Kent, Donald M. “Managing Global Wetlands” Applied Wetlands Science and Technology Editor Donald M. Kent Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2001 ©2001 CRC Press LLC CHAPTER 13 MANAGING GLOBAL WETLANDS Annette M. Paulin and Donald M. Kent CONTENTS The Ramsar Convention Membership Wetland Definition and Classification Management Additional Support Case Studies Florida Everglades Functions and Values Threats and Impacts Conservation Effort The Mekong Delta Functions and Values Threats and Impacts Conservation Efforts The Pantanal Functions and Values Threats and Impacts Conservation Efforts The Wadden Sea Functions and Values Threats and Values Conservation Efforts References ©2001 CRC Press LLC Historically, a significant amount of wetland management effort has been focused on individual wetlands. Commonly, individual wetlands are encompassed and reg- ulated by a single authoritative unit, such as a town or city. With the advent of watershed management, the focus has broadened to include simultaneous consider- ation of multiple wetlands. Watershed management typically requires cooperation and coordination among several authoritative units, such as municipalities, counties, and states. Managing wetlands that cross international boundaries or wetlands within a single country, but that are of international importance, poses additional challenges. Managing wetlands that cross international boundaries requires cooperation and coordination among countries. This may be accomplished informally by communi- cation between respective government environmental agencies, or formally by estab- lishment of joint proclamations or management plans. Understanding that an indi- vidual country’s best interests are served by ensuring protection of shared wetland resources is fundamental to effective management. In some instances, wetland function and value, even those contained with a single country, may be of global importance. For example, a wetland may function as flood storage for downstream, transboundary communities. Continued wetland function would ensure that downstream communities have adequate irrigation for agriculture and are protected from catastrophic floods. Alternatively, a wetland may be a critical breeding or wintering area for migratory fish and wildlife. Managing wetlands at the global level could be self-regulating. That is, resource users, whether governments or private entities, would recognize the value of wetlands and protect their investment. The World Trade Organization might be a model or a vehicle for this type of management. Success would require sustainable use of resources, an accurate valuation of all wetland values, and a mediation process. Lending institutions might also effect management. Funding of significant develop- ment projects would require conduct of a cost–benefit based environmental impact assessment. The perspectives of both the applicant country and the international community would need to be considered. Some international lending institutions require an impact assessment, but the process does not appear to adequately value wetland resources. Presently, the United Nations through the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands effects management of global wetlands. Participation in the Ramsar Convention is voluntary, and there is no enforcement authority. Wetland protection is effected through education and management assistance. The first part of this chapter describes the approach and operation of the Ramsar Convention. The balance of the chapter describes four wetlands of international significance. The wetlands illustrate a range of challenges and the conservation efforts being enacted to protect wetland functions and values. THE RAMSAR CONVENTION The primary instrument for the protection and management of wetlands on a global scale is the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention, 1999). As of 1999, there were 114 contracting nations and 975 ©2001 CRC Press LLC wetlands totaling 70.7 million ha. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization serves as the depository for information, and funds the Con- vention. The Ramsar Convention recognized that wetlands have great economic, ecological, and cultural value, and that encroachment and loss of wetlands must be reduced. Because water resources for wetlands often cross political boundaries, the Ramsar Convention now provides a framework for intergovernmental cooperation in the conservation and wise use of wetlands. Membership A nation must have one listed wetland to become a participating member of the Ramsar Convention. A wetland can be listed if it satisfies at least one of several criteria. Geographical and ecological criteria include being representative of a natural or near natural wetland, common to more than one biogeographical region, repre- sentative of a wetland that plays an important role in the natural connection of a major river basin or coastal system (especially where located in a transborder position), or unique as a rare or unusual type of wetland in the biogeographical region. A wetland may also satisfy listing criteria by playing a role in plant or animal species integrity. For example, the wetland may support rare, vulnerable, or endan- gered species by maintaining genetic and ecological diversity of the flora or fauna of a region, by providing habitat for plants or animals at a critical stage of their biological cycle, or by containing one or more endemic plant or animal species or communities. The final criteria for listing are related to biological value and are based on supporting regulatory waterfowl communities of 20,000 or more individ- uals, a substantial number of a particular group of waterfowl, or 1 percent of the individuals in a population of a species or subspecies of waterfowl. If a wetland satisfies at least one criterion, it will be listed as a wetland of international importance. If a wetland fails to satisfy the criteria, measures may be taken to restore or enhance its values and function in order to meet one of the criteria. If these measures fail, the site will be not be listed. Dues are paid based on a sliding scale determined by Gross National Product of the member nation. Members of the Ramsar Convention have certain obligations. These include considering wetland conservation within the framework of land-use planning, promoting conservation of wetlands throughout their region, and estab- lishing wetland reserves. Members must also provide in-country training in the fields of wetland research and management, and exchange information and data with other members of the Convention. Finally, members must consult with the Ramsar Con- vention regarding management implementation, especially when it involves trans- boundary wetlands, shared water resources, or shared development aid for projects. Wetland Definition and Classification The Ramsar Convention has a definition and classification system for identifying wetlands of international importance. Wetlands are defined as “areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the ©2001 CRC Press LLC depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters … and may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetland, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide lying within the wetlands” (Davis, 1994). The definition incorporates ecosystems that are an integral part of a major water system and is broader than many other operational wetland definitions (see Chapter 1). The Ramsar Convention (Davis, 1994) recognizes four major types of wetlands. Marine wetlands are coastal wetlands including rocky shores and coral reefs. Estu- arine wetlands are located between salt water and fresh water bodies, or dry land including deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps. Lacustrine wetlands are wetlands associated with lakes. Palustrine wetlands are isolated marshes, swamps, or bogs. Wetlands are classified when listed as wetlands of international importance by the Ramsar Convention. Management The Convention assists members with plans of action for management of their wetlands by sharing information and through the activities of a Scientific and Tech- nical Review Panel. The Panel is comprised of experts in the field of wetland management. They provide members with expert opinions and assist with the design of management plans. The management planning process has three steps: description of the site, form- ing evaluations and objectives, and designing an action plan or prescription. Descrip- tion of the site includes identifying the wetland type(s) and creating an inventory of the flora and fauna. This first step is used to establish criteria for listing the site. The evaluation provides a detailed report of the site, including information on biological diversity, integrity, rarity, fragility, history, cultural and aesthetic value, social and economic value, education and research opportunities, and potential uses for recreation. In evaluating the site, concise objectives are formed for best man- agement practices. These objectives are based strictly on the evaluation of the site, and are intended to fully protect its characteristics. After the objectives are outlined, any factors that may hinder their achievement, including both natural and human- induced, are identified. Considering the objectives and mitigating factors, operational objectives are developed. Management strategies are established based on the best possible alternatives under the given circumstances. A limit of acceptable change is established to meet protection obligations. Finally, a plan of action is outlined which may include zoning, habitat manage- ment, species management, contextual uses, education, and research initiatives. Specific projects and work programs are designed to implement these actions. Over time, reviews of progress at the site are presented to the Ramsar Convention to ensure operational success, or to facilitate changes in objectives and action plans. Additional Support The Ramsar Convention provides additional assistance to member nations through three documents: the Montreux Record and Monitoring Procedure (Davis, ©2001 CRC Press LLC 1994), Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands (Davis, 1993), and the Economic Valuation of Wetlands (Barbier et al., 1997). The Montreux Record lists priority sites that are undergoing ecological changes owing to human activities. The Scientific and Tech- nical Review Panel supports a procedure for monitoring site changes and imple- menting management strategies. National management strategies are encouraged to comply with guidelines described in Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands (Davis, 1993). The Ramsar Con- vention defines the wise use of wetlands as “sustainable utilization for the benefit of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem” (Davis, 1993). Guidelines include establishing an integrated approach to policy making using coordinated efforts of national, regional, and local institutions, and providing policies that promote wetland protection in land-use planning, environmental audits, financial incentives, and permit processes. Wise Use provides examples of management strategies by describing wetland inventories, monitoring techniques, research on identifying values, wetland use, and landscape function. The management strategies include establishment of training programs and promotion of public awareness (Davis, 1993). Actions outlined by Wise Use include maintaining ecological integrity, sustainable use, balancing restric- tions with cultural uses, and integrating wetland management with development plans. The latter seeks to achieve a balance between conservation and the use of wetland resources. Wise Use also provides 17 case studies to illustrate management issues and lessons learned from the implementation of the Wise Use guidelines. The Ramsar Convention developed a guide, Economic Valuation of Wetlands (Barbier et al. 1997), to facilitate the economic valuation of wetland resources. Developed in conjunction with the Department of Environmental Economics and Environmental Management at the University of York, the Institute of Hydrology, and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the document outlines several approaches to valuate the economic value of wetlands and weigh the benefit of development strategies with the degradation it may cause to wetland resources. One somewhat unique aspect of the document is the emphasis on social, cultural, and political values for decision-making. This is accomplished by addressing not only the valuation of direct economic benefits from wetlands (e.g., timber and food resources), but also indirect economic benefits (e.g., biological functions such as flood attenuation and future uses and benefits) and nonuse values (e.g., biodiversity and cultural heritage). The framework provided in Economic Valuation of Wetlands includes seven steps (Table 1). In practice, the valuation requires an interdisciplinary approach and the cooperative effort of specialists, including economists, hydrologists, fishery and wetland biologists, and sociologists. The first step in the valuation is selecting the appropriate approach. There are three assessment approaches, impact analysis, partial valuation, and total valuation, available based on the type of development and degree of impact to the wetland’s integrity. An impact analysis assesses the external costs of off-site development or activities such as discharges from industries or mining activities. This analysis would compare the benefit of the activity to the losses in specific wetland resources from off-site impacts. A partial valuation is used to evaluate changes in the allocation or ©2001 CRC Press LLC the alternative uses of wetland resources. An example is the diversion of floodwater for irrigation. While not all of the wetland resources may be impacted, valuation of the benefits lost is compared to benefits gained from the irrigation project. In addition, evaluation of the alternative uses of the floodwater would be considered. Such alter- natives may be the use of floodplains for fish farming or agricultural benefits from nutrient loading of floodwaters. The third approach, total valuation, is used to evaluate a wetland’s contribution to society as a whole. This valuation may be applied in wetland preservation strategies and regional natural resource assessments. The second step in the framework is to define the wetland area, time scale, and analytical boundaries of the assessment. The defined parameters will differ based on the assessment approach. An impact assessment may only require a short time scale such as the time discharge flows from an industry and small analytical bound- aries such as the area of the water resources impacted. A total valuation may require consideration of all wetland resources, a large analytical boundary, and an extended time scale. Step three identifies the corresponding functions and attributes of the wetland. This step requires review of previous research and may require additional research to ensure thorough identification of the functions and attributes to be considered in the valuation. This critical stage will also require the collaborative teamwork of specialists in differing fields. Step four in the valuation defines and prioritizes the values of the identified wetland functions and attributes (see Chapter 3). Functions and values may be use (e.g., direct, indirect, and option or quasi-option) or nonuse. Direct uses are values most often used in economic valuation studies because these activities are directly marketed. Examples of direct use include agricultural resources, fuelwood, recreation, harvesting, and transportation uses. In many instances, these activities are used for subsistence purposes and appropriate evaluation techniques must be applied. How- ever, either as marketed or subsistence resources direct use can be quantified based on a marketed economic value. Indirect use values are primarily ecological functions that protect or support direct uses. These values include flood attenuation, erosion control, nutrient retention, and groundwater recharge. Option and quasi-option values are potential future uses (both direct and indirect) and future information use. Value accrues by delaying development or exploitation. Option and quasi-option values may change with changes in economic, social, and scientific circumstances. Nonuse value is the wetland’s intrinsic existence value. The most difficult to quantify, nonuse value includes biodiversity, cultural heritage, and preservation for Table 1 Framework for the Economic Valuation of Wetlands (Barbier et al., 1997) 1. Select an assessment approach 2. Define the wetland boundary and system boundary 3. Identify and rank wetland components, functions, and attributes 4. Relate components, functions, and attributes to type of use value 5. Identify information required to assess uses 6. Quantify economic values 7. Implement the appraisal method ©2001 CRC Press LLC future generations. Contributions to conservation campaigns are one indicator of the value society places on these uses. Step five in the valuation process is to obtain detailed information about the identified values. This information includes scientific data, statistical data on human uses, economic inputs and outputs of activities, and survey results, and is critical to the valuation process. For example, scientific data will provide details on indirect use values such as flood retention capacity, degree of erosion protection, populations of harvested species, and growth rates of forests. Statistical data on human uses and economic inputs—outputs of activities, including agricultural and fishery yields and tourism revenues—provide detail on direct marketable uses. Information from sur- veys may provide valuable information on option based or intrinsic values that are otherwise difficult to quantify. Once an appropriate assessment approach is chosen, and values are identified, classified, and defined statistically, the actual valuation is conducted. Most critical in this sixth step is choosing the proper technique for valuating resources and their use. Economic Valuation for Wetlands does not detail the methods for each technique, although it provides a list of advantages and disadvantages. For example, market prices may be applied to direct market uses, while surrogate market price may be applied to a wetland resource that is not marketed but is closely related to a marketed good or service. Another direct use method is indirect substitute, where the cost of an alternative source of resources is applied to the wetland resource such as water imported from the outside vs. water used from the wetland. For indirect uses, approaches such as the value in changes in productivity and damage costs avoided can be used to determine the impact of ecological degradation. To determine option values and nonuse values, the contingent valuation method is most widely used. Because of its context in nonuse valuation, this method is con- troversial. However, it does provide an assessment of an individual’s or society’s willingness to pay for the value, or how much compensation they would require upon loss of the use. Another approach to determining option and nonuse values is to determine the sustainable yield of current activities and alternative or compen- sating projects that could be offered. If current activities are not sustainable, alter- native scenarios that offer higher social returns are offered. Compensating projects offer mitigation for environmental degradation, while maintaining long-term sus- tainability in the overall natural system and ensuring nonuse values. The final step in the valuation framework is to implement the appropriate appraisal method. Again, Economic Valuation of Wetlands does not detail methods but lists advantages, disadvantages, and most appropriate cases for implementation. These methods include cost–benefit analysis, multiple criteria analysis, land suit- ability/classification models, environmental impact assessments, and cost-effective- ness analysis. Upon implementation of appraisal methods, Economic Valuation of Wetlands stresses the importance of applying the economic valuation methods within social, political, and cultural contexts. In addition, this valuation should be conducted with interdisciplinary collaboration and provide effective institutional capacity build- ing upon decision making. This capacity is based on the training and information provided by those conducting the valuation to those involved in decision making. Thus, the valuation should be founded on thorough information and appropriate ©2001 CRC Press LLC evaluation techniques. As stated by Delmar Blasco, Secretary General for the Ramsar Convention Bureau, “It is important to stress that economic valuation is not a panacea for all decisions, that it represents just one input into the decision-making process, along with important political, social, cultural and other considerations. The goal of this text is to assist planners and decision-makers in increasing the input from economic valuation in order to take the best possible road towards a sustainable future” (Barbier et al., 1997). CASE STUDIES Four case studies illustrate the types of management issues confronting countries with wetlands of international importance (Table 2). Both freshwater and coastal wetland systems in developed and developing countries are represented. The types of threats and impacts include excessive resource extraction, altered hydrology, and pollution. Conservation efforts include restoration, international agreements, protec- tion of critical areas, education, and use restrictions. The Everglades is contained wholly within the United States. The Everglades supports many threatened and endangered species and migratory bird populations. Groundwater recharge and surface water flow are critical to the social and economic well-being of burgeoning South Florida. The other case studies illustrate issues associated with transboundary wetlands. The Mekong Delta is a major coastal system. The Delta has recovered from wartime impacts but is now threatened by unsustainable subsistence use and upstream hydropower projects. The Pantanal is a significant contributor to regional biodiversity. In some ways, the situation in the Pantanal mirrors that of the Everglades in the early 20th century—a large, relatively pristine and productive wetland is threatened by a proposal to alter regional hydrol- ogy to accommodate economic growth. The Wadden Sea is a major coastal and shallow marine system in northern Europe. Located in a developed region of the world, the Wadden Sea is subjected to coastal armament and pollution. Florida Everglades Known as the River of Grass, the Florida Everglades is one of the largest freshwater marshes in the world, historically encompassing about 3.5 million ha (Figure 1). It extends from Lake Okeechobee in south central Florida to the southern tip of Florida where its wide mouth empties into Florida Bay and other smaller bays and estuaries. The headwaters of the Everglades begin as small streams and lakes in central Florida and flow through the Kissimmee Lakes and River system. This system leads to Lake Okeechobee, a 300 ha natural reservoir formed in the center of the state when sea levels fell during the last ice age. Water historically flowed over the southern edge of Lake Okeechobee and into the Everglades. From here the water flowed to the Gulf of Mexico via the Caloosahatchee River and to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lucie River (Robinson et al., 1996). Table 2 Characteristics of Case Study Wetlands Location Size (ha) Habitat Function and Value Threats and Impacts Conservation Efforts Florida Everglades United States 3,500,000 Freshwater marsh, mangrove, swamp, slough, estuary, shallow bay Fish and wildlife habitat, recreation, tourism, agriculture, drinking water, cultural heritage Agriculture, altered hydrology, pollution, exotic vegetation Protected areas, restoration plan, stormwater treatment areas, agricultural BMPs Mekong Delta Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam 3,900,000 Melaleuca forest, mangrove, tidal mudflat Fisheries, agriculture, forest resources, transportation Deforestation, pollution, hydropower Protected areas, education, Commission toward Sustainable Development Pantanal Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay 11,000,000 Swamp, forest, savannah, lake margin scrub, gallery forest Flood control, fish and wildlife habitat, fisheries, cattle ranching, tourism Cattle ranching, agriculture, overfishing, hunting, Hydrovia project Protected areas, education, Intergovernmental Committee on Hydrovia Wadden Sea Denmark, Germany, Netherlands 1,350,500 Tidal channel, mud flat, salt marsh, beach, dune Primary productivity, fish and wildlife habitat, tourism, recreation Infrastructure development, pollution, shellfish harvesting Joint Declaration on the Protection, protected areas, prohibited shoreline armoring ©2001 CRC Press LLC [...]... Fortney, R H., Meyer, J., Perry, J E., and Rood, B E., The case of the Paraguay-Parana Waterway (Hidrovia) and its impact on the Pantanal of Brazil: a summary report to the Society of Wetlands Scientists, Wetlands Bulletin, The Society of Wetlands Scientists, September, 1998, 12 Junk, W J., Wetlands of tropical South America, in Wetlands of the World: Inventory, Ecology, and Management, Whigham, D F et... 2 The Mekong Delta Functions and Values The many wetlands of the Mekong Delta are habitat for breeding colonies of native waterfowl (Frazier, 1996) Over 50 species of migratory birds use the wetlands during the migratory period The coastal wetlands also provide protection to the coastline, reducing erosion from wave action The majority of the coastal wetlands are mangrove forests that act as a sediment... as a sediment filter, reducing turbidity and increasing water quality The inland wetlands are comprised mainly of melaleuca forests These seasonally flooded wetlands reduce the acidity and sulfur content of underlying soils ©2001 CRC Press LLC The Mekong Delta plays a critical role in the economy of Vietnam (Khoa and Roth-Nelson, 1994; Frazier, 1996) Vietnamese rely heavily on the Delta for food, fuelwood,... Soil Science Department of Hanoi State University has provided a plan for sustainable agriculture The plan outlines a system of rotating crops and intercropping using key native flora species This system reduces the acids and sulfates in the soils that make cultivation unproductive Also outlined is a proposed land-use plan that designates areas of protection and human activities (Khoa and Roth-Nelson,... REFERENCES Barbier, E B., Acreman, M., and Knowler, D., Economic Valuation of Wetlands: A Guide for Policy Makers and Planners, Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland, 1997 Beilfuss, R D and Barzen, J A., Hydrological wetland restoration in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, in Global Wetlands: Old World and New, Mitsch, W J., Ed., Elseveir Science, Amsterdam, 1994, 453 Bentham, W., Chuyen, N D., van Lavieren,... District, 1999, 6-1 Common Wadden Sea Secretariat, The Trilateral Cooperation on the Protection of the Wadden Sea, Ramsar Convention Bureau, 1997 Davis, T J., Ed., Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands: Report of the Ramsar Convention Wise Use Project, Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland, 1993 Davis, T J., Ed., The Ramsar Convention Manual: A Guide to the Ramsar Converntion on Wetlands of International... Mekong Delta, Vietnam, in Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands: Report of the Ramsar Convention Wise Use Project, Davis, T J., Ed., Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland, 1993, 140 Dugan, P., Ed., Wetlands in Danger: A World Conservation Atlas, Oxford University Press, New York, 1993 Enemark, J., Wise use of the Wadden Sea, in Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands: Report of the Ramsar Convention Wise Use...Lake Okeechobee Florida EAA WCA-1 WCA-2 WCA-3 Miami Everglades National Park Florida Bay Figure 1 The Florida Everglades; the shaded area represents the remnant Everglades–Florida Bay ecosystem; WCAs are water conservation areas (Modified... Ecology, and Management, Whigham, D F et al., Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, 1993, 679 Khoa, L.V and Roth-Nelson, W., Sustainable wetland use for agriculture in the Mekong River delta of Vietnam, in Global Wetlands: Old World and New, Mitsch, W J., Ed., Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 1994, 737 Lanza, G R., A Review of Nam Leuk Hydropower Development Project Environmental Impact Assessment... Consolidated Report, Draft, South Florida Water Management District, 1999, 5-1 ©2001 CRC Press LLC White, W C., Review of Greater Mekong Task Force Strategies, International Rivers Network; Website: htp:www.irn.org, 1997 World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Directory of Wetlands of International Importance: Sites Designated for the List of Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland, . “Managing Global Wetlands Applied Wetlands Science and Technology Editor Donald M. Kent Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2001 ©2001 CRC Press LLC CHAPTER 13 MANAGING GLOBAL WETLANDS Annette. Convention (Davis, 1994) recognizes four major types of wetlands. Marine wetlands are coastal wetlands including rocky shores and coral reefs. Estu- arine wetlands are located between salt water and fresh. mangrove swamps. Lacustrine wetlands are wetlands associated with lakes. Palustrine wetlands are isolated marshes, swamps, or bogs. Wetlands are classified when listed as wetlands of international