Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines - Hiroshi Kimura et al (Eds) Part 1 docx

Hiroshi Kimura, Kazuo Tsuchiya, Akio Ishiguro, Hartmut Witte (Editors) Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines Hiroshi Kimura, Kazuo Tsuchiya, Akio Ishiguro, Hartmut Witte (Editors) Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines With 241 Figures ABC Hiroshi Kimura Graduate School of Information Systems University of Electro-Communications 1-5-1 Chofu-ga-oka, Chofu, Tokyo 182-8585, Japan Kazuo Tsuchiya Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics Graduate School of Engineering Kyoto University Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan Akio Ishiguro Department of Computational Science and Engineering Graduate School of Engineering Nagoya University Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan Hartmut Witte Department of Biomechatronics Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Technical University of Ilmenau Pf 10 05 65, D-98684 Ilmenau, Germany Library of Congress Control Number: 2005936106 ISBN-10 4-431-24164-7 Springer-Verlag Tokyo Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN-13 978-4-431-24164-5 Springer-Verlag Tokyo Berlin Heidelberg New York Printed on acid-free paper © Springer-Verlag Tokyo 2006 Printed in Japan This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in data banks. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springeronline.com Printing and binding: Hirakawa Kogyosha, Japan Preface • Motivation It is our dream to understand the principles of animals’ remarkable ability for adaptive motion and to transfer such abilities to a robot. Up to now, mechanisms for generation and control of stereotyped motions and adaptive motions in well-known simple environments have been formulated to some extent and successfully applied to robots. However, principles of adaptation to various environments have not yet been clarified, and autonomous adaptation remains unsolved as a seriously difficult problem in robotics. Apparently, the ability of animals and robots to adapt in a real world cannot be explained or realized by one single function in a control system and mechanism. That is, adaptation in motion is induced at every level from the central nervous system to the musculoskeletal system. Thus, we organized the International Symposium on Adaptive Motion in Animals and Machines (AMAM) for scientists and engineers concerned with adaptation on various levels to be brought together to discuss principles at each level and to investigate principles governing total systems. • History AMAM started in Montreal (Canada) in August 2000. It was organized by H. Kimura (Japan), H. Witte (Germany), G. Taga (Japan), and K. Osuka (Japan), who had agreed that having a small symposium on motion control, with people from several fields coming together to discuss specific issues, was worthwhile. Those four organizing committee members determined the scope of AMAM as follows. + motion principles in nature + biologically inspired technical motion systems + nonlinear system dynamics and control + dynamic autonomous adaptation to terrain + dynamic adaptive mechanism + passive dynamic walking + autonomous pattern adaptation + evolution of mechanism and control/nervous system These topics involve a broad range of background disciplines, i.e., biology, physiology, biomechanics, non-linear system dynamics, and robotics. It is usually difficult for people from different disciplines to discuss specific is- sues. Therefore, in order to ease this problem we invited nine speakers, each of whom had an impressive academic background in his field. Finally, 41 papers, including nine keynote lectures, were presented in single-track style over four days. Because the quality of each presentation, the intensive discus- sion concentrating on the single issue of adaptive motion, and the interaction VI among people of different backgrounds were so well received, we agreed on holding the 2nd AMAM in Kyoto (Japan) in March 2003. For the 2nd AMAM, the international organizing committee (AMAM IOC) was formally organized. We received sponsorship from the Japan Soci- ety for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) and co-sponsorship from the CREST Program of the Japan Science and Technology Corporation (JST). While keeping the symposium style of AMAM2000, 59 high-quality papers, includ- ing nine invited keynote lectures, were presented in single-track style over five days. The 3rd AMAM was held in Ilmenau (Germany) in September 2005. The proceedings of AMAM2005 will be published on DVD. The members of the current AMAM IOC are: Kazuo Tsuchiya, general chair Auke Ijspeert Hiroshi Kimura, secretary Martin Buehler Akio Ishiguro, treasurer Avis H. Cohen Hartmut Witte • Publication This proceedings comprises 23 papers selected from the CD-ROM proceed- ings of the 1st and 2nd AMAMs. The topics can be loosely placed into six categories: (1) motion generation and adaptation in animals; (2) adaptive mechanics; (3) machine design and control; (4) bipedal locomotion utilizing natural dynamics; (5) neuro-mechanics and CPG and/or reflexes; and (6) adaptation at higher nervous levels. • Towards the Future What we discuss, e.g., science vs engineering or biology vs robotics, is not one of the key issues of AMAM. When we solve complicated problems, it is desirable to proceed with analysis and synthesis concurrently. It is well known that analysis by synthesis is a worthwhile and important methodology to understand underlying principles. We hope AMAM marks the beginning of a new interdisciplinary research field where science and engineering are merged. Tokyo, Kyoto, Nagoya (Japan) and Ilmenau (Germany) Hiroshi Kimura November 2005 Kazuo Tsuchiya Akio Ishiguro Hartmut Witte Contents Part 1 Motion Generation and Adaptation in Animals Overview of Adaptive Motion in Animals and Its Control Principles Applied to Machines 3 Avis H. Cohen Robust Behaviour of the Human Leg 5 Reinhard Blickhan, Andre Seyfarth, Heiko Wagner, Arnd Friedrichs, Michael G¨unther, Klaus D. Maier 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2 Results 6 3 Perspective 14 Control of Hexapod Walking in Biological Systems 17 Holk Cruse, Volker D¨urr, Josef Schmitz, Axel Schneider 1 Walking:anontrivial behavior 17 2 Control of the step rhythm of the individual leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3 Control of the selector network: coordination between legs. . . . . . . . . 19 4 Controlofthe swingmovement 21 5 Control of the stance movement and coordination of supporting legs 24 6 Conclusion 26 Purposive Locomotion of Insects in an Indefinite Environment 31 Masafumi Yano 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2 Motioncontrolsystem 32 3 Centralpatterngenerator model 35 4 Results 38 5 Discussion 38 Control Principles for Locomotion –Looking Toward Biology . 41 Avis H. Cohen 1 Introduction to Central Pattern Generators and their sensory control 41 2 CPGand muscle activation 41 3 Sensoryfeedback 45 4 Summaryand conclusions 49 Higher Nervous Control of Quadrupedal vs Bipedal Locomotion in Non-Human Primates; Common and Specific Properties 53 Shigemi Mori, Futoshi Mori, Katsumi Nakajima 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 VIII 2 Locomotor control CNS mechanisms including anticipatory and re- activecontrolmechanisms 54 3 Emergence, acquisition and refinement of Bp locomotion in Juvenile Japanesemonkeys 56 4 Common and different control properties of Qp and Bp locomotion . 58 5 Similarity and difference in the kinematics of lower limbs during Bp walking between our monkey model and the human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 6 Summaryand discussion 60 Part 2 Adaptive Mechanics Interactions between Motions of the Trunk and the Angle of Attack of the Forelimbs in Synchronous Gaits of the Pika (Ochotona rufescens) 69 Remi Hackert, Hartmut Witte, Martin S. Fischer 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 2 Preliminiary question: do pikas prefer one forelimb as trailing limb? 70 3 Trajectories of the centre of mass of pikas in half-bound gait . . . . . . 72 4 Doestheangleof attack couplewith speed? 74 5 Conclusions 75 On the Dynamics of Bounding and Extensions: Towards the Half-Bound and Gallop Gaits 79 Ioannis Poulakakis, James Andrew Smith, Martin Buehler 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 2 Bounding experiments with Scout II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3 Self-stabilization in the SLIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4 Modeling the Bounding Gait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 5 Local stability of passive bounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 6 Thehalf-bound androtarygallop gaits 85 7 Conclusion 88 Part 3 Machine Design and Control Jumping, Walking, Dancing, Reaching: Moving into the Future. Design Principles for Adaptive Motion 91 Rolf Pfeifer 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 2 Designprinciples: overview 93 3 Information theoretic implications of embodiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4 Exploring “ecological balance”—artificial evolution and morphogen- esis 102 5 Discussionand conclusions 104 IX Towards a Well-Balanced Design in the Particle Deflection Plane 107 Akio Ishiguro, Kazuhisa Ishimaru, Toshihiro Kawakatsu 1 Introduction 107 2 Lessons from biological findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 3 Themodel 109 4 Proposedmethod 110 5 Preliminarysimulationresults 111 6 Conclusionand futurework 114 Experimental Study on Control of Redundant 3-D Snake Robot Based on a Kinematic Model 117 Fumitoshi Matsuno, Kentaro Suenaga 1 Introduction 117 2 Redundancy controllable system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 3 Kinematic model of snake robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4 Condition for redundancy controllable system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 5 Controllerdesignfor main-objective 123 6 Controllerdesignfor sub-objective 124 7 Experiments 125 8 Conclusion 125 Part 4 Bipedal Locomotion Utilizing Natural Dynamics Simulation Study of Self-Excited Walking of a Biped Mechanism with Bent Knee 131 Kyosuke Ono, Xiaofeng Yao 1 Introduction 131 2 The analytical model and basic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 3 Theresults ofsimulation 135 4 Conclusion 140 Design and Construction of MIKE; a 2-D Autonomous Biped Based on Passive Dynamic Walking 143 Martijn Wisse, Jan van Frankenhuyzen 1 Introduction 143 2 Footshape 144 3 McKibben muscles as adjustable springs 146 4 Pneumaticsystem 148 5 Pressure control unit 149 6 Walkingexperiments 151 7 Conclusion 153 X Learning Energy-Efficient Walking with Ballistic Walking 155 Masaki Ogino, Koh Hosoda, Minoru Asada 1 Introduction 155 2 Ballistic walking with state machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 3 Energyminimization by alearningmodule 159 4 Comparing with human data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 5 Discussion 163 Motion Generation and Control of Quasi Passsive Dynamic Walking Based on the Concept of Delayed Feedback Control . 165 Yasuhiro Sugimoto, Koichi Osuka 1 Introduction 165 2 Modelof thewalkingrobot 166 3 Stability of passive dynamic walking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 4 DFC-basedcontrolmethod 168 5 Computer simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 6 Conclusionand futurework 174 Part 5 Neuro-Mechanics & CPG and/or Reflexes Gait Transition from Swimming to Walking: Investigation of Salamander Locomotion Control Using Nonlinear Oscillators . 177 Auke Jan Ijspeert, Jean-Marie Cabelguen 1 Introduction 177 2 Neuralcontrolof salamanderlocomotion 178 3 Mechanicalsimulation 179 4 Locomotioncontroller 180 5 Discussion 186 Nonlinear Dynamics of Human Locomotion: from Real-Time Adaptation to Development 189 Gentaro Taga 1 Introduction 189 2 Real-time adaptation of locomotion through global entrainment . . . . 190 3 Anticipatory adjustment of locomotion through visuo-motor coor- dination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 4 Computational “lesion” experiments in gait pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 5 Freezing and freeing degrees of freedom in the development of loco- motion 199 6 Concludingcomments 201 Towards Emulating Adaptive Locomotion of a Quadrupedal Primate by a Neuro-musculo-skeletal Model 205 Naomichi Ogihara, Nobutoshi Yamazaki XI 1 Introduction 205 2 Model 206 3 Results 211 4 Discussion 214 Dynamics-Based Motion Adaptation for a Quadruped Robot . 217 Hiroshi Kimura, Yasuhiro Fukuoka 1 Introduction 217 2 Adaptive dynamic walking based on biological concepts . . . . . . . . . . . 218 3 Entrainment between pitching and rolling motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 4 Adaptivewalkingon irregularterrain 223 5 Conclusion 225 A Turning Strategy of a Multi-legged Locomotion Robot 227 Kazuo Tsuchiya, Shinya Aoi, Katsuyoshi Tsujita 1 Introduction 227 2 Model 228 3 Stability analysis of walking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 4 Turningwalkcontrol 234 5 Conclusion 235 A Behaviour Network Concept for Controlling Walking Machines 237 Jan Albiez, Tobias Luksch, Karsten Berns, R¨udiger Dillmann 1 Introduction 237 2 Activation, activity, target rating and behaviours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 3 Thewalkingmachine BISAM 241 4 Implementingabehaviour network 242 5 Conclusionand outlook 243 Part 6 Adaptation at Higher Nervous Level Control of Bipedal Walking in the Japanese Monkey, M. fuscata : Reactive and Anticipatory Control Mechanisms 249 Futoshi Mori, Katsumi Nakajima, Shigemi Mori 1 Introduction 249 2 Reactive control of Bp locomotion on a slanted treadmill belt . . . . . . 250 3 Reactive and anticipatory control of Bp locomotion on an obstacle- attachedtreadmillbelt 253 4 Summary 257 Dynamic Movement Primitives –A Framework for Motor Control in Humans and Humanoid Robotics 261 Stefan Schaal 1 Introduction 261 [...]... Part 1 Motion Generation and Adaptation in Animals Overview of Adaptive Motion in Animals and Its Control Principles Applied to Machines Avis H Cohen University of Maryland, Biology Department and Institute for Systems Research, College Park, MD 20742, USA avis@isr.umd.edu Animals have developed their locomotor strategies and control mechanisms under the intense pressure of the need to survive and reproduce... distribution of horizontal force is described by the angle of attack of the system For the case of symmetric operation deceleration is equal to acceleration and continuous locomotion possible The point of operation of such a system is partly set by physical physiological conditions The friction Robust Behaviour of the Human Leg 7 coefficient limits the angle of attack The amplitudes of the vertical oscillation... such a system reacts to axial disturbances For cyclic systems the Ljapunov-Criteria can be used to examine whether the system asymptotically returns to the prescribed path after disturbance [16 ] It assumes an exponential return to the undisturbed condition in the state space The local slope of this return can be determined from the Eigenvalues of the Jacobian of the equations of motion In our case with... would increase cost of locomotion Instead, the human runner accepts the impact due to the sudden deceleration of the distal masses The properties of the heel pad, of the sole of the running shoes, the viscoelastic suspension of the muscles (Fig.3), comprising a large part of the distal masses [13 ] diminish the amplitude and rise-time of the reaction force at touch down This critically damped impact... the sprawled posture of the arthropods generally interpreted in terms of static stability has turned out to be a measure to increase stability of locomotion in the horizontal direction Disturbances at the legs are compensated due to passive features of the system [9 ,10 ] It is important to realise that footing of each leg becomes much less critical Even small and imprecise neural networks are sufficient... eccentric and concentric periods of the loading cycle these criteria can be taken as a first hint together with numeric simulations More advanced mathematical methods support our results Robust Behaviour of the Human Leg 11 Fig 4 Time course of strain of the serial elastic element (tendon and apodeme) and the contractile element dashed line: positive slope or lengthening.(after Seyfarth, et al. , 19 99)... can also be seen as a way to reduce the complexity of the control system The control system determines the angle of attack of the leg and the time of telescopic expansion of the pneumatic spring In fact bouncing is due to the principal roughness of legged locomotion, where the leg is facing an impact at each touch down, the only mode of fast locomotion A springy leg determines the time course of force... observations of an insect, the stick insect, that during slow walking are using sensory feedback almost exclusively in the control of their movements In the overview I offer, I introduce the concept of the central pattern generator (CPG) that provides feedforward control signals to pattern muscle activity during locomotion of all animals The CPG strongly interacts with sensory feedback Some of the universal and. .. results in a much higher degree of freedom of the movement system Wheeled vehicles have a degree of freedom of two The frontal movement is powered by the motor, the lateral movement is enabled by the steering movements of the driver In contrast animals and humans can also raise and rotate their bodies In addition each of the multisegmented body appendages has additional degrees of freedom (ca 7) This is... occur in axial direction of the leg it is plausible to compensate the losses by active lengthening of the leg Runners do that by landing with the knees bent, thereby diminishing the impact on all proximal joint surfaces, and by straightening at take of This lengthening of the leg- and knee-spring can be provided by a drive in series to the spring 2.4 Muscle properties and attractive legs The serial arrangement . (Editors) Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines With 2 41 Figures ABC Hiroshi Kimura Graduate School of Information Systems University of Electro-Communications 1- 5 -1 Chofu-ga-oka, Chofu, Tokyo 18 2-8 585,. Ilmenau Pf 10 05 65, D-98684 Ilmenau, Germany Library of Congress Control Number: 200593 610 6 ISBN -1 0 4-4 3 1- 2 416 4-7 Springer-Verlag Tokyo Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN -1 3 97 8-4 -4 3 1- 2 416 4-5 Springer-Verlag. Oscillators . 17 7 Auke Jan Ijspeert, Jean-Marie Cabelguen 1 Introduction 17 7 2 Neuralcontrolof salamanderlocomotion 17 8 3 Mechanicalsimulation 17 9 4 Locomotioncontroller 18 0 5 Discussion 18 6 Nonlinear