1580 °F) 758 110 485 70 24.0 59.2 229 4820 Annealed at 815 °C (1500 °F) 685 99 460 67 22.3 58.8 197 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 793 115 470 68 22.7 59.2 229 Annealed at 830 °C (1525 °F) 570 83 290 42 28.6 57.3 167 5140 Oil quenched from 845 °C (1550 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 972 141 841 122 18.5 58.9 293 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 869 126 530 77 20.7 58.7 255 Annealed at 825 °C (1520 °F) 675 98 360 52 22.0 43.7 197 5150 Oil quenched from 830 °C (1525 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1055 159 1000 145 16.4 52.9 311 Normalized at 855 °C (1575 °F) 1025 149 650 94 18.2 50.7 285 Annealed at 815 °C (1495 °F) 724 105 275 40 17.2 30.6 197 5160 Oil quenched from 830 °C (1525 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1145 166 1005 146 14.5 45.7 341 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 938 136 615 89 21.8 61.0 269 Annealed at 815 °C (1500 °F) 670 97 415 60 23.0 48.4 197 6150 Oil quenched from 845 °C (1550 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1200 174 1160 168 14.5 48.2 352 Normalized at 915 °C (1675 °F) 635 92 360 52 26.3 59.7 183 8620 Annealed at 870 °C (1600 °F) 540 78 385 56 31.3 62.1 149 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 650 94 425 62 23.5 53.5 187 Annealed at 845 °C (1550 °F) 565 82 370 54 29.0 58.9 156 8630 Water quenched from 845 °C (1550 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 931 135 850 123 18.7 59.6 269 Normalized at 870 °C (1600) 1025 149 690 100 14 45.0 302 Annealed at 795 °C (1465 °F) 715 104 385 56 22.5 46.0 212 8650 Oil quenched from 800 °C (1475 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1185 172 1105 160 14.5 49.1 352 Normalized at 870 °C (1600 °F) 931 135 605 88 16.0 47.9 269 Annealed at 815 °C (1500 °F) 696 101 415 60 22.2 46.4 201 8740 Oil quenched from 830 °C (1525 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1225 178 1130 164 16.0 53.0 352 Normalized at 900 °C (1650 °F) 931 135 580 84 19.7 43.4 269 Annealed at 845 °C (1550 °F) 779 113 485 70 21.7 41.1 229 9255 Oil quenched from 885 °C (1625 °F) and tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F) 1130 164 924 134 16.7 38.3 321 Normalized at 890 °C (1630 °F) 910 132 570 83 18.8 58.1 269 HRB 9310 Annealed at 845 °C (1550 °F) 820 119 450 65 17.3 42.1 241 HRB Ferritic stainless steels (b) Annealed bar 483 70 276 40 30 60 150 405 Cold drawn bar 586 85 483 70 20 60 185 409 Annealed bar 450 65 240 35 25 . . . 75 HRB Annealed bar 517 75 310 45 30 65 155 430 Annealed and cold drawn 586 85 483 70 20 65 185 Annealed bar 515 75 310 45 30 50 160 442 Annealed at 815 °C (1500 °F) and cold worked 545 79 427 62 35.5 79 92 HRC Annealed bar 550 80 345 50 25 45 86 HRB 446 Annealed at 815 °C (1500 °F) and cold drawn 607 88 462 67 26 64 96 HRB Martensitic stainless steels (b) Annealed bar 515 75 275 40 35 70 82 HRB 403 Tempered bar 765 111 585 85 23 67 97 HRB Oil quenched from 980 °C (1800 °F); tempered at 540 °C (1000 °F); 16 mm (0.625 in.) bar 1085 158 1005 146 13 70 . . . 410 Oil quenched from 980 °C (1800 °F); tempered at 40 °C (104 °F); 16 mm (0.625 in.) bar 1525 221 1225 178 15 64 45 HRB Annealed bar 795 115 620 90 20 60 235 Cold drawn bar 895 130 795 115 15 58 270 414 Oil quenched from 980 °C (1800 °F); tempered at 650 °C (1200 °F) 1005 146 800 116 19 58 . . . Annealed bar 655 95 345 50 25 55 195 420 Annealed and cold drawn 760 110 690 100 14 40 228 Annealed bar 860 125 655 95 20 55 260 Annealed and cold drawn 895 130 760 110 15 35 270 Oil quenched from 980 °C (1800 °F); tempered at 650 °C (1200 °F) 831 121 738 107 20 64 . . . 431 Oil quenched from 980 °C (1800 °F); tempered at 40 °C (104 °F) 1435 208 1140 166 17 59 45 HRC Annealed bar 760 110 450 65 14 25 97 HRB Annealed and cold drawn bar 860 125 690 100 7 20 260 440C Hardened and tempered at 315 °C (600 °F) 1970 285 1900 275 2 10 580 Austenitic stainless steels (b) Annealed 760 110 380 55 52 . . . 87 HRB 50% hard 1035 150 760 110 12 . . . 32 HRC Full hard 1275 185 965 140 8 . . . 41 HRC 201 Extra hard 1550 225 1480 215 1 . . . 43 HRC Annealed bar 515 75 275 40 40 . . . . . . Annealed sheet 655 95 310 45 40 . . . . . . 202 50% hard sheet 1030 150 760 110 10 . . . . . . Annealed 725 105 275 40 60 70 . . . 50% hard 1035 150 655 95 54 61 . . . 301 Full hard 1415 205 1330 193 6 . . . . . . Annealed strip 620 90 275 40 55 . . . 80 HRB 302 25% hard strip 860 125 515 75 12 . . . 25 HRC Annealed bar 585 85 240 35 60 70 80 HRB Annealed bar 620 90 240 35 50 55 160 303 Cold drawn 690 100 415 60 40 53 228 Annealed bar 585 85 235 34 60 70 149 Annealed and cold drawn 690 100 415 60 45 . . . 212 304 Cold-drawn high tensile 860 125 655 95 25 . . . 275 305 Annealed sheet 585 85 260 38 50 . . . 80 HRB 308 Annealed bar 585 85 205 30 55 65 150 309 Annealed bar 655 95 275 40 45 65 83 HRB Annealed sheet 620 90 310 45 45 . . . 85 HRB 310 Annealed bar 655 95 275 40 45 65 160 314 Annealed bar 689 100 345 50 45 60 180 Annealed sheet 580 84 290 42 50 . . . 79 HRB Annealed bar 550 80 240 35 60 70 149 316 Annealed and cold-drawn bar 620 90 415 60 45 65 190 317 Annealed sheet 620 90 275 40 45 . . . 85 HRB Annealed bar 585 85 275 40 50 . . . 160 Annealed sheet 620 90 240 35 45 . . . 80 HRB Annealed bar 585 85 240 35 55 65 150 321 Annealed and cold-drawn bar 655 95 415 60 40 60 185 330 Annealed sheet 550 80 260 38 40 . . . . . . Annealed bar 585 85 290 42 45 . . . 80 HRB Annealed sheet 655 95 275 40 45 . . . 85 HRB Annealed bar 620 90 240 35 50 65 160 347 Annealed and cold drawn bar 690 100 450 65 40 60 212 384 Annealed wire 1040 °C (1900 °F) 515 75 240 35 55 72 70 HRB Maraging steels (b) Annealed 965 140 655 95 17 75 30 HRC Aged bar 32 mm (1.25 in.) 1844 269 1784 259 11 56.5 51.8 HRC 18Ni(250) Aged sheet 6 mm (0.25 in.) 1874 272 1832 266 8 40.8 50.6 HRC Annealed 1034 150 758 110 18 72 32 HRC Aged bar 32 mm (1.25 in.) 2041 296 2020 293 11.6 55.8 54.7 HRC 18Ni(300) Aged sheet 6 mm (0.25 in.) 2169 315 2135 310 7.7 35 55.1 HRC Annealed 1140 165 827 120 18 70 35 HRC Aged bar 32 mm (1.25 in.) 2391 347 2348 341 7.6 33.8 58.4 HRC 18Ni(350) Aged sheet 6 mm (0.25 in.) 2451 356 2395 347 3 15.4 57.7 HRC Source: Ref 1 (a) All values are estimated minimum values; type 1100 series steels are rated on the basis of 0.10% max Si or coarse-grain melting practice; the mechanical properties shown are expected minimums for the sizes ranging from 19 to 31.8 mm (0.75 to 1.25 in.). (b) Most data are for 25 mm (1 in.) diam bar. In the selection process, what is required for one application may be totally inappropriate for another application. For example, steel beams for a railway bridge require a totally different set of properties than the steel rails that are attached to the wooden ties on the bridge deck. In designing the bridge, the steel must have sufficient strength to withstand substantial applied loads. In fact, the designer will generally select a steel with higher strength than actually required. Also, the designer knows that the steel must have fracture toughness to resist the growth and propagation of cracks and must be capable of being welded so that structural members can be joined without sacrificing strength and toughness. The steel bridge must also be corrosion resistant. This can be provided by a protective layer of paint. If painting is not allowed, small amounts of certain alloying elements such as copper and chromium can be added to the steel to inhibit or reduce corrosion rates. Thus, the steel selected for the bridge would be a high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) structural steel such as ASTM A572, grade 50 or possibly a weathering steel such as ASTM A588. A typical HSLA steel has a ferrite- pearlite microstructure as seen in Fig. 2 and is microalloyed with vanadium and/or niobium for strengthening. (Microalloying is a term used to describe the process of using small additions of carbonitride forming elements titanium, vanadium, and niobium to strengthen steels by grain refinement and precipitation hardening.) Fig. 2 Microstructure of a typical HSLA structural steel (ASTM A572, grade 50). 2% nital + 4% picral etch. 200× On the other hand, the steel rails must have high strength coupled with excellent wear resistance. Modern rail steels consist of a fully pearlitic microstructure with a fine pearlite interlamellar spacing, as shown in Fig. 3. Pearlite is unique because it is a lamellar composite consisting of 88% soft, ductile ferrite and 12% hard, brittle cementite (Fe 3 C). The hard cementite plates provide excellent wear resistance, especially when embedded in soft ferrite. Pearlitic steels have high strength and are fully adequate to support heavy axle loads of modern locomotives and freight cars. Most of the load is applied in compression. Pearlitic steels also have relatively poor toughness and cannot generally withstand impact loads without failure. The rail steel could not meet the requirements of the bridge builder, and the HSLA structural steel could not meet the requirements of the civil engineer who designed the bridge or the rail system. Fig. 3 Microstructure of a typical fully pearlitic rail steel showing the charac teristic fine pearlite interlamellar spacing. 2% nital + 4% picral etch. 500× A similar case can be made for the selection of cast irons. A cast machine housing on a large lathe requires a material with adequate strength, rigidity, and durability to support the applied load and a certain degree of damping capacity in order to rapidly attenuate (dampen) vibrations from the rotating parts of the lathe. The cast iron jaws of a crusher require a material with substantial wear resistance. For this application, a casting is required because wear-resistant steels are very difficult to machine. For the machine housing, gray cast iron is selected because it is relatively inexpensive, can be easily cast, and has the ability to dampen vibrations as a result of the graphite flakes present in its microstructure. These flakes are dispersed throughout the ferrite and pearlite matrix (Fig. 4). The graphite, being a major nonmetallic constituent in the gray iron, provides a tortuous path for sound to travel through the material. With so many flakes, sound waves are easily reflected and the sound dampened over a relatively short distance. However, for the jaw crusher, damping capacity is not a requirement. In this case, an alloy white cast iron is selected because of its high hardness and wear resistance. The white cast iron microstructure shown in Fig. 5 is graphite free and consists of martensite in a matrix of cementite. Both of these constituents are very hard and thus provide the required wear resistance. Thus, in this example the gray cast iron would not meet the requirements for the jaws of a crusher and the white cast iron would not meet the requirements for the lathe housing. Fig. 4 Microstructure of a gray cast iron with a ferrite-pearlite matrix. 4% picral etch. 320×. Courtesy of A.O. Benscoter, Lehigh University Fig. 5 Microstructure of an alloy white cast iron. White constituent is cementite and the darker constituent is martensite with some retained austenite. 4% picral etch. 250×. Courtesy of A.O. Benscoter, Lehigh University References cited in this section 1. Engineering Properties of Steel, P.D. Harvey, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1982 2. G. Krauss, Principles of the Heat Treatment of Steel, American Society for Metals, 1980 Effects of Composition, Processing, and Structure on Properties of Irons and Steels Bruce L. Bramfitt, Homer Research Laboratories, Bethlehem Steel Corporation Role of Microstructure In steels and cast irons, the microstructural constituents have the names ferrite, pearlite, bainite, martensite, cementite, and austenite. In most all other metallic systems, the constituents are not named, but are simply referred to by a Greek letter ( , , , etc.) derived from the location of the constituent on a phase diagram. Ferrous alloy constituents, on the other hand, have been widely studied for more than 100 years. In the early days, many of the investigators were petrographers, mining engineers, and geologists. Because minerals have long been named after their discoverer or place of origin, it was natural to similarly name the constituents in steels and cast irons. It can be seen that the four examples described above have very different microstructures: the structural steel has a ferrite + pearlite microstructure; the rail steel has a fully pearlitic microstructure; the machine housing (lathe) has a ferrite + pearlite matrix with graphite flakes; and the jaw crusher microstructure contains martensite and cementite. In each case, the microstructure plays the primary role in providing the properties desired for each application. From these examples, one can see how material properties can be tailored by microstructural manipulation or alteration. Knowledge about microstructure is thus paramount in component design and alloy development. In this section, each microstructural constituent will be described with particular reference to the properties that can be developed by appropriate manipulation of the microstructure through deformation (e.g., hot and cold rolling) and heat treatment. Further details about these microstructural constituents can be found in Ref 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Ferrite A wide variety of steels and cast irons fully exploit the properties of ferrite. However, only a few commercial steels are completely ferritic. An example of the microstructure of a fully ferritic, ultralow carbon steel is shown in Fig. 6. [...]... Tempering between 150 and 200 °C (300 and 390 °F) will maintain much of the hardness and strength of the quenched martensite and provide a small improvement in ductility and toughness (Ref 26) This treatment can be used for bearings and gears that are subjected to compression loading Tempering above 425 °C (796 °F) significantly improves ductility and toughness but at the expense of hardness and strength The... spacing and yield strength for eutectoid steels Source: Ref 10 It has also been shown by Hyzak and Bernstein (Ref 11) that strength is related to interlamellar spacing, pearlite colony size, and prior-austenite grain size, according to the following relationship: YS = 52.3 + 2. 18( -1/2 ) - 0.4( ) - 2 .88 (d-1/2) (Eq 4) where YS is the yield strength (in MPa), dc is the pearlite colony size (in mm), and d... 7(a) and 7(b)) by the following reaction: Austenite cementite + ferrite (Eq 2) The cementite and ferrite form as parallel plates called lamellae (Fig 14) This is essentially a composite microstructure consisting of a very hard carbide phase, cementite, and a very soft and ductile ferrite phase A fully pearlitic microstructure is formed at the eutectoid composition of 0. 78% C As can be seen in Fig 3 and. .. spacing, , and the colony size A simple relationship for yield strength has been developed by Heller (Ref 10) as follows: y = -85 .9 + 8. 3 ( -1/2 ) (Eq 3) where y is the 0.2% offset yield strength (in MPa) and is the interlamellar spacing (in mm) Figure 15 shows Heller's plot of strength versus interlamellar spacing for fully pearlitic eutectoid steels Fig 14 SEM micrograph of pearlite showing ferrite and. .. stainless steels have good ductility (up to 30% total elongation and 60% reduction in area) and formability, but lack strength at elevated temperatures compared with austenitic stainless steels Room-temperature yield strengths range from 170 to about 440 MPa (25 to 64 ksi), and room-temperature tensile strengths range from 380 to about 550 MPa (55 to 80 ksi) Table 5 lists the mechanical properties of some of... measurement of the spacing (Ref 12) The colony size and especially the prior austenite grain size are very difficult to measure and require a skilled metallographer using the light microscope or SEM and special etching procedures Because of poor ductility/toughness, there are only a few applications for fully pearlitic steels, including railroad rails and wheels and high-strength wire By far, the largest tonnage... and wear resistance is the pearlite interlamellar spacing Fortunately, interlamellar spacing is easy to control and is dependent solely on transformation temperature Fig 16 Relationship between hardness and wear resistance (weight loss) for rail steels Source: Ref 13 Fig 17 Relationship between pearlite interlamellar spacing and wear resistance (weight loss) for rail steels Source: Ref 13 Figure 18. .. maintaining that temperature (isothermal) until the specimens begin to transform, partially transform, and fully transform, at which time they are quenched to room temperature An IT diagram does not represent the transformation behavior in most processes where steel parts are continuously cooled, that is, air cooled, and so forth Fig 18 A CCT diagram of a typical rail steel (composition: 0.77% C, 0.95% Mn,... in.) diam wire can have a tensile strength in the range of 3.0 to 3.3 GPa (439 to 485 ksi), and in special cases a tensile strength as high as 4 .8 GPa can be obtained These wires are used in musical instruments because of the sound quality developed from the high tensile stresses applied in stringing a piano and violin and are also used in wire rope cables for suspension bridges Ferrite-Pearlite The... Acicular ferrite associated with interlath (plate) particles or films of cementite and/ or austenite (replaces the term "upper bainite") Class 3 (B3): Acicular ferrite associated with a constituent consisting of discrete islands of austenite and/ or martensite The bainitic steels have a wide range of mechanical properties depending on the microstructural morphology and composition; for example, yield strength . at 87 0 °C (1600 °F) 83 4 121 5 58 81 22.0 63 2 48 1340 Annealed at 80 0 °C (1475 °F) 703 102 434 63 25.5 57 207 Normalized at 87 0 °C (1600 °F) 88 9 129 600 87 19.7 57 262 3140 Annealed at 81 5. Normalized at 89 5 °C (1640 °F) 793 115 460 67 20 .8 51 235 Annealed at 85 0 °C (1560 °F) 580 84 425 62 29.0 58 163 Normalized at 87 0 °C (1600 °F) 1 282 186 86 2 125 12.2 36.3 363 Annealed at 81 0 °C. 59.2 229 482 0 Annealed at 81 5 °C (1500 °F) 685 99 460 67 22.3 58. 8 197 Normalized at 87 0 °C (1600 °F) 793 115 470 68 22.7 59.2 229 Annealed at 83 0 °C (1525 °F) 570 83 290 42 28. 6 57.3 167