!"! # • $%&' • ()* + • ( • , # • -.,/,#.0,. .12,3#0/2 • /.0.4#/2.5/2 • 6#.7#8/2#,9 • 01,5136/15,9 # • -.,/,#.0,..12,3#0/2 – – – – : # • /.0.4#/2.5/2 – ; – ; – , – 6 – 1< # • 6#.7#8/2#,9 – , – = – - # • 01,5136/15,9 :%> ?*@! >)AABC$)) Caribbean reef values (annual net benets in 2000) • ;?*)$ • 7?%) • 2?$@ %% ,?")"D //;2E.37E#7/1/ ,(/1,/0/7 • ))& • )D& • FD$& • 0 [...]...CARIBBEAN REEFS DECLINING •1970s: ~50% coral cover •Present: ~10% coral cover •=80% reduction in coral cover over last 30 years Gardner et al 2003 Science 301: 958-96 Threats to coral and coral reefs: 1) Natural 2) Anthropogenic –of human origin Natural disturbances that affect corals and coral reefs? •Hurricanes •Tsunamis •Volcanoes •Earthquakes •Predators... http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/ mccarty_and_peters /coral/ Bleach.htm http://orbit-net.nesdis.noaa.gov/orad /coral_ bleaching_index.html Pathogens • Diseases on the rise – new pathogens (8+) – land pathogens (Aspergillus) – occurring at all depths – More susceptible when stressed http://ourworld.compuserve.com/ homepages/mccarty_and_peters/ coral/ Bbd.htm Threats to coral and coral reefs: 1) Natural 2) Anthropogenic –of... to coral reefs: •Overfishing •Development •Mining and dredging •Recreation Overfishing • Ecological imbalance http://www.photolib.noa a.gov/reef/reef2570.htm http://tools.coralreef.org/content/objects/view.acs?object_id=545 Overfishing • Ecological imbalance http://catbert.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/events.html Overfishing • Destructive fishing practices http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/ students /coral/ coral5.htm... •Earthquakes •Predators & competitors •Bleaching •Pathogens Hurricanes • Physical damage •Smothering •Freshwater poisoning http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/ 1989hugo.html •Destruction of other ecosystems upon which coral reefs depend Tsunamis • Physical damage •Erosion •Possible disruption of reproduction and recruitment Volcanoes • Depends upon where volcano occurs •Heat •smothering and sedimentation http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/... http://www.wri.org/indictrs/rrcyanid.htm Development • Sediment → smothering • Freshwater input • Pollutants & nutrients (sewage, pesticides, fertilizer, heavy metals, pathogens) Development http://www.wcmc.org.uk/mari ne/data /coral_ mangrove /coral danger.html http://ourworld.compuserve.com/h omepages/mccarty_and_peters/cor al/c-intro.htm Development http://www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/scied/science/habitat/influences.html Mining for... human activity • multiple insults Global climate change • Reduced reef building • Increase in frequency and intensity of hurricanes • Increases in bleaching • Increased in disease Synergistic effects CORAL DOMINATED ALGAL DOMINATED JAMAICA OVERFISHING HURRICANE ALLEN 1980 ACROPORA DIE-OFF 1980S DIADEMA DIE-OFF 1983