Engine Testing Theory and Practice P2 ppt

2 The test cell as a thermodynamic system The energy of the world is constant; the entropy strives towards a maximum. 1 Rudolph Clausius (1822–1888) Introduction The closed engine test cell system makes a suitable case for students to study an example of the flow of heat and change in entropy. In almost all engine test cells the vast majority of the energy comes into the system as highly concentrated ‘chemical energy’ entering the cell via the smallest penetration in the cell wall, the fuel line. It leaves the cell as lower grade heat energy via the largest penetrations: the ventilation duct, engine exhaust pipe and the cooling water pipes. In the case of cells fitted with electrically regenerative dynamometers, almost one-third of the energy supplied by fuel will leave the cell as electrical energy able to slow down the electrical energy supply meter. Many problems are experienced in test cells worldwide when the thermodynamics of the cell have not been correctly catered for in the design of cooling systems. The most common problem is high air temperature within the test cell, either generally or in critical areas. The practical effects of such problems will be covered in detail in Chapter 5, Ventilation and air conditioning, but it is vital for the cell designer to have a general appreciation of the contribution of the various heat sources and the strategies for their control. In the development of the theory of thermodynamics much use is made of the concept of the open system. This is a powerful tool and can be very helpful in considering the total behaviour of a test cell. It is linked to the idea of the control volume, a space enclosing the system and surrounded by an imaginary surface, the control surface (Fig. 2.1). The great advantage of this concept is that once one has identified all the mass and energy flows into and out of the system it is not necessary to know exactly what is going on inside the system in order to draw up a ‘balance sheet’ of inflows and outflows. The test cell as a thermodynamic system 15 Control surface Control volume In Fuel Air Water Out Machine Exhaust Power Water Figure 2.1 An open thermodynamic system The various inflows and outflows to and from a test cell are as follows: In ∗ Out Fuel Ventilation air (some may be used by the engine as combustion air) Ventilation air Combustion air (treated) Exhaust (includes air used by engine) Engine cooling water Charge air (when separately supplied) Dynamometer cooling water Cooling water Electricity from dynamometer Electricity for services Losses through walls and ceiling Balance sheets may be drawn up for fuel, air, water and electricity, but by far the most important is the energy balance, since every one of these quantities has associated with it a certain quantity of energy. The same concept may be applied to the engine within the cell. This may be pictured as surrounded by its own control surface, through which the following flows take place: In Out Fuel Power Air used by the engine Exhaust Cooling water Cooling water Cooling air Cooling air Convection and radiation ∗ Compressed air may be a further energy input; however, usage is generally intermittent and unlikely to make a significant contribution. 16 Engine Testing Measurement of thermal losses from the engine is dealt with in Chapter 13, Thermal efficiency, measurement of heat and mechanical losses, where the value of the method in the analysis of engine performance is made clear. The energy balance of the engine Table 2.1 shows a possible energy balance sheet for a cell in which a gasoline engine is developing a steady power output of 100 kW. Note that where fluids (air, water, exhaust) are concerned, the energy content is referred to an arbitrary zero, the choice of which is unimportant: we are only interested in the difference between the various energy flows into and out of the cell. Given sufficient detailed information on a fixed engine/cell system it is possible to carry out a very detailed energy balance calculation (see Chapter 5, Ventilation and air conditioning, for a more detailed treatment). Alternatively there are some commonly used ‘rule of thumb’ calculations available to the cell designer; the most common of these relates to the energy balance of the engine which is known as the ‘30–30–30–10 rule’. This refers to the energy balance shown in Table 2.2. The key lesson to be learnt by the non-specialist reader is that any engine test cell has to be designed to deal with energy flows that are at least three times greater than the ‘headline’ engine rating. To many this will sound obvious but a common fixation on engine power and a casual familiarity with, but lack of appreciation of, the energy density of petroleum fuels has misled many people in the past to significantly Table 2.1 Simplified energy flows for a test cell fitted with a hydraulic dynamometer and 100 kW gasoline engine Energy balance In Out Fuel 300 kW Exhaust gas 60 kW Ventilating fan power 5 kW Engine cooling water 90 kW Dynamometer cooling water 95kW Ventilation air 70 kW Electricity for cell services 25kW Heat loss, walls and ceiling 15 kW 330 kW 330 kW The energy balance for the engine, see Chapter 11, is as follows: In Out Fuel 300 kW Power 100 kW Exhaust gas 90 kW Engine cooling water 90 kW Convection and radiation 20 kW 300 kW 300 kW The test cell as a thermodynamic system 17 Table 2.2 Example of the 30–30–30–10 rule In via Out via Fuel 300 kW Dynamometer 30% (90 + kW) Exhaust system 30% (90 kW) Engine fluids 30% (90 kW) Convection and radiation 10% (30 kW) under-rate cell cooling systems. Like any rule of thumb this is crude but does provide a starting point for the calculation of a full energy balance and a datum from which we can evaluate significant differences in balance caused by the engine itself and its mounting within the cell. Firstly, there are differences inherent in the engine design. Diesels will tend to transfer less energy into the cell than petrol engines of equal physical size. For example, testers of rebuilt bus engines often notice that different models of diesels with the same nominal power output will show quite different distribution of heat into the test cell air and cooling water. Secondly, there are differences in engine rigging in the cell which will vary the temperature and surface area of engine ancillaries, such as exhaust pipes. Finally, there is the amount and type of equipment within the test cell, all of which makes a contribution to the convection and radiation heat load to be handled by the ventilation system. Specialist designers have developed their own versions of a software model, based both on empirical data and theoretical calculation, all of which is used within this book, and which produces the type of energy balance shown in Fig. 2.2. Such tools are useful but cannot be used uncritically as the final basis of design, particularly when a range of engines are to be tested or the design has to cover two or more cells, then the energy diversity factor has to be considered. Diversity factor and the final specification of a facility energy balance To design a multicell test laboratory able to control and dissipate the maximum theoretical power of all its prime movers on the hottest day of the year will lead to an oversized system and possibly poor temperature control at low heat outputs. The amount by which the thermal rating of a facility is reduced from that theoretical maxi- mum is the diversity factor. In Germany it is called the Gleichzeitigkeits Faktor and is calculated from zero heat output upwards, rather than 100 per cent heat output down- wards, but the results should be the same, providing the same assumptions are made. The diversity factor often lies between 60 and 85 per cent of maximum rating, but individual systems will vary from endurance beds with high rating down to anechoic beds with very low rating. Power output CFM CFM Lights Fuel Cooling water to room 0.9% Process water for intercooler Process water for oil cooling Process water for dyno cooling Combustion air 8.0% 38 Radiation energy from engine Ventilation air Exhaust gas Exhaust radiation energy Heat from dyno cellAC dyno m 3 /s 12153 91 1.2 28 6.0% 3.2% 15 135 3.8 Electrical power Electrical service 5 19.5% 12153 5.7 40 919 0.43 150 kW kW kW kW kW kW kW kW kW kW kW kW4 kW kW kW m Power output Instrumentation m wide kW °C °C °C CFM m 3 /s CFM m 3 /s °C m 3 /s °C kW kW kg/kW.h I/h 469 32.0% 0.262 47.3 0.0% 0.0 33 29.1% 136 55 158 96 5.7 26 499 21 5 6 150 0 0 0.0% 0.0% 4.5% 0.24 25 Energy input Efficiency Fuel consumption Fuel cooling Total process water heat load Process water for engine cooling Total heat load into cell ( inc. lighting and building gains ) Engine Dyno Figure 2.2 Output diagram from test cell thermal analysis software The test cell as a thermodynamic system 19 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 123456 Number of test cells Diversity factor Figure 2.3 Diversity factor of thermal rating of facility services, plotted against number of test cells, based on empirical data from typical automotive test facilities In calculating, or more correctly estimating, the diversity factor it is essential that the creators of the operational and functional specifications use realistic values of actual engine powers, rather than extrapolations based on possible future develop- ments. A key consideration is the number of cells included within the system. It is clear that one cell may at some time run at its maximum rating, but it may be considered less likely that four cells will all run at maximum rating at the same time: the possible effect of this is shown in Fig. 2.3. There is a degree of bravery and confidence, based on relevant experience, required to significantly reduce the theoretical maximum to a contractual specification, but very significant savings in first and running costs may be possible if it is done correctly. Once a realistic maximum power rating for the facility has been calculated, the facility design team can use information concerning the operating regime, planned test sequences, past records, engine type variation, etc., to draw up diversity factors for heat energy balance and electrical power requirements. Future proofing may be better designed into the facility by incremental addition of plant rather than oversizing at the beginning. Common or individual services in multicell laboratories? When considering the thermal loads and the diversity factor of a facility containing several test cells, it is sensible to consider the strategy to be adopted in the design of the various services. The choice has to be based on the operation requirements rather than just the economies of purchasing and running the service modules. Services, such as cooling water (raw water), are always common and treated via a central cooling tower system. Services, such as cell ventilation and engine exhaust gas extraction, may either serve individual cells or are shared. In these cases sharing may show cost savings and simplify the building design by reducing penetrations; 20 Engine Testing however, it is prudent to build in some standby or redundancy to prevent total facility shut-down in the event of, for example, a fan failure. A problem that must be avoided in the design of common services is ‘cross talk’ between cells where the action in one cell, or other industrial plant, disturbs the control achieved in another. This is a particular danger when a service, for example chilled water, has to serve a wide range of thermal loads. In this case a central plant may be designed to circulate glycol/water mix at 6  C through two or more cells wherein the coolant is used by devices ranging from large intercoolers to small fuel conditioners; any sudden increase in demand may significantly increase the system return temperature and cause an unacceptable disturbance in the control temperatures. In such systems there needs to be individual control loops per instrument or a very high thermal inertia gained through the installation of a sufficiently large cold buffer tank. Summary The energy balance approach outlined in this chapter will be found helpful in analysing the performance of an engine and in the design of test cell services (Chap- ters 5 and 6). It is recommended that at an early stage in the design of a new test cell, diagrams such as Fig. 2.2 should be drawn up and labelled with flow and energy quantities appropriate to the capacity of the engines to be tested. The large quantities of ventilation air, cooling water, electricity and heat that are involved will often come as a surprise. Early recognition can help to avoid expensive wasted design work by ensuring that • the general proportions of cell and services do not depart too far from accepted practice (any large departure is a warning sign); • the cell is made large enough to cope with the energy flows involved; • sufficient space is allowed for such features as water supply pipes and drains, air inlet grilles, collecting hoods and exhaust systems. Note that space is not only required within the test cell but also in any service spaces above or below the cell and the penetrations within the building envelope. Reference 1. Eastop, T.D. and McConkey, A. (1993) Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Tech- nologists, Longmans, London. Further reading Heywood, J.B. (1988) Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead. 3 Vibration and noise Introduction Vibration is considered in this chapter with particular reference to the design and oper- ation of engine test facilities, engine mountings and the isolation of engine-induced disturbances. Torsional vibration is covered as a separate subject in Chapter 9, Cou- pling the engine to the dynamometer. The theory of noise generation and control is briefly considered and a brief account given of the particular problems involved in the design of anechoic cells. Vibration and noise Almost always the engine itself is the only significant source of vibration and noise in the engine test cell. 1−5 Secondary sources such as the ventilation system, pumps and circulation systems or the dynamometer are usually swamped by the effects of the engine. There are several aspects to this problem: • The engine must be mounted in such a way that neither it nor connections to it can be damaged by excessive movement or excessive constraint. • Transmission of engine-induced vibration to the cell structure or to other buildings must be controlled. • Excessive noise levels in the cell should be avoided or contained as far as possible and the design of alarm signals should take in-cell noise levels into account. Fundamentals: sources of vibration Since the vast majority of engines likely to be encountered are single- or multi- cylinder in-line vertical engines, we shall concentrate on this configuration. An engine may be regarded as having six degrees of freedom of vibration about orthogonal axes through its centre of gravity: linear vibrations along each axis and rotations about each axis (see Fig. 3.1). 22 Engine Testing Z Z X X Y Y Figure 3.1 Internal combustion engine: principle axes and degrees of freedom In practice, only three of these modes are usually of importance: • vertical oscillations on the X axis due to unbalanced vertical forces; • rotation about the Y axis due to cyclic variations in torque; • rotation about the Z axis due to unbalanced vertical forces in different transverse planes. Torque variations will be considered later. In general, the rotating masses are carefully balanced but periodic forces due to the reciprocating masses cannot be avoided. The crank, connecting rod and piston assembly shown in Fig. 3.2 is subject to a periodic force in the line of action of the piston given approximately by: f = m p  2 c r cos + m p  2 c r cos2 n where n = l/r (1) m f I r ω c θ Figure 3.2 Connecting rod crank mechanism: unbalanced forces Vibration and noise 23 Here m p represents the sum of the mass of the piston plus, by convention, one-third of the mass of the connecting rod (the remaining two-thirds is usually regarded as being concentrated at the crankpin centre). The first term of eq. (1) represents the first-order inertia force. It is equivalent to the component of centrifugal force on the line of action generated by a mass m p concentrated at the crankpin and rotating at engine speed. The second term arises from the obliquity of the connecting rod and is equivalent to the component of force in the line of action generated by a mass m/4n at the crankpin radius, but rotating at twice engine speed. Inertia forces of higher order (3×,4×, etc., crankshaft speed) are also generated but may usually be ignored. It is possible to balance any desired proportion of the first-order inertia force by balance weights on the crankshaft, but these then give rise to an equivalent reciprocating force on the Z axis, which may be even more objectionable. Inertia forces may be represented by vectors rotating at crankshaft speed and twice crankshaft speed. Table 3.1 shows the first- and second-order vectors for engines having from one to six cylinders. Table 3.1 First- and second-order forces, multicylinder engines First order forces 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 Second order forces First order couples Second order couples [...]... transverse or Z axis and these are also shown in Fig 3.1 • • • • • There are no couples in a single cylinder engine In a two cylinder engine, there is a first-order couple In a three cylinder engine, there are first- and second-order couples Four and six cylinder engines are fully balanced In a five cylinder engine, there is a small first-order and a larger second-order couple Six cylinder engines, which...24 Engine Testing Note the following features: • In a single cylinder engine, both first- and second-order forces are unbalanced • For larger numbers of cylinders, first-order forces are balanced • For two and four cylinder engines, the second-order forces are unbalanced and additive This last feature is an undesirable characteristic of a four cylinder engine and in some cases has... Variations in engine turning moment are discussed in Chapter 9, coupling the engine to the dynamometer These variations give rise to equal and opposite reactions on the engine, which tend to cause rotation of the whole engine about the crankshaft axis The order of these disturbances, i.e the ratio of the frequency of the disturbance to the engine speed, is a function of the engine cycle and the number... four-stroke engine, the lowest order is equal to half the number of cylinders: in a single cylinder there is a disturbing couple at half engine speed while in a six cylinder engine the lowest disturbing frequency is at three times engine speed In a two-stroke engine, the lowest order is equal to the number of cylinders The design of engine mountings and test bed foundations The main problem in engine mounting... Also in the test cell the engine may be fitted with additional equipment and various service connections All of these factors alter the dynamics of the system when compared with the situation of the engine in Vibration and noise 25 service and can give rise to fatigue failures of both the engine support brackets and those of auxiliary devices, such as the alternator Truck diesel engines usually present... conditions starting and stopping is a seismic block or sub-base needed? 30 Engine Testing • higher-frequency structure-borne noise (100 Hz+) – is there a specification? – details of building structure – sufficient data on engine and associated plant • transient forces – shocks, earthquakes, machine failures • environment – temperature – humidity – fuel and oil spills Detailed design of engine mountings... less of a problem than small automotive engines, as they generally have fairly massive and well-spaced supports at the flywheel end Stationary engines will in most cases be carried on four or more flexible mountings in a single plane below the engine and the design of a suitable system is a comparatively simple matter We shall consider the simplest case, an engine of mass m kg carried on undamped mountings... problem in engine mounting design is that of ensuring that the motions of the engine and the forces transmitted to the surroundings as a result of the unavoidable forces and couples briefly described above are kept to manageable levels In the case of vehicle engines it is sometimes the practice to make use of the same flexible mounts and the same location points as in the vehicle; this does not, however,... analysis of the various modes of vibration and the coupling between them may be advisable This is particularly the case with tall engines with mounting points at a low level, when cyclic variations in torque may induce transverse rolling of the engine Reference 6 lists the design factors to be considered in planning a system for the isolation and control of vibration and transmitted noise: • specification... a suitable base for an engine running at about 900 rev/min or faster If the engine weight were, say, 500 kg Vibration and noise 31 7 2 Rough 1 Amplitude mm 0.7 Perceptible 0.2 0.1 Normal 0.07 Smooth 0.02 0.01 Imperceptible 0.007 0.002 100 200 1000 2000 500 Frequency c.p.m Figure 3.7 Perception of vibration + – 0.8 m 12 m Figure 3.8 Spring-mounted seismic block 5000 32 Engine Testing Top casting Resilient . Vibration and noise Introduction Vibration is considered in this chapter with particular reference to the design and oper- ation of engine test facilities, engine mountings and the isolation of engine- induced disturbances vibrations along each axis and rotations about each axis (see Fig. 3.1). 22 Engine Testing Z Z X X Y Y Figure 3.1 Internal combustion engine: principle axes and degrees of freedom In practice, only three. first- and second-order couples. • Four and six cylinder engines are fully balanced. • In a five cylinder engine, there is a small first-order and a larger second-order couple. Six cylinder engines,