Global Resources Volume 3 Mineral Leasing Act - South Africa Editor Craig W. Allin Cornell College Salem Press Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey Editor in Chief: Dawn P. Dawson Editorial Director: Christina J. Moose Manuscript Editor: Christopher Rager Acquisitions Editor: Mark Rehn Research Supervisor: Jeffry Jensen Photo Editor: Cynthia Breslin Beres Production Editor: Andrea E. Miller Page Design and Layout: James Hutson Additional Layout: Mary Overell and William Zimmerman Editorial Assistant: Brett Weisberg Cover photo: ©Paulo Resende/Dreamstime.com Copyright © 1998, 2010, by Salem Press All rights in this book are reserved. Nopart of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews or in the copying of images deemed to be freely licensed orinthepublicdomain. For informationaddress the publisher,SalemPress, at csr@salempress.com. ∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of global resources / Craig W. Allin, editor. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-58765-644-6 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-645-3 (vol. 1 :alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765- 646-0 (vol. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-647-7 (vol. 3 : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-648-4 (vol. 4 : alk. paper) 1. Natural resources. I. Allin, Craig W. HC85.E49 2010 333.703—dc22 2010001984 printed in the united states of america Contents Common Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . lix Complete List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . lxv Mineral Leasing Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 Mineral resource ownership . . . . . . . . . . . 747 Mineral resource use, early history of . . . . . . 752 Minerals, structure and physical properties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756 Minerals Management Service . . . . . . . . . . 762 Mining safety and health issues . . . . . . . . . 763 Mining wastes and mine reclamation . . . . . . 767 Mittal, Lakshmi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 Mohs hardness scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 Molybdenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772 Monoculture agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Monsoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777 Montreal Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 Muir, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 Multiple-use approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 National Audubon Society . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 National Biological Service. . . . . . . . . . . . 788 National Environmental Policy Act . . . . . . . 790 National Mining Association . . . . . . . . . . . 791 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 National Park Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 National Parks Act, Canadian . . . . . . . . . . 795 National parks and nature reserves . . . . . . . 796 National Wildlife Federation . . . . . . . . . . . 801 Native elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801 Natural capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802 Natural Resources Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 Natural Resources Conservation Service . . . . 804 Natural Resources Defense Council . . . . . . . 806 Nature Conservancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806 The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813 Niobium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816 Nitrogen and ammonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818 Nitrogen cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 Nobel, Alfred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 Norris, George W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 Nuclear energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 Nuclear Energy Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836 Nuclear Regulatory Commission. . . . . . . . . 837 Nuclear waste and its disposal . . . . . . . . . . 838 Ocean current energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 Ocean thermal energy conversion . . . . . . . . 844 Ocean wave energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846 Oceanography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 Oceans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 Oil and natural gas chemistry . . . . . . . . . . 856 Oil and natural gas distribution . . . . . . . . . 858 Oil and natural gas drilling and wells . . . . . . 861 Oil and natural gas exploration . . . . . . . . . 864 Oil and natural gas formation . . . . . . . . . . 867 Oil and natural gas reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . 869 Oil embargo and energy crises of 1973 and 1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872 Oil industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 Oil shale and tar sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879 Oil spills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881 Olivine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 Open-pit mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884 Ophiolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888 Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 Orthosilicate minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893 Overgrazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894 Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898 Ozone layer and ozone hole debate . . . . . . . 900 Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 Paper, alternative sources of . . . . . . . . . . . 909 Peak oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 Peat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913 Pegmatites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 Perlite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917 Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 Pesticides and pest control . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 Petrochemical products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 Petroleum refining and processing . . . . . . . 928 Phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931 Phosphorus cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 Photovoltaic cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934 Pinchot, Gifford. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 Placer deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938 Plant domestication and breeding . . . . . . . . 941 Plant fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 lvii Plants as a medical resource . . . . . . . . . . . 945 Plate tectonics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 Platinum and the platinum group metals . . . . 951 Plutonic rocks and mineral deposits . . . . . . . 954 Plutonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958 Population growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969 Powell, John Wesley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971 Primary production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972 Primary sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974 Propane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977 Public lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 Public trust doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983 Pumice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 Quarrying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986 Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987 Radium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 Rain forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992 Ramsar Convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 Rangeland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 Rare earth elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999 Reclamation Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001 Reforestation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 Remote sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007 Renewable and nonrenewable resources. . . . 1010 Reserve Mining controversy. . . . . . . . . . . 1012 Residual mineral deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 Resource accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act . . . 1017 Resource curse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019 Resources as a medium of economic exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 Resources as a source of international conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 Resources for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Rhenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028 Rhodes, Cecil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 Rice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030 Risk assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 Rockefeller, John D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034 Roosevelt, Franklin D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 Roosevelt, Theodore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036 Rubber, natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036 Rubber, synthetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 Rubidium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043 Sagebrush Rebellion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Salt domes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053 Sand and gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054 Sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057 Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058 Scandium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063 Sea Shepherd Conservation Society . . . . . . 1065 Seafloor spreading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066 Secondary enrichment of mineral deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 Sedimentary processes, rocks, and mineral deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068 Seed Savers Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072 Seismographic technology and resource exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073 Selenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079 Shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082 Siemens, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083 Sierra Club. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084 Silicates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084 Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085 Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088 Slash-and-burn agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 1092 Slate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094 Smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095 Soda ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098 Soil degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103 Soil management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106 Soil testing and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107 Solar chimneys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109 Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112 Solid waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121 lviii Global Resources Common Units of Measure Common prefixes for metric units—which may apply in more cases than shown below—include giga- (1 billion times the unit), mega- (one million times), kilo- (1,000 times), hecto- (100 times), deka- (10 times), deci- (0.1 times, or one tenth), centi- (0.01, or one hundredth), milli- (0.001, or one thousandth), and micro- (0.0001, or one mil- lionth). Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents Acre Area ac 43,560 square feet 4,840 square yards 0.405 hectare Ampere Electric current A or amp 1.00016502722949 international ampere 0.1 biot or abampere Angstrom Length Å 0.1 nanometer 0.0000001 millimeter 0.000000004 inch Astronomical unit Length AU 92,955,807 miles 149,597,871 kilometers (mean Earth-Sun distance) Barn Area b 10 –28 meters squared (approx. cross-sectional area of 1 uranium nucleus) Barrel (dry, for most produce) Volume/capacity bbl 7,056 cubic inches; 105 dry quarts; 3.281 bushels, struck measure Barrel (liquid) Volume/capacity bbl 31 to 42 gallons British thermal unit Energy Btu 1055.05585262 joule Bushel (U.S., heaped) Volume/capacity bsh or bu 2,747.715 cubic inches 1.278 bushels, struck measure Bushel (U.S., struck measure) Volume/capacity bsh or bu 2,150.42 cubic inches 35.238 liters Candela Luminous intensity cd 1.09 hefner candle Celsius Temperature C 1° centigrade Centigram Mass/weight cg 0.15 grain Centimeter Length cm 0.3937 inch Centimeter, cubic Volume/capacity cm 3 0.061 cubic inch Centimeter, square Area cm 2 0.155 square inch Coulomb Electric charge C 1 ampere second lix Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents Cup Volume/capacity C 250 milliliters 8 fluid ounces 0.5 liquid pint Deciliter Volume/capacity dl 0.21 pint Decimeter Length dm 3.937 inches Decimeter, cubic Volume/capacity dm 3 61.024 cubic inches Decimeter, square Area dm 2 15.5 square inches Dekaliter Volume/capacity dal 2.642 gallons 1.135 pecks Dekameter Length dam 32.808 feet Dram Mass/weight dr or dr avdp 0.0625 ounce 27.344 grains 1.772 grams Electron volt Energy eV 1.5185847232839 × 10 –22 Btus 1.6021917 × 10 –19 joules Fermi Length fm 1 femtometer 1.0 × 10 –15 meters Foot Length ft or ′ 12 inches 0.3048 meter 30.48 centimeters Foot, cubic Volume/capacity ft 3 0.028 cubic meter 0.0370 cubic yard 1,728 cubic inches Foot, square Area ft 2 929.030 square centimeters Gallon (British Imperial) Volume/capacity gal 277.42 cubic inches 1.201 U.S. gallons 4.546 liters 160 British fluid ounces Gallon (U.S.) Volume/capacity gal 231 cubic inches 3.785 liters 0.833 British gallon 128 U.S. fluid ounces Giga-electron volt Energy GeV 1.6021917 × 10 –10 joule Gigahertz Frequency GHz — Gill Volume/capacity gi 7.219 cubic inches 4 fluid ounces 0.118 liter lx Global Resources Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents Grain Mass/weight gr 0.037 dram 0.002083 ounce 0.0648 gram Gram Mass/weight g 15.432 grains 0.035 avoirdupois ounce Hectare Area ha 2.471 acres Hectoliter Volume/capacity hl 26.418 gallons 2.838 bushels Hertz Frequency Hz 1.08782775707767 × 10 –10 cesium atom frequency Hour Time h 60 minutes 3,600 seconds Inch Length in or ″ 2.54 centimeters Inch, cubic Volume/capacity in 3 0.554 fluid ounce 4.433 fluid drams 16.387 cubic centimeters Inch, square Area in 2 6.4516 square centimeters Joule Energy J 6.2414503832469 × 10 18 electron volt Joule per kelvin Heat capacity J/K 7.24311216248908 × 10 22 Boltzmann constant Joule per second Power J/s 1 watt Kelvin Temperature K –272.15 Celsius Kilo-electron volt Energy keV 1.5185847232839 × 10 –19 joule Kilogram Mass/weight kg 2.205 pounds Kilogram per cubic meter Mass/weight density kg/m 3 5.78036672001339 × 10 –4 ounces per cubic inch Kilohertz Frequency kHz — Kiloliter Volume/capacity kl — Kilometer Length km 0.621 mile Kilometer, square Area km 2 0.386 square mile 247.105 acres Light-year (distance traveled by light in one Earth year) Length/distance lt-yr 5,878,499,814,275.88 miles 9.46 × 10 12 kilometers Liter Volume/capacity L 1.057 liquid quarts 0.908 dry quart 61.024 cubic inches lxi Common Units of Measure Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents Mega-electron volt Energy MeV — Megahertz Frequency MHz — Meter Length m 39.37 inches Meter, cubic Volume/capacity m 3 1.308 cubic yards Meter per second Velocity m/s 2.24 miles per hour 3.60 kilometers per hour Meter per second per second Acceleration m/s 2 12,960.00 kilometers per hour per hour 8,052.97 miles per hour per hour Meter, square Area m 2 1.196 square yards 10.764 square feet Metric. See unit name Microgram Mass/weight mcg or µg 0.000001 gram Microliter Volume/capacity µl 0.00027 fluid ounce Micrometer Length µm 0.001 millimeter 0.00003937 inch Mile (nautical international) Length mi 1.852 kilometers 1.151 statute miles 0.999 U.S. nautical miles Mile (statute or land) Length mi 5,280 feet 1.609 kilometers Mile, square Area mi 2 258.999 hectares Milligram Mass/weight mg 0.015 grain Milliliter Volume/capacity ml 0.271 fluid dram 16.231 minims 0.061 cubic inch Millimeter Length mm 0.03937 inch Millimeter, square Area mm 2 0.002 square inch Minute Time m 60 seconds Mole Amount of substance mol 6.02 × 10 23 atoms or molecules of a given substance Nanometer Length nm 1,000,000 fermis 10 angstroms 0.001 micrometer 0.00000003937 inch lxii Global Resources Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents Newton Force N x 0.224808943099711 pound force 0.101971621297793 kilogram force 100,000 dynes Newton meter Torque N·m 0.7375621 foot-pound Ounce (avoirdupois) Mass/weight oz 28.350 grams 437.5 grains 0.911 troy or apothecaries’ ounce Ounce (troy) Mass/weight oz 31.103 grams 480 grains 1.097 avoirdupois ounces Ounce (U.S., fluid or liquid) Mass/weight oz 1.805 cubic inch 29.574 milliliters 1.041 British fluid ounces Parsec Length pc 30,856,775,876,793 kilometers 19,173,511,615,163 miles Peck Volume/capacity pk 8.810 liters Pint (dry) Volume/capacity pt 33.600 cubic inches 0.551 liter Pint (liquid) Volume/capacity pt 28.875 cubic inches 0.473 liter Pound (avoirdupois) Mass/weight lb 7,000 grains 1.215 troy or apothecaries’ pounds 453.59237 grams Pound (troy) Mass/weight lb 5,760 grains 0.823 avoirdupois pound 373.242 grams Quart (British) Volume/capacity qt 69.354 cubic inches 1.032 U.S. dry quarts 1.201 U.S. liquid quarts Quart (U.S., dry) Volume/capacity qt 67.201 cubic inches 1.101 liters 0.969 British quart Quart (U.S., liquid) Volume/capacity qt 57.75 cubic inches 0.946 liter 0.833 British quart Rod Length rd 5.029 meters 5.50 yards lxiii Common Units of Measure . National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of global resources / Craig W. Allin,. . 1019 Resources as a medium of economic exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 Resources as a source of international conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 Resources. Natural resources. I. Allin, Craig W. HC85.E49 2010 333.703—dc22 2010001984 printed in the united states of america Contents Common Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . lix Complete List of Contents