Kent, Donald M. “Frontmatter” Applied Wetlands Science and Technology Editor Donald M. Kent Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2001 ©2001 CRC Press LLC This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-359-X Library of Congress Card Number 00-030927 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kent, Donald M. Applied wetlands science and technology / edited by Donald M. Kent.—2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-56670-359-X (alk. paper) 1. Wetland conservation. 2. Ecosystem management. 3. Wetlands. 4. Water quality management. I. Kent, Donald M. QH75 .A44 2000 333.91'8—dc21 00-030927 CIP ©2001 CRC Press LLC Preface Compared to other ecosystems, wetlands have received an unprecedented amount of attention. Much of this attention has occurred as a result of, and subsequent to, passage of Section 404 of the U.S. Clean Water Act in 1977. The Act recognizes the importance of wetlands to the societal good. That is not to suggest that wetland values were institutionally unrecognized prior to this time. Beginning in the 1930s, wetlands were recognized as valuable for the production and protection of wildlife, especially waterfowl and furbearers. In the 1960s, wetlands were recognized as important for attenuating floodwaters. Now, wetlands are recognized for providing these and other functions, including nutrient and contaminant retention and trans- formation, groundwater recharge, and production export. Ironically, and coincident with this recognition of wetland value is an awareness that wetlands are disappearing at an alarming rate. Between 1780 and 1980, an estimated 47 million ha of wetlands were lost in the contiguous United States. Of the north central wetlands 75 percent, mostly prairie potholes, were lost between 1850 and 1977. Bottomland hardwood forests were cleared at a rate of 67,000 ha per year between 1940 and 1980. Gulf coast wetlands disappeared at a rate of 10,000 ha per year. Of those wetlands that remain, many are degraded from channelization, damming, and agricultural and urban runoff. Remaining wetlands are fragmented or isolated. This awareness of wetland loss and degradation, and the promulgation of laws and regulations for protecting wetlands and regulating their use, has spawned the development and growth of the wetland professions. This book is for working wetland professionals and nonprofessionals alike. It is intended for managers, reg- ulators, consultants, and developers responsible for effective decision making. The book also is intended for anyone interested in how wetlands function, how wetlands can be protected, and how wetlands can be managed. In some ways, this is a “how to” book, in that it is a guide for working with wetlands. However, we understand that each and every wetland, and each and every situation, is unique and requires a unique solution. As such, the book seeks to provide the guidelines for effective decision making. This second edition of the book, as was the first, was written by practicing wetland professionals. In this manner, the most relevant, up to date information on applied wetland science and technology is available. Each chapter is fully referenced, providing the reader with an opportunity to seek out more detailed information. The book has 14 chapters—2 fewer than the first edition. The reduction in the number of chapters is due to consolidation, and not a reduction, in material. In fact, three new chapters have been added, and several chapters appearing in the first edition have been partly or completely revised. Several new authors have participated in the revision. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to wetland management, including definition and classification. The chapter also discusses legislation and regulation in the United States to provide the context for subsequent chapters. Chapter 2, Wetland Identifi- cation and Delineation, is a consolidation of Chapters 2 and 3 from the first edition. ©2001 CRC Press LLC Carl Tammi has updated the subject in response to recent legislation and policy. Wetland functions and values are discussed in Chapter 3. The subject has been totally revised from the first edition, with an emphasis on evaluating wetland functions and values, including economic values. Chapter 4 is an updated version of the ecological risk assessment material. As in the first edition, David Kent and his coauthors discuss evaluating wetland impacts from anthropogenic chemical, physical, or biological stressors. Chapter 5 discusses avoiding and minimizing impacts to wetlands from anthropogenic activities. Wetlands impacted by anthropogenic activity will require remediation. Enhance- ment, restoration, and creation of wetlands are methods for remediating impacts. John Zentner, author of Chapter 6, has consolidated the freshwater and coastal enhancement, restoration, and creation chapters from the first edition. Another reme- diation option is mitigation banking. Chapter 7—Wetland Mitigation Banking, authored by Mike Rolband, Ann Redmond, and Tom Kelsch, is a chapter new to this edition. Chapter 8, Monitoring Wetlands, is a carryover from the first edition. Monitoring is an important component of remediation efforts, as well as fundamental to treatment wetland programs. Tom and Bill DeBusk have written Chapter 9 on treatment wetlands. The chapter is completely new and consolidates the discussions of three distinct chapters in the first edition. Chapters 10 through 13 discuss wetland management. Chapter 10 consolidates Chapters 13 and 14 from the first edition in discussing design and management of wetlands for wildlife. The chapter addresses design issues based upon modern conservation principles and specific management techniques for existing wetlands. Coastal Marsh Management (Chapter 11) continues to be an important issue, and Robert Buchsbaum’s chapter from the first edition is again included in this edition. A new chapter on Watershed Management is included in the second edition. Effective management of wetlands is constrained without consideration of surrounding activ- ities. The theme of broadened perspectives is expanded even further in Chapter 13, Managing Global Wetlands. This new chapter, coauthored by Annette Paulin, rec- ognizes that some wetlands are of international importance and discusses mecha- nisms for managing these wetlands. The final chapter, Wetlands Education, is the anchor for the book. Karen Ripple has completely revised the chapter. Nevertheless, the intent of the chapter remains the same as that of the first edition—effective wetland management and regulation depends ultimately upon educating the general populace on the value of wetland functions. In closing, I am indebted to the contributing authors. Their contributions are invaluable to those who may read this book and hopefully will influence the way wetlands are managed. I am pleased and honored to have worked with each author and proud to share this book with them. As always, a work of this sort is the result of numerous discussions both past and present. To all those who have stimulated and influenced my thinking, thanks. Donald M. Kent, Ph.D. ©2001 CRC Press LLC About the Authors Dr. Robert Buchsbaum is Massachusetts Audubon Society’s coastal ecologist and is responsible for applied research on coastal habitats and providing technical analysis on coastal issues. He has published technical papers on a variety of topics including herbivory by Canada geese on saltmarsh plants, nitrogen dynamics in decomposing marsh plants, and on eelgrass wasting disease, and nontechnical papers for the lay public. His recent work includes studies of human impacts on wildlife and water quality in salt marshes and investigations into the role of the environment in the ability of eelgrass to resist disease. Thomas A. DeBusk is the President of Azurea, Inc. and DB Environmental Laboratories, Inc., environmental consulting and research firms located in central Florida. He has 23 years experience with the use of aquatic plants and wetlands for water treatment. Dr. William F. DeBusk is Assistant Professor in the Department of Soil and Water Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville. He specializes in elemental cycling, wetland ecology, and analysis of ecosystem processes along spatial gradients. Dr. James F. Hobson is Senior Project Advisor for Arcadis Geraghty & Miller in Millersville, MD. He has significant experience in environmental toxicology and testing programs in support of existing and new chemical product registrations under U.S. federal, state, Canadian, and European regulations. He is a diplomate of the American Board of Toxicology and has frequently spoken at and chaired industrial and academic conferences on environmental toxicology issues. Dr. Kenneth D. Jenkins is Director of the Molecular Ecology Institute at California State University and principal in the consulting firm of JSA Environmental in Long Beach, CA. He has been directly involved in numerous ecological risk assessments, especially for hazardous waste sites, and is widely published in the field of ecological assessments. Tom Kelsch is Director of the Conservation Education Initiative which he joined in 1998. Previously, he worked for 8 years as an environmental scientist with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds in Washington, D.C., including 3 years as Chief of the Wetlands Regulatory Policy Section. He also has extensive experience as an environmental planner for a private consulting firm. He earned a master’s degree in Environmental Studies from Yale University and holds a bachelor’s degree in Landscape Architecture from Michigan State University. David J. Kent is currently an environmental toxicologist and consultant with THE WEINBERG GROUP INC. in Washington, D.C. He formerly was manager of the aquatic toxicology laboratory and project manager on field assessments for ©2001 CRC Press LLC International Technology Corporation. He has extensive experience in performing and managing ecological assessments for a wide variety of regulatory programs including ecological risk assessments for the pesticide industry and RCRA and Superfund sites. He has numerous scientific presentations and publications to his credit in the areas of aquatic toxicology and ecological risk assessment. Dr. Donald M. Kent is Principal Technical Staff Director with Walt Disney Imagineering Research and Development’s Environmental Science and Technology Group and a consultant. His broad experience includes ecological and environmental research, conduct of functional ecological assessments and impact analyses, design and implementation of mitigation projects, training of international decision makers, and expert technical review. He continues to investigate and develop various applied ecological and biotechnological techniques for integrating land use and natural resource protection. Kevin McManus is Manager of Technical Services for the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority’s Toxic Reduction and Control Program. He has 17 years experience in the environmental field, working in both the public and private sectors. He has specialized in environmental impact assessment, wetlands permitting and mitigation, facility siting, NEPA compliance, pollution prevention, and oil spill response technologies. Annette M. Paulin is a Project Manager with Azurea, Inc., where she conducts original research and develops and implements environmental management and training programs. Her research experience includes studies of nuisance aquatic plants, contaminant removal by natural systems, and copper impacts on aquatic communities. She has also developed training programs for international decision makers. Presently, her duties include managing a volunteer-based water quality monitoring program in central Florida. Ann Redmond is Vice President of Development for Wetlandsbank, Inc. She is responsible for Wetlandsbank’s expansion into new markets, as well as its regulatory and legislative activities. She was with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection for 12 years as the agency’s expert on mitigation and mitigation banking, leading the development and implementation of rules and legislation in these areas. She has worked in ecosystem management initiatives, the conceptual framework for restoration planning, development of functional assessment methods, and sustain- ability of mitigation projects. She also has worked with a regional water management agency and as an environmental consultant. She earned her bachelor and master of science degrees in Biological Science from the Florida State University with empha- ses on botany and ecology. Karen L. Ripple is Education Director for Environmental Concern Inc., a nonprofit nonadvocacy corporation devoted to wetland education, wetland research, and the development and application of technology in the construction, restoration, and enhancement of wetlands. She has extensive experience as a public school ©2001 CRC Press LLC environmental educator and national teacher trainer specializing in wetlands. She has authored several articles and coauthored a book of wetland activities for educa- tors. Prior to her concentration on wetland education, she contributed to a variety of fisheries research projects. Michael Rolband is the president of Wetland Studies and Solutions, Inc. which specializes in water resource issues. He is a member of the Virginia Chesapeake Bay Local Assistance Board, serves on the Fairfax County Stormwater Utility Advi- sory Group, and is on the boards of the Northern Virginia Chapter of the National Association of Industrial and Office Properties and the National Mitigation Banking Association. He has taught courses on wetland mitigation, permitting, and Chesa- peake Bay Preservation Ordinances. He has a bachelor of science and master of engineering degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering, and a master of business administration degree from Cornell University. Carl E. Tammi is a Senior Wetlands Project Manager in the Water Resources Department of ENSR, Inc. He has over 12 years of professional experience in wetland assessment, delineation, permitting, mitigation and restoration design, con- struction, monitoring, and treatment design. He manages a group of wetland scien- tists who routinely work throughout the United States on capital projects, remedia- tion and restoration projects, biological monitoring, and applied wetland science research. He is a Certified Professional Wetland Scientist, and received his Provi- sional Delineator Certification from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Baltimore District. John Zentner is a principal with Zentner and Zentner, a professional consulting firm with offices in California. Zentner and Zentner specializes in planning and restoration throughout the western United States. He specializes in wetland science, land planning, permit processing, and restoration of natural resources. Among other accomplishments, he is President of the Western Chapter of the Society of Wetland Scientists and has participated in various federal, state, and local wetland working groups. ©2001 CRC Press LLC Contents Chapter 1 Definition, Classification, and U.S. Regulation Donald M. Kent Chapter 2 Wetland Identification and Delineation Carl E. Tammi Chapter 3 Evaluating Wetland Functions and Values Donald M. Kent Chapter 4 Ecological Risk Assessment of Wetlands David J. Kent, Kenneth D. Jenkins, and James F. Hobson Chapter 5 Avoiding and Minimizing Impacts to Wetlands Donald M. Kent and Kevin McManus Chapter 6 Wetland Enhancement, Restoration, and Creation John Zentner Chapter 7 Wetland Mitigation Banking Michael S. Rolband, Ann Redmond, and Tom Kelsch Chapter 8 Monitoring Wetlands Donald M. Kent Chapter 9 Wetlands for Water Treatment Thomas A. DeBusk and William F. DeBusk Chapter 10 Design and Management of Wetlands for Wildlife Donald M. Kent Chapter 11 Coastal Marsh Management Robert Buchsbaum ©2001 CRC Press LLC Chapter 12 Watershed Management Donald M. Kent Chapter 13 Managing Global Wetlands Annette M. Paulin and Donald M. Kent Chapter 14 Wetlands Education Karen L. Ripple . Number 0 0 -0 309 27 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kent, Donald M. Applied wetlands science. wetlands 75 percent, mostly prairie potholes, were lost between 18 50 and 1977. Bottomland hardwood forests were cleared at a rate of 67 ,00 0 ha per year between 19 40 and 19 80. Gulf coast wetlands. quality management. I. Kent, Donald M. QH75 .A44 200 0 333.91'8—dc21 0 0 -0 309 27 CIP © 200 1 CRC Press LLC Preface Compared to other ecosystems, wetlands have received an unprecedented amount of