21st Century Manufacturing Episode 2 Part 4 pot

254 Computer Manufacturing Chap. 6 MRtcadclemcut Figure 6.19 Magnetoresisuve head operation This multilayer sandwich arrangement is shown in Figure 6.19. The copper write coil is shown at the top of this figure, and the MR read element is further down the stack . • The write coil is copper. It is laid down by the same pbotolithography and plating steps as described earlier. However, now that it only has to perform the write function, it ismuch thinner and easier to make than a head that must per- form both the write and the read functions. The head requires fewer copper coils, material layers, photolithography steps, and tolerance controls. This in itself also leads to fewer complications in manufacturing and a better yield . •The read element is nickel/iron and is laid down by sputtering. The NiFe alloy exhibits a change in resistance as it passes over a magnetic field: this is the MR effect. Shielding layers protect the element from other magnetic fields. One shield is shown to the left of the MR sensor in Figure 6.20. The other shield is actually merged with and part of the write coil. Further developments in the material itself lead to the "giant MR effect." The pickup sensor is a multilayer sandwich with a thin metal interlayer able to respond to even smaller mag- netic fields. As before, an inductive write element writes bits of information to magnen- calIybiased regions within radially concentric tracks on the disc.When it isnecessary to read the data back, the MR sensor is used rather than another inductive head. The MR sensor picks up this magnetic transition (or flux reversal) between bits, causing the magnetization in the MR sensor to rotate.The read current isindicated inFigure620. This rotation is detected as a resistance change by a precision amplifier, which then produces a stronger signal to the disc drive output. Inductive head P~MR~hidd 2 MRcontacl MRshiddl lnducuve wrilt head P7b,,,", 6.5 Management of Technology 255 Figure 6.20 Magnetoresistive head design 6.5 MANAGEMENT OF TECHNOLOGY 6.5.1 The Culture and History of the Computer Industry The evolution of the electronic computer over the past six decades from a rare, highly specialized item to a commodity has repeatedly reshaped the computer industry (Stern, 1980;Bell, 1984).Table 6.2 shows some of the main milestones. As one example, in 1953,having assembled transistors with other discrete com- ponents, IBM decided to make a prototype and investigate the market for the 1YJ>e650 magnetic drum calculator. The 1YPe650's computing power was roughly equivalent to a modem VCR and rented for $3,250per month, equivalent to $20,000in today's dol- lars. IBM was then a large, slow-moving corporation with an appropriately conserva- tive marketing group. The market for a commercial computer was estimated to be small. But when the stalwart Type 650 was finally withdrawn from the market in 1962, several thousand had been sold. In this situation, IBM successfully crossed the chasm described in Chapter 2 and created a unique and viable product: one of the world's first mass-produced computers. By 1964,IBM launched the /360 series of machines, which incorporated a wide range of possible products for awide variety of users. But it should be stressed that at that time, the users of this computing world were the academic! scientific community on the one hand and commerciallbusiness corporations on the other. The average consumer and the average family certainly did not sit down in the evening to write a letter on a computer, let alone read e-mail or surf the Web. For this average consumer, the most significant breakthrough in computing did not occur until the development of the microprocessor. Throughout the 1960s, I.Writecunenl Shteld2JPl Shield I Track width Inductive wriledemenl R<:eorJin~n1('dillm Magneuzuuou TABLE 6.2 Some of the Milestones in the Development of the Electronic Computer Decade Prototype Comments Figure(s) 194" ENlAC Vacuum tubes of the electronic numerical Eckert andMauch1y integrator and calculator EDVAC Stored programs of the eLectronic discrete von Neumann variable automatic computer EDSAC Stored programs of the electronic delay Wilkes storage automatic calculator Transistor Semiconductors:evenlUaUyreplace Shockley,Brattain, vacuum tubes and Bardeen 1950s UNIVAC1 Universal automatic computer launched as Eckert and Mauchly the first commercial electronic computer 650 and 701 Frrst systems launched by IBM IBM IC Combined functions on one chip Kilby 1_ f360Series Frrst"farnily"ofmachinesofwidely IBM different capability and cost PDPS Minicomputer sold for <S20,OOO DEC CDC 6600 First supercomputer C"y !'n" 4004 First microprocessor Hoff and Intel Apple II Erst personal computer JobsandWozoiak Internet Interconnectivity for the academic community DARPA 19'" IBM PC Best-selling personal computer + multimedia IBM, Intel, and Microsoft The Web Networked computing CERNfBerners-Lee 1990. Compaq The PC as a commodity Pfeiffer Mosaic Interconnectiviry for mass consumption NCSA/Andreesen (Netscape) Java "Write once run anywhere" computing Son PDAs Handheld devices and network computers (NC) Palm Pilot -2000 Wireless Merging of computing/wireless/infonnation Nokia and Motorola appliances into wide array of consumer products (sometimes called a "POllt"PC"phase) advances in Ie design and fabrication methods set the stage for the first micro- processor, the 4004 (shown at the beginning of Chapter 5), developed at Intel by a group led by Ted Hoff. It was based on two key innovations: • All logic was on one chip. • The device was programmable by software. The microprocessor made possible a huge middle ground of general-purpose machines, most notably the personal computer (PC) and high-performance work- stations. The distinction between these categories is now blurred, particularly as pow- erful networked Pes rival the functionality of professional workstations. By 1977, Jobs and Wozniak huilt and sold the Apple II as a commercial product, and by 1981, the IBM-PC was announced, using the Intel 80 x 86 micro- Computer Manufacturing Chap. 6 256 6.5 Management of Technology 257 processor. Although its PC was a tremendous success, IBM did not fully capitalize on its brilliant new product. It was not appreciated at the time that modest computing power on everyone's desk would be more attractive than greater computing power cen- tralized on mainframes. As a result, two historic choices were made by IBM: • It subcontracted the PC operating system to Microsoft . •It subcontracted the Ie fabrication to InteL Many professional and amateur analysts now look back and criticize these two choices, which, at first glance, appear to have been shortsighted. At the time, how- ever, these subcontracting arrangements were considered sensible because they min- imized research and development (R&D) investment in areas that were not IBM strengths. And as time has gone on, there has in fact been an increasing trend in all industries toward subcontracting. While it is easy to look back and criticize IBM for not getting the maximum benefit from the first PC, on balance, the decision made at the time was consistent with today's conventional wisdom-namely, to focus on one's core strengths and main markets while outsourcing all other operations. Today, for most of the well-known, brand-name computer companies (e.g., Compaq, Dell, Hewlett-Packard,) the trend is toward more outsourcing to companies that provide specialized manufacturing services (e.g., Solectron, Flextronics, SCI systems). Nevertheless the commercial significance of the computer operating system and main microprocessor is now obvious to anyone who uses what bas become known as the "Wlntel'' de facto standard. The significance of keeping pace with IC technology is illustrated in Figure 6.21, which shows the tremendous increases in IC complexity and power over the last three decades. lE+8 1E-t-7 1E+6 Transistors per chip 1E+5 80286 8086 lE+4 lE+3 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Yo ar Flpre 6.21 The transistor count in the central processing unit (CPU) from 1970 and projected to 2005. Pentium<ilProprocessor Pennumverocessor 'DEC1264 ~ PPC620 PPC604 ~ vrPC601 Spare MIPS4400 DEC21064 258 Computer Manufacturing Chap. 6 6.5.2 The Present From a management of technology point of view, the computer industry is about coping-or failing to cope-with change. With new technologies and applications emerging all the time, the dust barely settles after one revolution before another is well under way.In this environment of constant change, staying in business requires mastery of all aspects of the technology management process. from research and development to design, manufacturing, and marketing. The recent history and some of the present situations in the computer industry illustrate how difficult this can be, even for some top performers. • IBM and DEC suffered during the early 19908 because they were large con- servative organizations, overcommitted to a mainframe philosophy . • Apple lost market share throughout the 1990s. Analysts and economic observers cite many possible reasons, which usually include a closed proprietary operating system that deters third party software development (see the com- ments on VHS versus Betamax in the preface), low supplies of the best-priced products at critical selling times during the year, and a neglect of design for assembly manufacturing (DFAJM). Apple's future still remains uncertain at the time of this writing despite the captivating aesthetic designs of recent products. In contrast, Dell, Compaq, and Gateway have boosted profitability and cap- tured the market lead by (a) redesigning their products to aggressively cut costs and (b) improving their manufacturing productivity with DFAIM. To hold on to their present lead, such companies have also introduced major innovations in their supply chams. Dell in particular has become famous for the "direct sales" model. Capitalizing on a well-organized Website, the company builds each PC to order. This has the ben- efit of eliminating the middleman-the computer dealer. This direct sales approach delays commitment on the final product configuration until the last possible moment. In this way, unnecessary inventories do not build up, and subcomponents can be selectively stocked based on the most popular configurations. Other examples of this strategy are the European assembly plants in the Netherlands, which build computers for the multilingual European market. Again, by delaying commitment to the very last minute, a company does not get stuck with too many keyboards or soft- ware applications in the wrong language. Dell also minimizes working capital and maximizes the return on it by using a technique known as a negative cash conversion cycle. This means that a consumer pays Dell for the assembled computer and FedEx shipping costs long before Dell pays its subsuppliers for the parts. This has a double benefit given that the price of subcomponents is constantly tumbling. Curry and Kenney (1999) describe the loss- of-value dynamics of critical subcomponents in the PC industry. They report that many of Dell's competitors continue to lose market share because they are unable to manage time as effectively and consequently buy subsupplies at higher prices than they can later package and sell them for. By delaying payment to their subsuppliers until the PC is sold to the consumer, Dell effectively buys the subcomponents at the last-minute (actually postminute) market price. 6.5 Management of Technology 259 6.5.3 The Future In summary, the versatility and the power of PCs have now made them the work- horses of the information age.All professionals now depend on their desktop, laptop, or handheld computers for word processing, e-mailing, and access to Web-based information and services. Despite this range of possibilities, fewer and fewer of us are in any way over- whelmed by computers. Or if so, we try not to let it show! The real news is that com- puters are not just smaller and faster; they are also a lot cheaper. The basic computer, especially in the form of the PC, is a common commodity, well on its way up the market adoption curve in Chapter 2. The PC is not quite on a par with pork bellies on the Chicago Stock Exchange, but it is getting there, The "sub-$l,OOOmachine" has become the center of today's consumer market, and price performance has become the main focus for the manufacturers. Handheld, networked wireless devices are more recent additions to the marketplace. These take advantage of the wireless application protocol (WAP), which allows PDAs to easily access the Internet. In the eyes of many analysts, these are heralding a "post-PC age" of convenient devices that boot up directly to specific applications, rather than have the user stumble through the icons on a PC desktop just to get to the Internet? As a result, multimedia and communications technologies are merging with computers, and industry boundaries are dissolving. Newly formed business alliances-sometimes called "virtual corporations"-are clashing for technical and market leadership. These new alliances usually consist of two or more from the fol- lowing list of constituents: •PC and PDA makers of Silicon Valley and other high-tech regions • Chip makers, with Intel being the obvious giant • Operating system and software developers, dominated by Microsoft •Telephone companies and network suppliers • Television and cable TV companies • Hollywood studios, backed up by special effects companies At first glance, it is difficult to tell which type of alliance will come out on top, and what the computer of the future will/ook like and what it will do. But based on the history of the IC, the microprocessor, the PCB, and especially the computer itself, it is certain that rapid dramatic changes are in store. Consider, for example, the following thought exercise. Choose the most likely scenario for the next several years: Option 1: "WebTV" will offer even more powerful set-top boxes and smart keyboards for "interactivation." Television will have so much more interactivity and "For example, Alan Kessler, president of acorn's Palm Computing, is quoted as follows in u.s. News ana World Report, December 13, 1999, p. 52:The new mantra is "give them [consumers] just what they need when they need it" rather than respond to the "old" consumer demand of: "Give me more memory. Give me more power. Give me more complex software." 280 Computer Manufacturing Chap. 6 bidirectional communication that the standard desktop PC will be made redundant. Option 2: The web-based PC will become a high-resolution "information furnace" (a buzzword courtesy of Avram Miller of Intel). Voiceover modems, video-telephone links, live concerts by musicians, MP3, and high-quality video images will make TV obsolete. Opdon 3: Neither TVs nor PCS will diminish in popularity. Rather, consumers will continue to have high-quality TV entertainment in the living room and high-quality information processing in the home office. Option 4: The PC in its current instantiation will disappear, and its central micro- processor will essentially be absorbed internally as the central informa- tion motor into all such information appliances. Norman (1998) and other observers make the analogy that a stand-alone electric motor was once, in the 1920s, a consumer product in and of itself. It was advertised in the Sears catalog as something "every home should have," connectable to washing machines, refrigerators, and hair dryers. Now, in the passing of time, the electric motor is of course just as important, but it is not seen as an external stand-alone device; rather it is buried deep inside consumer appliances and taken for granted. So this may be the future of today's Pc. It will be "reduced to a powerful microprocessor" and just be the central "information motor" for TVs, PDAs, communication devices, and infor- mation appliances. This idea is now a recurring theme in the popular mag- azines of the computer industry, such as Wired, PC Computing, and Red Herring (1998). 6.5.4 Philosophy Archaeologists and historians traditionally view the growth of civilization in terms of the predominant technology of particular eras. Chapter 1 mentioned the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, and the Steel Age of the industrial revolution. Observers of the history of computing also try to document the chronological "eras" that summarize the rise of the computer from the early mechanical computers, to the vacuum tube era, to the Ie, and to the microprocessor (e.g., see Stem, 1980; Bell, 1984; Patterson and Hennessy, 1996a; Economist, 1996). Partially based on these other writings,the present text hypothesizes that the his- tory and anticipated future of commercial computers may be divided into four distinct phases. Note that these commercial developments could not have been launched without some truly revolutionary scientific research discoveries, such as the transistor and the planar transistor in the period beginning in 1947.Usually,the commercial devel- opment phase is5 to 10years behind the scientific discovery phase and prototype use by the academic community. This is certainly true of the World Wide Web (see Berners- Lee, 1989).Actually, this particular gap is 25 years if today's "dot-com-fever" is meas- ured from the beginning of the DARPAnet and itsuse in the academic community. 6.5.4.1 The Iron Age (1953 to 1980) The reign of the mainframe computer. 6.5 Management of Technology 2.' 6.5.4.2 The Desktop PeAge (1981 to 1991) The age of stand-alone desktop personal computers, augmented by CD-ROM. 6.5.4.3 The World Wide Web Age (1992 to 2001) The age of multimedia applications carried to a global communication level well beyond the limits of an individual user's desktop PC. It involved the merging of the World Wide Web, CD-ROM, TV, telephone, workstation, and wireless com- munications technology. 6.5.4.4 The Integrated Man-Machine Age (2002 to 2020 and Beyond) For 1999, The Economist (1999) states that U.S. consumers purchased 16.9 million PCs-17% mure than in 1998 raisiug household penetration to 52%. However, the same and other observers indicate a possible reduction over the next few years due to several factors: (a) overcapacity; (b) reducing demand for upgrades-many users have "powerful enough" machines; and (c) the rise of PDAs, smart cellular phones, and networked computers (see Red Herring, 1998). Obviously the PC "ruled" in the desktop age (1981-1991) and was the key workhorse or platform for the World Wide Web age (1992-2001). However, in the new age of man-machine devices, distinctions and interfaces between human beings and their communication devices are now blurred. As aresult, the monolithic PC solu- tion to life will fade, just as the monolithic mainframe faded. Today's wireless-handheld combination of a cellular phone and PDA is only the beginning of a new age of man-machine devices. Wearable computers are already established devices in advanced applications. Weiss (1999) provides a popular review. Akella and associates (1992), Smailagic and Siewiorek (1993), and Finger and colleagues (1996) provide more scientific details. Extrapolating from these existing prototypes, how might the following list of technical developments influence future products? • Assuming success with the developments in x-ray lithography and so forth described in Chapter 5, it is reasonable to assume that more than a billion tran- sistors will be packaged on a logic chip in the near future, opening up a whole new range of computing capabilities at a scale never before possible. •With billion-transistor chips, all the technologies of the World Wide Web age might well be packaged into a voice-activated, hearing-aid-sized device that can be worn at all times. • Beyond 2020, with advances in engineering biologically compatible materials, it might well be possible to embed such a tiny but powerful electronic device in the lining of the scalp; a subcutaneous radio modem would be a realistic option. Several decades ago, the philosopher and physicist Heisenberg was one of the first people to futurize about such possibilities. He used the following metaphor to conjecture about our future. Snails, crabs, and similar creatures can exist and live 262 Computer Manufacturing Chap. 6 without their protective helmets (shells) but not very effectively. Is it possible, Heisenberg then asked, that human beings are living beneath our full potential? If we were equipped with a kind of "information helmet" -c-using these technologies of the integrated man-machine age-then we would dramatically increase information access and expand the effectiveness of our lives. When these ideas are discussed in a lecture, many people squirm at the thought of embedding a microprocessor and a radio modem under their skin. People seem to accept and welcome external devices like hearing aids and pacemakers, but it does seem a threatening "jump" to go to internal devices. However, other philosophers have postulated that humankind could have discovered the wheel more quickly if our thinking patterns were not blocked off by observing the rest of nature where no wheel-like devices are found. Perhaps we are also blocking the thought of internally embedded electronic devices for the same reason-namely, that they do not appear anywhere else in nature. If we can look beyond this threatening jump-to devices that will improve our personal communication networks, our ability to compensate for injury, and our general health and immunity support functions-then perhaps the Ie and the micro- processor will indeed reach out to an even wider range of tasks. 6.6 GLOSSARY 6.6.1 Ball Grid Array (BGA) Development of individual SMT components, where the connections are made underneath the chip instead of on the perimeter. The term ball grid refers to the small balls of solder used to make the connections. 6.6.2 Bus The bus connects the microprocessor, disc drive controller, memory, input/output ports, and other parts of the system. 6.6.3 Central Processing Unit (CPU) The main arithmetic and control units plus working memory. 6.6.4 Compiler A program that translates from high-level problem-oriented computer languages to machine-oriented instructions. 6.6.5 Design for Assembly and Manufacturing (DFA/DFMI Strategy of lowering cost by aiming at lowering assembly time and reducing the number of subcomponents. Design for assembly involves three key ideas: reducing the number of subcomponents, increasing their quality, and simplifying the assembly operations between subcomponents. 6.6 Glossary 263 6.6.6 Flip Chip Technology (FCTI Extension of SMT/BGA that offers even greater packing density. The IC is turned over and placed face down on the board before creating the circuit connections. 6.6.7 Head Gimbal Assembly (HGAI An assembly of a read/write head on an arm. This holds the head in place over the rotating disc. 6.6.8 Head Stack Assembly IHSA) An assembly of the HGAs (above), the actuator coil, and a flexible printed circuit cable.The HSA also includes a read/write preamplifier, a head selection circuit, and other miscellaneous parts. 6.6.9 Interconnection The process of mechanically joining devices together to complete an electrical cir- cuit. Also, the conductive path needed to connect one circuit element to another or to the rest of the circuit system.Interconnections may be leads,soldered joints, wires, or another joining system. 6.6.10 Known Good Die IKGDI A semiconductor die that has been tested and is known to function properly according to specifications. 6.6.11 Lands Small solder lands/regions of the PCB that provide for the connection of individual ICs and components. 6.6.12 Multichip Modules (MCM) A device containing two or more packaged fCs mounted and interconnected on a substrate. 6.6.13 Pin-in-Hole (PIHI A PCB assembly method that involves inserting the leads of components into holes in the board, clipping, and soldering the leads into place. 6.6.14 Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Also called a printed wiring board (PWB), this is a rigid insulating substrate with conductors etched on the external and/or internal layers.PCBs include single-sided, double-sided, and multilayer boards. A raw "starter board" is a PCB without com- ponents attached to it. [...]... Antenna f x 2) Commercial part/ GEC.DE6003 Commercial partlRDA.l00f200 Text/graphics LCD display Color video LCD display Text/graphics chip set (x 5) Color video chip set (x 5) Audio control chip set (x5) Commercial partlXC -40 08 Custom designed and fabricated Commercial partffC551001 BFL·85 Commercial partlEXC-VHF 9 02 SMJEXC-UHF 24 00 Commercial part/ Sharp LM64k83 Commercial partlSharp LQ4RAOI Custom... components computer Manufacturing 27 2 TABLE 6.3 Majorsubsystenu Functionality Arm subsystem Central control Radio subsystem Wifeless communications Multimedia subsystem 110 Chap 6 Major Electrical Subsystems and Components of InfoPad Multimedia 110 Source /part No Commercial part/ ATV 25 00L Commercial part/ AM27COlO Commercial partlHCfS 74 CommercialpartffC551001 BFL-85 Commercial partlGPS-P60ARMPR Custom... Engineering: Research and Applications 4 (4) ; 347 -359 Wang, F.-c., P K Wright, B A Barsky, and D C H Yang 1999 Approximately arc-length parametrized C3 quintic interpolatory splines Transactions of the AS ME, Journal of Mechanical DUign 121 (3): 43 0 -43 9 6.8 Case Study on Computer 26 7 Manufacturing Weiss, P 1999 Smart outfit Science News 156 (21 ): 330-3 32 Yeh, C P.19 92. An integrated information framework... interconnectivity In Printed 4th ed edited by C F Coombs Jr., 1.3-1 .22 New York: McGraw-Hill circuits handbook, Mitt,M • Murakami, T Kumakura, and N Okabe.1995.Advanced G interconnect and low cost micro stud BGAIn The 1995 JEEF.lCPMT Electronics Manufacturing Symposium, 42 8 - 521 Nakahara,H.l996.1)'pes of printed wiring boards In Printed circuits handbook, by C F Coombs Jr.,3.1-3. 14 New York: McGraw-HilI 4th ed.,edited... 1996.Flip chip 1 ,2, 3: Bump bond and fill Clrcuits Assembty; June, 32- 34 Green, H D 1996 Multichip modules In Printed circuits handbook, Coombs Jr., 6.1-6.31 New York: McGraw-Hili Groover, M P 1996 Fundamentals of modem manufacturing, 4th ed., edited by C F 87&-906 Prentice-Hall Guerra, M., M Potkonjak, and 1 Rabaey.I9 94 System-level design guidance properties In VLSI Signal Processing VII, 73 82: IEEE Press... computer Economist channel Reinhold responses to rapid changes in the 4th ed, edited by C F Coombs Jr., 1999 A bad business, July, 53- 54 industry, 17 (suppl.): 1 -22 Finger, S.,I Stivoric, and CAmon, et aI.1996 Reflection on a concurrent design methodology: A case study in wearable computer design Computer Aided Design 28 (5): 393 -40 4 Fulton, R F._19R7 A framework for innovation Computers in Mechanical... object-oriented totyping.IEEE Computer 22 (5): 28 -37 VLSI CAD framework: Guy, E T 19 92 An introduction Record Boston, MA to the CAD framework Inside Read-Rite poration 1993 (Informational Corporation using algorithm A case study in rapid pro- initiative In Electro 19 92 Conference brochure Milpitas, CA: Read-Rite Keller, K H 19 84 An electronic circuit CAD framework Ph.D Thesis, Department trical Engineering and... Computing 2 (4) : 375-376 the first electronic judicial computer? Sturges, R H., and P K Wright 1989 A quantification Computer Aided Manufacturing 6 (1): 3- 14 Annals 4th of the History of of dexterity Journal of Robotics and Wang, F.-c., B Richards, and P K Wright 1996 A multidisciplinary concurrent design environment for consumer electronic product design Concurrent Engineering: Research and Applications 4. .. Thchnicalliterature Paper available from 345 Los Caches St., Milpitas, CA Red Herring 1998 The post-PC world, December,50-66 Sarma S E., S Schofield, 1.A Stori, 1 MacFarlane and P K Wright 1996 Rapid product ization from detail design Computer-Aided Design 28 , (5); 383-3 92 Sheldahl Technical Staff 1996 In Printed circuits handbook, 40 .1 -40 .31 New York: McGraw-Hili real- 4th ed edited by C F Coombs Jr., Sheng,... and fabricated l.'ustomdesignedandfabricated Custom designed and fabricated Gazelle pen board Codec Speaker subsystem Power subsystem Major parts PAL EPROM Octal buffer SRAM ARM60 ARM interface chip Power supply Commercial part Commercial partlMCl455 54 Commercial part 9VbatteryX Commercial pan 5 • Given the standard mechanical/UI features on the terminal casing-for example, the window for the LCD display . InfoPad Majorsubsystenu Functionality Major parts Source /part No PAL Commercial part/ ATV 25 00L EPROM Commercial part/ AM27COlO Arm subsystem Central control Octal buffer Commercial partlHCfS 74 SRAM CommercialpartffC551001. Journal of Mechan- ical DUign 121 (3): 43 0 -43 9. 6.8 Case Study on Computer Manufacturing 26 7 Weiss, P. 1999. Smart outfit. Science News 156 (21 ): 330-3 32. Yeh, C. P.19 92. An integrated information. 1995 20 00 20 05 Yo ar Flpre 6 .21 The transistor count in the central processing unit (CPU) from 1970 and projected to 20 05. Pentium<ilProprocessor Pennumverocessor 'DEC 126 4 ~ PPC 620 PPC6 04 ~