ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION HANDBOOK EDITED BY Thomas R. Kurfess Ph.D., P.E. CRC PRESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $1.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 0-8493-1804-1/05/$0.00+$1.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2005 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-1804-1 Library of Congress Card Number 2004049656 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Robotics and automation handbook / edited by Thomas R. Kurfess. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-1804-1 (alk. paper) 1. Robotics Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Kurfess, Thomas R. TJ211.R5573 2000 629.8’92—dc21 2004049656 1804_Disclaimer.fm Page 1 Tuesday, August 17, 2004 3:07 PM Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC Preface Robots are machines that have interested the general population throughout history. In general, they are machines or devices that operate automatically or by remote control. Clearly people have wanted to use such equipment since simple devices were developed. The word robot itself comes from Czech robota, “servitude, forced labor,” and was coined in 1923 (from dictionary.com). Since then robots have been characterized by the media as machines that look similar to humans. Robots such as “Robby the Robot” or Robot from the Lost in Space television series defined the appearance of robots to several generations. However, robots are more than machines that walk around yelling “Danger!” They are used in a variety of tasks from the very exciting, such as space exploration (e.g., the Mars Rover), to the very mundane (e.g., vacuuming your home, which is not a simple task). They are complex and useful systems that have been employed in industry for several decades. As technology advances, the capability and utility of robots have increased dramatically. Today, we have robots that assemble cars, weld, fly through hostile environments, and explore the harshest environments from the depths of the ocean, to the cold and dark environment of the Antarctic, to the hazardous depths of active volcanoes, to the farthest reaches of outer space. Robots take on tasks that people do not want to perform. Perhaps these tasks are too boring, perhaps they are too dangerous, or perhaps the robot can outperform its human counterpart. This text is targeted at the fundamentals of robot design, implementation, and application. As robots are used in a substantial number of functions, this book only scratches the surface of their applications. However, it does provide a firm basis for engineers and scientists interested in either fabrication or utilizing robotic systems. The first part of this handbook presents a number of design issues that must be considered in building and utilizing a robotic system. Both issues related to the entire robot, such as control and trajectory planning and dynamics are discussed. Critical concepts such as precision control of rotary and linear axesare also presentedatthey are necessary to yield optimal performanceout of a roboticsystem.The book then continues with a number of specialized applications of robotic systems. In these applications, such as the medical arena, particular design and systems considerations are presented that are highlighted by these applications but are critical in a significant cross-section of areas. It was a pleasure to work with the authors of the various sections. They are experts in their areas, and in reviewing their material, I have improved my understanding of robotic systems. I hope that the readers will enjoy reading the text as much as I have enjoyed reading and assembling it. I anticipate that future versions of this book will incorporate more applications as well as advanced concepts in robot design and implementation. Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC The Editor Thomas R. Kurfess received his S.B., S.M., and Ph.D. degrees in mechanical engineering from M.I.T. in 1986, 1987, and 1989, respectively. He also received an S.M. degree from M.I.T. in electrical engineering and computer science in 1988. Following graduation, he joined Carnegie Mellon University where he rose to the rank of Associate Professor. In 1994 he moved to the Georgia Institute of Technology where he is currently a Professor in the George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering. He presently serves as a participating guest at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in their Precision Engineering Program. He is also a special consultant of the United Nations to the Government of Malaysia in the area of applied mechatronics and manufacturing. His research work focuses on the design and development of high precision manufacturing and metrology systems. He has chaired workshops for the National Science Foundation on the future of engineering education and served on the Committee of Visitors for NSF’s Engineering Education and Centers Division. He has had similar roles in education and technology assessment for a variety of countries as well as the U.N. His primary area of research is precision engineering. Tothis endhe has applied advanced control theory to both measurement machines and machine tools, substantially improving their performance. During the past twelve years, Dr. Kurfess has concentrated in precision grinding, high-speed scanning coordinate measurement machines, and statistical analysis of CMM data. He is actively involved in using advanced mechatronics units in large scale applications to generate next generation high performance systems. Dr. Kurfess has a number of research projects sponsored by both industry and governmental agencies in this area. He has also given a number of workshops, sponsored by the National Science Foundation, in the areas of teaching controls and mechatronics to a variety of professors throughout the country. In 1992 he was awarded a National Science Foundation Young Investigator Award, and in 1993 he received the National Science Foundation Presidential Faculty Fellowship Award. He is also the recipient of the ASME Pi Tau Sigma Award, the SME Young Manufacturing Engineer of the Year Award, the ASME Gustus L. Larson Memorial Award and the ASME Blackall Machine Tool and Gage Award. He has received the Class of 1940 W. Howard Ector’s Outstanding Teacher Award and the Outstanding Faculty Leadership for the Development of Graduate Research Assistants Award while at Georgia Tech. He is a registered Professional Engineer, and is active in several engineering societies, including ASEE, ASME, ASPE, IEEE and SME. He is currently serving as a Technical Associate Editor of the SME Journal of Manufacturing Systems, and Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. He has served as an Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control.Heisonthe Editorial Advisory Board of the International Journal of Engineering Education, and serves on the board of North American Manufacturing Research Institute of SME. Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC Contributors Mohan Bodduluri Restoration Robotics Sunnyvale, California Wayne J. Book Georgia Institute of Technology Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering Atlanta, Georgia StephenP.Buerger Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mechanical Engineering Department North Cambridge, Massachusetts Keith W. Buffinton Bucknell University Department of Mechanical Engineering Lewisburg, Pennsylvania Francesco Bullo University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Coordinated Science Laboratory Urbana, Illinois Gregory S. Chirikjian Johns Hopkins University Department of Mechanical Engineering Baltimore, Maryland Darren M. Dawson Clemson University Electrical and Computer Engineering Clemson, South Carolina Bram de Jager Technical University of Eindhoven Eindhoven, Netherlands Jaydev P. Desai Drexel University MEM Department Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Jeanne Sullivan Falcon National Instruments Austin, Texas Daniel D. Frey Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mechanical Engineering Department North Cambridge, Massachusetts Robert B. Gillespie University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan J. William Goodwine Notre Dame University Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Department Notre Dame, Indiana Hector M. Gutierrez Florida Institute of Technology Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Melbourne, Florida Yasuhisa Hirata Tohoku University Department of Bioengineering and Robotics Sendai, Japan Neville Hogan Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mechanical Engineering Department North Cambridge, Massachusetts Kun Huang University of Illinois at Urbana-Champagne Coordinated Sciences Laboratory Urbana, Illinois Hodge E. Jenkins, Mercer University Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department Macon, Georgia Dragan Kosti ´ c Technical University of Eindhoven Eindhoven, Netherlands Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC Kazuhiro Kosuge Tohoku University Department of Bioengineering and Robotics Sendai, Japan Kenneth A. Loparo Case Western Reserve University Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Cleveland, Ohio Lonnie J. Love Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee StephenJ.Ludwick Aerotech, Inc. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Yi Ma University of Illinois at Urbana-Champagne Coordinated Sciences Laboratory Urbana, Illinois Siddharth P. Nagarkatti MKS Instruments, Inc. Methuen, Massachusetts Mark L. Nagurka Marquette University Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Milwaukee, Wisconsin Chris A. Raanes Accuray Incorporated Sunnyvale, California William Singhose Georgia Institute of Technology Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering Atlanta, Georgia Mark W. Spong University of Illinois at Urbana-Champagne Coordinated Sciences Laboratory Urbana, Illinois Maarten Steinbuch Technical University of Eindhoven Eindhoven, Netherlands Wesley L. Stone Valparaiso University Department of Mechanical Engineering Wanatah, Indiana Ioannis S. Vakalis Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen (IPSC) European Commission Joint Research Centre I Ispra (VA), Italy Milo ˇ s ˇ Zefran University of Illinois ECE Department Chicago, Illinois Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC Contents 1 The History of Robotics Wesley L. Stone 2 Rigid-Body Kinematics Gregorg S. Chirikjian 3 Inverse Kinematics Bill Goodwine 4 Newton-Euler Dynamics of Robots Mark L. Nagurka 5 Lagrangian Dynamics Milo ˇ s ˇ Zefran and Francesco Bullo 6 Kane’s Method in Robotics Keith W. Buffinton 7 The Dynamics of Systems of Interacting Rigid Bodies Kenneth A. Loparo and Ioannis S. Vakalis 8 D-H Convention Jaydev P. Desai 9 Trajectory Planning for Flexible Robots William E. Singhose 10 Error Budgeting Daniel D. Frey 11 Design of Robotic End Effectors Hodge Jenkins 12 Sensors Jeanne Sullivan Falcon Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 13 Precision Positioning of Rotary and Linear Systems Stephen Ludwick 14 Modeling and Identification for Robot Motion Control Dragan Kosti´c, Bram de Jager, and Maarten Steinbuch 15 Motion Control by Linear Feedback Methods Dragan Kosti´c, Bram de Jager, and Maarten Steinbuch 16 Force/Impedance Control for Robotic Manipulators Siddharth P. Nagarkatti and Darren M. Dawson 17 Robust and Adaptive Motion Control of Manipulators Mark W. Spong 18 Sliding Mode Control of Robotic Manipulators Hector M. Gutierrez 19 Impedance and Interaction Control Neville Hogan and Stephen P. Buerger 20 Coordinated Motion Control of Multiple Manipulators Kazuhiro Kosuge and Yasuhisa Hirata 21 Robot Simulation Lonnie J. Love 22 A Survey of Geometric Vision Kun Huang and Yi Ma 23 Haptic Interface to Virtual Environments R. Brent Gillespie 24 Flexible Robot Arms WayneJ.Book 25 Robotics in Medical Applications Chris A. Raanes and Mohan Bodduluri 26 Manufacturing Automation Hodge Jenkins Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 1 The History of Robotics Wesley L. Stone Western Carolina University 1.1 The History of Robotics The Influence of Mythology • The Influence of Motion Pictures • Inventions Leading to Robotics • First Use of the Word Robot • First Use of the Word Robotics • The Birth of the Industrial Robot • Robotics in Research Laboratories • Robotics in Industry • Space Exploration • Military and Law Enforcement Applications • Medical Applications • Other Applications and Frontiers of Robotics 1.1 The History of Robotics The history of robotics is one that is highlighted by a fantasy world that has provided the inspiration to convert fantasy into reality. It is a history rich with cinematic creativity, scientific ingenuity, and en- trepreneurial vision. Quite surprisingly, the definition of a robot is controversial, even among roboticists. At one end of the spectrum is the science fiction version of a robot, typically one of a human form — an android or humanoid — with anthropomorphic features. At theother end of the spectrum is the repetitive, efficient robot of industrial automation. In ISO 8373, the International Organization for Standardization defines a robot as “an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator with three or more axes.” The Robot Institute of America designates a robot as “a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.” A more inspiring definition is offered by Merriam- Webster, stating that a robot is “a machine that looks like a human being and performs various complex acts (as walking or talking) of a human being.” 1.1.1 The Influence of Mythology Mythology is filled with artificial beings across all cultures. According to Greek legend, after Cadmus founded the city of Thebes, he destroyed the dragon that had slain several of his companions; Cadmus then sowed the dragon teeth inthe ground, from which a fierce army of armed menarose. Greek mythology also brings the story of Pygmalion, a lovesick sculptor, who carves a woman named Galatea out of ivory; after praying to Aphrodite, Pygmalion has his wish granted and his sculpture comes to life and becomes his bride. Hebrew mythology introduces the golem, a clay or stone statue, which is said to contain a scroll with religious or magic powers that animate it; the golem performs simple, repetitive tasks, but is difficult to stop. Inuit legend in Greenland tells of the Tupilaq, or Tupilak, which is a creature created from natural Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 1 -6 Robotics and Automation Handbook handling, and machine vision. In contrast to the ordered environment of manufacturing, field robotics involves robotic applications in highly unstructured settings, such as reconnaissance, surveillance, and explosive ordnance disposal. Similar to field robotics, tactical mobile robots are being developed for un- structured surroundings inbothmilitary and commercialapplications, supplementing human capabilities, such as searching through debris following disasters (earthquakes, bombed buildings, etc.). SRI’s pipeline robot, Magnetically Attached General Purpose Inspection Engine (MAGPIE), is designed to inspect natu- ral gas pipelines, as small as 15 cm in diameter, for corrosion and leakage, navigating through pipe elbows and T-joints on its magnetic wheels. In 1969 at Stanford University, a mechanical engineering student by the name of Victor Scheinman developed the Stanford Arm, a robot created exclusively for computer control. Working in the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab (SAIL), Scheinman built the entire robotic arm on campus, primarily using the shop facilities in the Chemistry Department. The kinematic configuration of the arm included six degrees of freedom with one prismatic and five revolute joints, with brakes on all joints to hold position while the computer computed the next position or performed other time-shared duties. The arm was loaded with DC electric motors, a harmonic drive, spur gear reducers, potentiometers, analog tachometers, electromechanical brakes, and a servo-controlled proportional electric gripper — a gripper with a 6-axis force/torque sensor in the wrist and tactile sense contacts on the fingers. The highly integrated Stanford Arm served for over 20 years in the robotics laboratories at Stanford University for both students and researchers. TheStanford Cart,anotherproject developedatSAIL, wasamobile robotthatused anonboardtelevision camera to navigate its way through its surroundings. The Cart was supported between 1973 and 1980 by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The cart used its TV camera and stereo vision routines to perceive the objects surrounding it. A computer program processed the images, mapping the obstacles around the cart. This map provided the means by which the cart planned its path. As it moved, the cart adjusted its plan according to the new images gathered by the camera. The system worked very reliably but was very slow; the cart moved at a rate of approximately one meter every 10 or 15 minutes. Triumphant in navigating itself through several 20-meter courses, the Stanford Cart provided the field of robotics with a reliable, mobile robot that successfully used vision to interact with its surroundings. Research in robotics also found itself thriving on the U. S. East Coast at MIT. At the same time Asimov was writing his short stories on robots, MIT’s Norbert Wiener published Cybernetics, or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (1948). In Cybernetics Wiener effectively communicates to both the trained scientist and the layman how feedback is used in technical applications, as well as everyday life. He skillfully brought to the forefront the sociological impact of technology and popularized the concept of control feedback. Although artificial intelligence experienced its growth and major innovations in the laboratories of prestigious universities, its birth can be traced to Claude E. Shannon, a Bell Laboratories mathematician, who wrote two landmark papers in 1950 on the topic of chess playing by a machine. His works inspired John McCarthy, a young mathematician at Princeton University, who joined Shannon to organize a 1952 conference on automata. One of the participants at that conference was an aspiring Princeton graduate student inmathematics by the name of Marvin Minsky. In 1953 Shannon was joined by McCarthy and Minsky at Bell Labs. Creating an opportunity to rapidly advance the field of machine intelligence, McCarthy approached the Rockefeller Foundation with the support of Shannon. Warren Weaver and Robert S. Morison at the foundation provided additional guidance and in 1956 The Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence was organized at Dartmouth University, where McCarthy was an assistant professor of mathematics. Shannon, McCarthy, Minsky, and IBM’s Nat Rochester joined forces to coordinate the conference, which gave birth to the term artificial intelligence. In 1959 Minsky and McCarthy founded the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, which was the initiation of robotics at MIT (McCarthy later left MIT in 1963 to found the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory). Heinrich A. Ernst developed the Mechanical Hand-1 (MH-1), which was the first computer- controlled manipulator and hand. The MH-1 hand-arm combination had 35 degrees of freedom and Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC [...]... is a time-dependent matrix Constraints on the form of A(t) arise from the distance-preserving properties of rotations If X1 and X2 are vectors defined in the frame of reference attached to the pivot, then the triangle with sides of length 0-8 49 3 -1 80 4 -1 /05$0.00+ $1. 50 © 2005 by CRC Press, LLC Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 2 -1 2-2 Robotics and Automation Handbook ||X1 ||, ||X2 ||, and ||X1 − X2 ||... with sides of length ||x1 ||, ||x2 ||, and ||x1 − x2 || Hence, the angle between the vectors x1 and x2 must be the same as the angle between X1 and X2 In general x · y = ||x|| ||y|| cos θ where θ is the angle between x and y Since ||xi || = ||Xi || in our case, it follows that x1 · x2 = X1 · X2 Observing that x · y = xT y and xi = AXi , we see that T (AX1 )T (AX2 ) = X1 X2 (2 .1) Moving everything to... has only one degree of freedom In particular, for counterclockwise rotations about the e3 , e2 , and e1 axes: cos φ − sin φ R3 (φ) = sin φ cos φ 0 0 0 0 cos φ 0 sin φ 0 1 − sin φ 0 0 cos φ R2 (φ) = 1 0 R1 (φ) = 0 0 1 Also called proper orthogonal Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC cos φ sin φ (2.4) 1 0 − sin φ cos φ (2.5) (2.6) 2-9 Rigid-Body Kinematics point as seen in... of the equation, and using the transpose rule for matrix vector multiplication, Equation (2 .1) is rewritten as T I)X X1 (AT A − 1 2 = 0 where 1 is the 3 × 3 identity matrix I Since X1 and X2 were arbitrary points to begin with, this holds for all possible choices The only way this can hold is if AT A = 1 I (2.2) An easy way to see this is to choose X1 = ei and X2 = e j for i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3} This forces... rigid-body rotations are defined as motions that preserve the distance between points in a body before and after the motion and leave one point fixed under the motion By definition a motion must be physically realizable, and so reflections are not allowed If X1 and X2 are any two points in a body before a rigid motion, then x1 , and x2 are the corresponding points after rotation, and d(x1 , x2 ) = d(X1 ,... 1- 1 2 Robotics and Automation Handbook Looking forward there are many frontiers in robotics Many of the applications presented here are in their infancy and will see considerable growth Other mature areas will see sustained development, as has been the case since the technological... time-varying rotation matrix is parametrized as R(t) = A(q 1 (t), q 2 (t), q 3 (t)) = A(q(t)) then by the chain rule from calculus, one has ∂A ∂A ∂A ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ R= q1 + q2 + q3 ∂q 1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 Multiplying on the right by R T and extracting the dual vector from both sides, one finds that ˙ ωL = J L (A(q))q (2. 21) where one can define [6]: J L (A(q)) = vect Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC ∂A T A , vect ∂q 1. .. environments, and many more The possibilities seem even more expansive when one considers the creativity generated by the cross-pollination of playwrights, science fiction writers, inventors, entrepreneurs, and engineers Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 2 Rigid-Body Kinematics 2 .1 Rotations in Three Dimensions Rules for Composing Rotations Exponential 2.2 • Euler Angles • The Matrix Full Rigid-Body Motion... Homogeneous Transforms and the Denavit-Hartenberg Parameters Homogeneous Transformation Matrices • The Denavit-Hartenberg Parameters in Robotics 2.4 Infinitesimal Motions and Associated Jacobian Matrices Angular Velocity and Jacobians Associated with Parametrized Rotations • The Jacobians for Z X Z Euler Angles • Infinitesimal Rigid-Body Motions Gregory S Chirikjian Johns Hopkins University 2 .1 Rotations in... matrix AT A − 1 to be zero Equation (2.2) says that a rotation matrix is one whose inverse is its transpose Taking the determinant of both sides of this equation yields (detA)2 = 1 There are two possibilities: det A = 1 The case det A = 1 is a reflection and is not physically realizable in the sense that a rigid body cannot be reflected (only its image can be) A rotation is what remains: detA = +1 (2.3) . sides of length 0-8 49 3 -1 80 4 -1 /05$0.00+ $1. 50 © 2005 by CRC Press, LLC 2 -1 Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 2 -2 Robotics and Automation Handbook ||X 1 ||, ||X 2 ||, and ||X 1 −X 2 || is congruent. the first computer- controlled manipulator and hand. The MH -1 hand-arm combination had 35 degrees of freedom and Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 1 -1 2 Robotics and Automation Handbook Looking. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Robotics and automation handbook / edited by Thomas R. Kurfess. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8 49 3 -1 80 4 -1 (alk. paper) 1. Robotics Handbooks, manuals,