Networking Models 79 These devices allow users to share, create, and obtain information. Host devices can exist without a network, but without a network, host capabilities are greatly reduced. Host devices are physically connected to the network media using a network interface card (NIC). They use this connection to perform the tasks of sending e-mails, printing reports, scanning pictures, or accessing databases. A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot of a bus on a computer motherboard, or it can be a peripheral device. It is also called a network adapter. Laptop or notebook computer NICs are usually the size of a PCMCIA card. Each NIC carries a unique code called a MAC address. MAC addresses are covered more in a moment. As the name implies, the NIC controls host access to the medium. There are no standardized symbols for end-user devices in the networking industry. They bear a resemblance to the real device to allow for quick recognition. Network devices provide transport for the data that needs to be transferred between end-user devices. Network devices extend cable connections, concentrate connections, convert data formats, and manage data transfers. Examples of devices that perform these functions are repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, and routers. The following sec- tions provide an overview of some common networking devices. Repeaters Repeaters are networking devices that exist at Layer 1, the physical layer, of the OSI reference model. To understand how a repeater works, it is important to understand that as data leaves a source and goes out over the network, it is transformed into either electrical or light pulses that pass along the networking medium. These pulses are called signals. When signals leave a transmitting station, they are clean and easily rec- ognizable. However, the longer the cable length, the weaker and more deteriorated the signals become as they pass along the networking medium. The purpose of a repeater is to regenerate and retime network signals at the bit level, allowing them to travel a longer distance on the medium. The term repeater originally meant a single port “in” device and a single port “out” device. Today multiple-port repeaters also exist. Repeaters are classified as Layer 1 devices in the OSI model because they act only on the bit level and look at no other information. Hubs The purpose of a hub is to regenerate and retime network signals. The characteristics of a hub are similar to those of a repeater. A hub is a common connection point for 1102.book Page 79 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 80 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals devices in a network, as shown in Figure 2-22. Hubs commonly connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all the LAN’s segments can see all the packets. Figure 2-22 Hub Because hubs and repeaters have similar characteristics, a hub is also called a multiport repeater. The difference between a repeater and a hub is the number of cables that con- nect to the device. Whereas a repeater typically has only two ports, a hub generally has from four to 20 or more ports, as shown in Figure 2-23. Whereas a repeater receives on one port and repeats on the other, a hub receives on one port and transmits on all the other ports. Figure 2-23 Hubs Have Several Ports The following are the most important properties of hubs: ■ Hubs amplify signals. ■ Hubs propagate signals through the network. ■ Hubs do not require filtering. 1102.book Page 80 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM Networking Models 81 ■ Hubs do not require path determination or switching. ■ Hubs are used as network-concentration points. Hubs are commonly used in Ethernet 10BASE-T or 100BASE-T networks. (You will learn more about Ethernet networks in Chapter 6, “Ethernet Technologies and Ether- net Switching.”) Hubs create a central connection point for the wiring medium. They also increase the network’s reliability by allowing any single cable to fail without dis- rupting the entire network. This feature differs from the bus topology, in which the failure of one cable disrupts the entire network. (Network topology is discussed later in this chapter.) Hubs are considered Layer 1 devices because they only regenerate the signal and repeat it out all their ports (network connections). In Ethernet networks, all the hosts are connected to the same physical medium. Signals that are sent out across the common medium are received by all devices. A collision is a situation that can occur when 2 bits propagate at the same time on the same network. The area within the network from where the data packets originate and collide is called a collision domain. All shared-media environments are collision domains, or band- width domains. You learn more about collision domains in Chapter 5, “Ethernet Fun- damentals.” As previously mentioned in this section, the function of Layer 1 devices is simply to facilitate the transmission of signals. The devices recognize no information patterns in the signals, no addresses, and no data. When two wires are connected using hubs or repeaters, all the interconnections are part of a collision domain. Network Interface Cards Network interface cards (NICs) are considered Layer 2 devices because each NIC throughout the world carries a unique code, called a Media Access Control (MAC) address. This address controls data communication for the host on the LAN. The NIC controls the access of the host to the medium. Figure 2-24 shows a NIC. Figure 2-24 Network Interface Card 1102.book Page 81 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 82 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals Bridges A bridge is a Layer 2 device designed to create two or more LAN segments, each of which is a separate collision domain. In other words, bridges were designed to create more usable bandwidth. The purpose of a bridge is to filter traffic on a LAN to keep local traffic local yet allow connectivity to other parts (segments) of the LAN for traffic that is directed there. Every networking device has a unique MAC address on the NIC. The bridge keeps track of which MAC addresses are on each side of the bridge and makes forwarding decisions based on this MAC address list. Bridges filter network traffic by looking only at the MAC address. Therefore, they can rapidly forward traffic representing any network layer protocol. Because bridges look only at MAC addresses, they are not concerned with network layer protocols. Conse- quently, bridges are concerned only with passing or not passing frames, based on their destination MAC addresses. The following are the important properties of bridges: ■ Bridges are more “intelligent” than hubs. That is, they can analyze incoming frames and forward (or drop) them based on addressing information. ■ Bridges collect and pass packets between two or more LAN segments. ■ Bridges create more collision domains, allowing more than one device to trans- mit simultaneously without causing a collision. ■ Bridges maintain MAC address tables. Figure 2-25 shows how a bridge is used. The appearances of bridges vary greatly, depending on the type. Figure 2-25 Bridge 1102.book Page 82 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM Networking Models 83 What defines a bridge is its Layer 2 filtering of frames and how this is accomplished. To filter or selectively deliver network traffic, bridges build tables of all MAC addresses located on a network segment and other networks and then map them to associated ports. The process is as follows: Step 1 If data comes along the network medium, a bridge compares the destina- tion MAC address carried by the data to MAC addresses contained in its tables. Step 2 If the bridge determines that the data’s destination MAC address is from the same network segment as the source, it does not forward the data to other segments of the network. This process is known as filtering. By per- forming this process, bridges can significantly reduce the amount of traf- fic between network segments by eliminating unnecessary traffic. Step 3 If the bridge determines that the data’s destination MAC address is not from the same network segment as the source, it forwards the data to the appropriate segment. Step 4 If the destination MAC address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge broadcasts the data to all devices on a network except the one on which it was received. This process is known as flooding. A broadcast is a data packet that is sent to all nodes on a network. A broadcast domain consists of all the devices connected to a network that receive the data packet broad- cast by a node to all other nodes on the same network. Because every device on the network must pay attention to broadcasts, bridges always forward them. Therefore, all segments in a bridged environment are considered to be in the same broadcast domain. As was the case in the repeater/hub combination, another device, called a switch, is used for multiple bridge connections. The next section discusses switches in greater detail. Layer 2 Switches Layer 2 switches, also called LAN switches or workgroup switches, often replace shared hubs and work with existing cable infrastructures to ensure that the switches are installed with minimal disruption of existing networks. Figure 2-26 shows a switch. Figure 2-26 Switch 1102.book Page 83 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 84 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals Like bridges, switches connect LAN segments, use a table of MAC addresses to deter- mine the segment on which a frame needs to be transmitted, and reduce traffic. Switches operate at much higher speeds than bridges. Switches are data link layer devices that, like bridges, let multiple physical LAN seg- ments be interconnected into single larger networks. Similar to bridges, switches for- ward and flood traffic based on MAC addresses. Because switching is performed in hardware, it is significantly faster than the switching function performed by a bridge using software. Think of each switch port as a microbridge. Each switch port acts as a separate bridge and gives each host the medium’s full bandwidth. This process is called microsegmentation. Microsegmentation allows the creation of private or dedicated segments—one host per segment. Each host receives instant access to the full bandwidth and does not have to compete for available bandwidth with other hosts. In full-duplex switches, because only one device is connected to each switch port, collisions do not occur. However, as with a bridge, a switch forwards a broadcast message to all the segments on the switch. All segments in a switched environment are therefore considered to be in the same broadcast domain. Some switches—mainly high-end and enterprise-level switches—perform multilayer functioning. For example, the Cisco 6500 and 8500 series perform some Layer 3 func- tions. The Cisco Catalyst 8500, shown in Figure 2-27, is a Layer 3-enhanced ATM switch that seamlessly integrates wire-speed Layer 3 switching and ATM switching. The Catalyst 8500 family delivers campus and MAN solutions with scalable performance, lower cost of ownership, and intranet-based application features to deliver increased business productivity. Unlike old first- or second-generation ATM switches, which force customers to have a costly, inefficient, multisystem solution, the Catalyst 8500 switch provides an integrated ATM and Gigabit Ethernet solution in a single chassis. Routers A router, as shown in Figure 2-28, is a type of internetworking device that passes data packets between networks based on Layer 3 addresses. A router can make decisions regarding the best path for delivery of data on the network. Working at Layer 3 allows the router to make decisions based on network addresses instead of individual Layer 2 MAC addresses. Routers also can connect different Layer 2 technologies, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). Routers also commonly connect Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and serial con- nections. However, because of their capability to route packets based on Layer 3 infor- mation, routers have become the backbone of the Internet and run the IP protocol. 1102.book Page 84 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM Networking Models 85 Figure 2-27 Cisco Catalyst 8500 Switch Figure 2-28 Router The purpose of a router is to examine incoming packets (Layer 3 data), choose the best path for them through the network, and then switch them to the proper outgoing port. Routers are the most important traffic-regulating devices on large networks. Routers let virtually any type of computer communicate with any other computer anywhere in the world. 1102.book Page 85 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 86 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals Voice, DSL, Cable Modem, and Optical Devices Recent networking demands of voice and data network integration and fast data transmission for end users and network backbones have resulted in the development of the following new networking devices: ■ Voice gateways for handling converged packetized voice and data traffic ■ DSLAMs used at the service provider’s central office for concentrating DSL modem connections from hundreds of homes ■ Cable Modem Termination System (CMTS) used at a cable operator’s headend or central location to concentrate connections from many cable modem subscribers. ■ Optical platforms for sending and receiving data over fiber-optic cable, providing high-speed connection Voice Gateway A gateway is a special-purpose device that converts information from one protocol stack to another. The Cisco AS5400 Series Universal Access Server provides cost- effective platforms that combine routing, remote access, voice gateway, firewall, and digital modem functionality. Figure 2-29 shows a Cisco AS5400 Series Universal Gate- way, which offers universal port data, voice, wireless, and fax services on any port at any time. Figure 2-29 Cisco AS5400 Series Universal Gateway DSLAM A digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) is a device used in a variety of DSL technologies. A DSLAM serves as the interface point between a number of sub- scriber premises and the carrier network. Figure 2-30 shows a Cisco 6100 Series Advanced DSL Access Multiplexer. 1102.book Page 86 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM Networking Models 87 Figure 2-30 Cisco DSLAM 6100 CMTS Cable operators use a Cable Modem Termination System (CMTS) at various concen- tration points or hubs in the cable network to provide high-speed Internet access, voice, and other networking services to home and business subscribers. The Cisco uBR7100 (Universal Broadband Router) CMTS series is designed for MTUs (multitenant units) such as apartment buildings and hotels. High-capacity models such as the uBR10012 series, shown in Figure 2-31, can handle thousands of subscribers. 1102.book Page 87 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 88 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals Figure 2-31 Cisco CMTS uBR10012 Optical Platforms Several optical platforms are available for optical networking, which is primarily a backbone, wide-area technology. Figure 2-32 shows a Cisco ONS 15454 dense wave- length division multiplexing (DWDM) optical network system (ONS). The Cisco ONS 15454 provides the functions of multiple network elements in a single platform. 1102.book Page 88 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM . uBR10 0 12 series, shown in Figure 2- 31, can handle thousands of subscribers. 11 02. book Page 87 Tuesday, May 20 , 20 03 2: 53 PM 88 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals Figure 2- 31 Cisco CMTS uBR10 0 12 Optical. medium. Figure 2- 24 shows a NIC. Figure 2- 24 Network Interface Card 11 02. book Page 81 Tuesday, May 20 , 20 03 2: 53 PM 82 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals Bridges A bridge is a Layer 2 device designed. minimal disruption of existing networks. Figure 2- 26 shows a switch. Figure 2- 26 Switch 11 02. book Page 83 Tuesday, May 20 , 20 03 2: 53 PM 84 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals Like bridges, switches