optical communications rules of thumb

1 Chapter 1 Cables and Conduits The topics of this chapter range from the sea bed to the home, yet one theme is retained; all of these rules relate to how cables are run, protected, and maintained. The first telecom fiber cable was not lit until April 22, 1977 (between Long Beach and Artesia), and it wasn’t until 1988 that the TAT-8 crossed the Atlantic, yielding 40,000 good telephone connections (and over 1000 times provided by the first copper cable). 1 Today, for example, an advanced fiber transmitting 184 wavelength channels at 40 gigabits per second can carry more than 90 million phone conversations (enough to satisfy several teenagers). One of the topics addressed herein is the management of cables in which large numbers of fibers are protected. Clearly, this is a critical topic in these days of constant demand for increased bandwidth, regardless of application. We also include the issue of allowing the field worker to recog- nize different fibers in these dense cables by use of color. Similarly, a number of rules relate to the problem of pulling cables through ducts and the size of the cables that can be accommodated. With increasing fiber density a common trend, we have included a number of rules that relate to this topic, including flat and tube-like installations. The above topics lead directly to a set of rules related to the problems encountered when running large numbers of cables in underground conduits, particularly with respect to the potential for the collapse of the conduit. New conduit materials improve this situation, but care must be taken to ensure that the installation is consistent with local geophysics, keeping in mind that long runs will cause the conduit to encounter a vari- ety of conditions. We also include a rule that deals with the thermal management of dense cables. Overhead cables get attention as well. We have included a rule that addresses the threat imposed by weather conditions at Source: Optical Communications Rules of Thumb Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. 2 Chapter One different locations in the U.S.A. as a result of wind and gravity sag. Another type of environmental threat comes from fiber usage in spaces where ele- vated temperatures are common and high enough to induce connector damage. One of the larger rules deals with the threat and properties of ele- vated temperature operation, the types of cables that are most susceptible, and other details. At the same time, humidity is a problem that cannot be ignored. A number of the rules in this chapter relate to optical time domain re- flectometry (OTDR) and its proper application in the diagnosis of cables and fibers. This is a particularly challenging topic when one is considering undersea applications. Another of the larger rules in the chapter deals with this topic. In addition, we have included rules related to the performance of OTDR systems, measured in terms of the accuracy of the location of fiber defects. Two of the rules deal with the general properties of the signal-to-noise ratio that is desirable in dense cable systems. This includes some details about noise sources in household cable applications. Finally, we have included several rules that deal with installation chal- lenges. Aimed at avoiding reflections that threaten system performance, they include some details on common installation mistakes that should be avoided. The reader will excuse the use of English units in some of the rules. They are popular with people working in some of the disciplines and were used in the original reference. Reference 1. J. Hecht, City of Light, Oxford University Press, New York, p. 181, 1999. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Cables and Conduits Cables and Conduits 3 I NNER D UCTS Groups of two to four 25-mm dia. ducts are commonly routed through 100-mm dia conduits. Discussion A key factor in the technical and financial success of underground fiber systems is the reliable installation and maximum exploitation of the duct work that goes into the ground. A major threat to these systems is excessive ten- sion applied to the inner ducts. These are the tubes though which fibers are deployed and which are drawn through the conduit laid in the ground. The standard for conduits is 100 mm diameter, although 150-mm units are becoming popular. In addition, directional drilling has allowed new flexibility in the installation of these conduits. Directional drilling comple- ments the other installation methods, including trenching and installations above ground. In all cases, the driving factor in the evolution of the technology is the need to manage costs. Of course, a cost factor is the eventual performance of the installed system, since a failure of the duct or fiber inside can be very expensive. As designs evolve, not only the installation factors and packing density are at issue, but also the selection of the materials used in the components. In addition to mechanical properties, duct work must exhibit suitable resistance to other environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and moisture, and (in above-ground applications) UV radiation. Persistent ex- posure to ozone can be a risk as well. Reference 1 also points out that seals from section to section of the duct must be air tight to ensure that air-assist placement systems can be used and to ensure that debris and water do not enter the duct. Finally, it is obvi- ous that uniformity of outside diameter and wall thickness is critical if the desired packing density is to be achieved. A typical definition of packing density (P) is where w = ribbon stack diameter T ID = tube inner diameter References 1. R. Smith et al., “Selection and Specification of HDPE Duct for Optical Fiber Applications,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, 1998. 2. J. Thornton et al., “Field Trial/Application of 432-Fiber Loose Tube Ribbon Cable,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, 1997. P w 2 T ID 2 100 %()×= Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Cables and Conduits 4 Chapter One C ABLE - TO -D UCT R ELATIONSHIPS 1. The maximum diameter of a cable to be placed in 31.8-mm (1.25-in) inner duct is generally considered to be 25.4 mm (1.0 in). 1 2. Historically, a maximum cable diameter of 25.4 mm (1.0 in) has been used as a “rule of thumb” for cable installations in 31.8-mm (1.25-in) ducts.” 2 3. 25.4- through 38.1-mm (1.0- through 1.5-in) inner ducts are commonly pulled as multiples of two to four ducts into 88.9-mm (3.5-in) square or 101.6-mm (4-in) round conduits.” 3 Discussion Obviously, getting the maximum number of fibers into a duct is a good idea. Lail and Logan 2 also comment that a cable diameter of 25.4 mm (1 in) fills 64 percent of a 31.8-mm (1.25-in) duct. 2 It seems like, generally, a cable can be added to a duct if the cable does not exceed about 70 percent of the area of the duct. Cables intended for installation in these inner ducts must have an outside diameter that is not only less than 1.25 in but also small enough to ne- gotiate the bends and length of the conduit route. Until now, cable manufacturers have only met this specification of 1 in (25.4 mm) maximum diameter with cables containing 432 or fewer fibers. This, in turn, has limited service providers to 1296 fibers in a single 4-in conduit struc- ture. The small diameter of fiber optic cable compared to copper cables makes possible a means of multiplying the duct space. By placing multiple 31.8-mm (1.25-in) inner ducts in the existing 88.9- or 101.6-mm (3.5- or 4-in) conduit structures, the effective duct capacity can be increased by two or three times. The outside-plant challenge then becomes the inside diameter of the inner ducts rather than the number of available conduit structures. References 1. E. Hinds et al., “Beyond 432 Fibers: A New Standard for High Fiber Count Cables,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, 1998. 2. J. Lail and E. Logan, “Maximizing Fiber Count in 31.8-mm (1.25-inch) Duct Applications—Defining the Limits,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engi- neers Conference, 2000. 3. R. Smith, R. Washburn, and H. Hartman, “Selection and Specification of HDPE Duct for Optical Fiber Applications,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engi- neers Conference, 1998. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Cables and Conduits Cables and Conduits 5 C OLORED R IBBON C ABLES Colored ribbons provide a number of advantages in optical applications. They enable high fiber count, bulk fusing, and quick identification through the use of color. Discussion Colorization must be done properly, since the introduction of a coloring agent to the matrix material can “affect the cure performance, modulus, and glass transition temperature of the material.” 1 Clearly, the main advantage of a colored product is to reduce the time required to identify particular ribbons in the field. Figure 1.1 shows the advantage of colorization. This new capability is not achieved without some cost. The peel and separation performances were verified through standard tests, including use of the midspan access peel kit and visual inspection of fiber surfaces after separation. Additionally, fiber-to-matrix adhesion has been quantified through the development and use of a high-resolution test method. This test measures the critical fracture energy of the ribbon matrix material. Data from this test method and the equation used are shown in Fig. 1.1. Through an understanding of the different process and material variables that control adhesion, the ability to manufacture ribbon with a specified adhesion value is obtained. Reference 1. K. Paschal, R. Greer, and R. Overton, “Meeting Design and Function Require- ments for a Peelable, Colored Matrix Optical Fiber Ribbon Product,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, 2000. 0 50 100 150 200 250 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Fiber Count Time, s Figure 1.1 Recognition time as a function of fiber count. Clear Color Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Cables and Conduits 6 Chapter One T EST C ABLES AFTER S HIPPING Cables should be tested after shipping. Discussion Damage to cabling can occur during shipping or installation. Failing to test fiber cabling after it is delivered is a common mistake made by installers. This failure makes damaged cable detection difficult and returns awkward. An OTDR could be used in this case to shoot an optical profile on each fiber after the cable is received and still on the shipping reel. A permanent record will then be available for future use. Failing to perform testing, verification, and documentation prior to the installation of the fiber end-termination equipment is a problem. If the fiber is not tested after installation, it cannot be determined whether it was installed correctly; serious equipment performance problems can occur. Furthermore, failing to document in the cable plant could make trouble- shooting difficult later, as well as voiding warranty conditions of the installed network. This reference 1 also suggests that test times can be reduced by varying the sampling rate as a function of fiber test length. When testing short runs of fiber, there is typically not much information about the fiber available except for length and attenuation. Connectors and splices are generally not present, needed, or used for short lengths; new short runs would be reinstalled. The sampling rate of an OTDR will determine how much resolution the instrument has when capturing trace information. While it is important to maximize resolution for short distances, it is not mandatory for longer distances. Since it takes more time to take more sampling or data points, longer stretches of fiber can use a lower sampling rate, whereas medium lengths can use a medium sampling rate. This kind of incre- mental improvement in time helps when testing hundreds of fibers. Reference 1. S. Goldstein, “Fiber Optic Testing Fiber to the Desk,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, 1998. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Cables and Conduits Cables and Conduits 7 E ND - OF -F IBER R EFLECTIONS End-of-fiber reflectance using OTDR can be computed as where R = reflectance of a pulse Bns = fiber backscatter coefficient at 1 ns (a negative number) H = height of the reflection with respect to the backscatter level D = OTDR pulse width in ns (with some adjustment for the fiber attenuation over the pulse width and for pulse shape) Discussion When measuring the characteristics of a fiber cable with an OTDR, several measurements are typically acquired (e.g., splice loss, fiber loss per kilome- ter, distance to event loss, and so on). The referenced paper describes a method for improving OTDR measurements with uncertainties because the fiber backscatter coefficient is unknown. The backscatter coefficient is generally a default value given by the OTDR manufacturer or entered by the operator, and it can be seen that this directly affects the error on the reflection value (e.g., a 1-dB error in Bns corresponds directly to a 1-dB error in the reflection). Reference 1. F. Kapron, B. Adams, E. Thomas, and J. Peters, “Fiber-Optic Reflection Mea- surements Using OCWR and OTDR Techniques,” Journal of Lightwave Technol- ogy, 7(8), 1989. R Bns 10 H H 5 1–    10 Dlog×+log×+= Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Cables and Conduits 8 Chapter One F IBER D ENSITY Flat ribbons can pack at least 40 fibers per 100 mm 2 . Discussion The results shown in Fig. 1.2 assume a packing density of 70 percent, which is derived from experience with different interconnect designs. Figure 1.2 illustrates the density of fibers for different types of packaging. The reference cautions that “in practice, the packing density would probably be even lower for the cables with larger bend radii, since they would be more difficult to manipulate in tight quarters.” 1 The reference also provides the following table of information on different types of fibers. Units 12f flat ribbon 24f flat ribbon 2 × 12f ribbon, single-tube 250 µm, single tube 500 µm, tight buffer Single- fiber cables Height mm 2.1 3.5 NA NA NA NA Width mm 4.6 5.5 NA NA NA NA OD mm NA NA 6.9 5.0 5.8 2.9 Area mm 2 8.71 16.62 37.39 19.63 26.42 6.61 Fibers/mm 2 #/mm 2 1.4 1.4 0.6 1.2 0.9 0.2 Fibers/100 mm 2 (70% packing) #/mm 2 96.4 101.1 44.9 85.6 63.6 10.6 Figure 1.2 Fiber density for various packaging types. 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 12f flat ribbon 24f flat ribbon 2 × 12f ribbon, single-tube 250-mm single-tube 500-mm tight buffer Single fiber cables Fibers/100 mm 2 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Cables and Conduits Cables and Conduits 9 Reference 1. J. Register and M. Easton, “Optical Interconnect Cabling for Next Generation Central Office Switching,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Confer- ence, 2001. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Cables and Conduits 10 Chapter One G EOPHYSICS AND D UCTS The force applied to the pipe by a gravel pocket can be crudely estimated from the bulk density of the pocket material (γ g ), the height of the pocket above the duct (H). The gravel pressure acting on the duct (assuming as dry, not saturated with water or slurry) can be estimated as follows: Earth Pressure (P E ) = γ g × H/144 in 2 /ft 2 = 3.33 lb/in 2 Discussion New materials allow new services and capabilities. A good example is the use of 4- and 6-in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) duct, which has properties that allow it to be used in directional boring applications. These new technologies help manage cost and expand the range of applications that can be addressed. HDPE has the potential to assist in the directional boring process, where tensions can be tens of thousands of pounds. Moreover, forces on ducts can be substantial. For example, consider a duct in a loose gravel condition. If we assume that the gravel falls and packs around the duct over a 6-ft length, the gravel soil resistance (F S ) may be estimated as F S = P E π D 0 l µ = 895 lb where D 0 = average diameter of the duct l = length of the pocket along the bore direction µ = coefficient of friction (est. 0.5) of the gravel at the duct surface The referenced paper states it well. “It can easily be seen how combina- tions of buoyancy drag and earth resistance can escalate quickly to challenge the tensile yield strength of the duct.” Reference 1. R. Smith, R. Washburn, H. Hartman, “HDPE Duct Selection and Specification of HDPE Duct for Optical Fiber Applications,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, 1998. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Cables and Conduits [...]... number of modes It shows that Total number of photons SNR = Variance in the total number of photons Mq Mq = = -Var ( Mq ) MVar ( q ) This is a standard definition of SNR (see related rules in Chap 8 of this book), but it includes the concept of the number of photons per mode, q = N/M where M is the degree of coherence of the... telecommunication economics There are several rules about the cost of items such as a bits, photons, and lasers There are also rules about the cost of deploying fibers in the ground and above ground Perhaps the most useful application of these rules is for detection of relative changes This is especially true of the rules relating to the price elasticity of telecom attributes Basically, an item with... is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website Source: Optical Communications Rules of Thumb Chapter 2 Economic Considerations An important component of any discussion related to telecom is its economics The economics of bandwidth is integral to the design and development process, from networks to the smallest component Cost/benefit analysis has driven the evolution of telecom Telecom economics... (1.25-inch) Duct Applications—Defining the Limits,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, 2000 PASSIVE OPTICAL NETWORK (PON) COST An industry rule of thumb is $0.10/fiber/meter in a fiber cable (for the larger cables) Discussion Costs drive everything PONs share an optical transceiver across a set of subscribers by use of a passive optical splitter This allows multiple users to share the... point of attenuation, and the long-term reliability of the fibers could be jeopardized We also note that the maximum desired deflection is 2 δ max = D i – ( Nh ) + w 2 where Di = inside diameter of the tube N = number of ribbons in the stack h = height of an individual ribbon w = width of an individual ribbon Reference 1 M Ellwanger, S Navé, H McDowell III, “High Fiber Count Indoor/Outdoor Family of Ribbon... = length of the fiber B = bandwidth of the measurement n = index of refraction Discussion From this rule we see that, as pulse length increases, the accuracy of the OTDR decreases (∆L gets bigger) This rule seems to work for both conventional and graded index fibers This is particularly important for shorter cables, as might be the case with plastic optical fibers (POFs) Reference 1 T Sugita, Optical. .. the first nine months of 2000, venture funding for optical networking totaled $3.4 billion, compared with $1.5 billion for all of 1999, although this paced may have slowed in recent months Investment in optical communication already yields payoffs, if fiber optics is matched against conventional electronics The cost of transmitting a bit of information optically halves every 9 months as against 18 months... Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, 1999 2 M Arden, “The Ulta-Long-Haul Market: How Big a Stretch Is It?” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, pp 1263–1264, 2001 3 P Wagner, “The Next Wave of Optical Networking: A Flight to Quality,” Proceedings of the National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, p 197, 2001 4 D Cooperson, “The Evolution of DWDM to Optical. .. modern optical telecom Some of these are famous, and some apply to areas other than just telecom (such as the learning curve and Moore’s law), but they all contain useful information for anyone engaged in any part of the optical telecom industry The telecom industry has developed an economic architecture based on several layers of companies as detailed by Gasmann1 in the adoption (and modification) of his... structural stiffness of the fiber is much less than that of the cable backbone, the latter essentially expands or contracts freely and controls the displacement of the fiber Differential strain is generated by temperature changes because of the difference between thermal expansion coefficients of the fiber and cable backbone The buckling length for 125-µm dia fiber with a temperature drop of approximately 100°C . of the larger rules in the chapter deals with this topic. In addition, we have included rules related to the performance of OTDR systems, measured in terms of the accuracy of the location of. the variance in the number of modes. It shows that This is a standard definition of SNR (see related rules in Chap. 8 of this book), but it includes the concept of the number of photons per mode, q. bandwidth, regardless of application. We also include the issue of allowing the field worker to recog- nize different fibers in these dense cables by use of color. Similarly, a number of rules relate

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