The grammar of the english verb phrase part 89 pot

II. Temporal adverbials and the choice between past tense and present perfect 609 [Prior to that I did very little exercise.] Since I have begun exercising I have also tried to change my diet by cutting down on carbohydrates. (www) Since I have started graduate school I have been focusing a lot on saving money. (www) Since he has begun to narrow his focus career-wise, he has also begun to see that he will need a lot of math. (www) The following are examples with other verbs marking the beginning of a period up to now: [I just want to thank you so much for designing such a powerful tool in website design.] My business has boomed ever since I have joined the program. (www) [I just have to put up with all the humiliations that fall on my head in this great country.] It’s been difficult, too, since Anwar-saab has become insanely mad. (BNC) Since Moo has cancelled the Paypal subscription plan for stores, we haven’t heard anything else about making our payments. (www) [She ends up talking about him, though, in the park.] Since Billy’s come around that’s all we’ve been talking about. (BNC) Of course, this use of the present perfect is not possible with just any verb. For example, Since I’ve written to the company they have been bombarding me with information can only be interpreted with have written describing a contin- uative habit, which does not really make pragmatic sense, and Since I’ve sent the coupon to the company they have been bombarding me with information cannot really be interpreted at all. The verbs that do allow the use of the present perfect are verbs like start, join, become, etc. which allow the inter- pretation of the since-clause to be ‘since the inception of the state that the referent of the subject NP is now in’ (with ‘state’, of course, including habits). That is, there is a mixture of present perfect continuative meaning and incho- ative meaning. 12.11.4 The present tense is more common than the present perfect in the head clause of sentences of the type ‘it is ϩ NP denoting a period of time ϩ since-clause’: It {is / has been} a good three weeks since I paid that bill. It {is / has been} at least 10 years since those riots took place. It {is / has been} a long time since we received a salary increase. It is a good few years since I last saw this movie [but the memory lingers on]. (www) It has been at least 6 years since we had a winter that rivalled this one for sheer cold and snow. (www) There are a few things worth noting here: (a) In examples like these, the actualization of the since-clause situation marks the beginning of a period up to now. This means that a continuative read- 610 12. Preterite vs present perfect in clauses with temporal adverbials ing is ruled out. (In fact, a continuative reading requires the use of that rather than since: It’s a good two weeks {that / *since} I have known that; Today it’s three years {that / *since} I have been married to Sharon.) (b) Apart from the possible use of is in the head clause, the pattern illustrated by the above examples is special in that it allows the use of a (noncontinua- tive) present perfect in the since-clause. (Since the since-clause situation marks the beginning of a period up to now, we would normally expect that the past tense must be used.) (c) This use of the present perfect is only possible if the sentence does not contain an adverbial that is incompatible with the present perfect (e. g. last) and provided the situation referred to in the since-clause is viewed as repeatable (see 5.21.1): It {is / has been} three weeks since I {received / have received} a bill. (Receiving a bill is a repeatable situation. With have received the sentence means something like ‘I haven’t received a bill for three weeks’. In other words, there is no difference of meaning between It is three weeks since I have received a bill and It is three weeks that I have not received a bill.) It {is / has been} three weeks since I {received /*have received} that bill. (‘Receiv- ing that bill’ is not a repeatable situation.) It {is / has been} three weeks since I {last received /*have last received} a bill. (The presence of last rules out the present perfect.) Though it is only six weeks ago since it was first decided to form a Rifle Club at Southwell, [so much energy has been thrown into the scheme that …]. (www) (The use of first rules out the present perfect.) It has been close to six months since he has been able to contribute fully to the operation. (www) (Because the situation is repeatable, the interpretation is ‘For nearly six months he has been unable to …’.) [We are looking forward to it as] it is a good few years since we’ve been in Portu- gal. (www) (similar) I have to say it is a long time since I have heard such total rubbish spoken about comets and Planet X. (www) (similar) 12.11.5 There are some exceptional cases in which a head clause in the pres- ent tense can collocate with a since-construction (especially in a conversa- tional style): (a) The present tense can be found when the speaker focuses on the present continuation of a (permanent or temporary) habit whose beginning is spec- ified by the since-construction. II. Temporal adverbials and the choice between past tense and present perfect 611 [It was a daunting experience but a good boost for my learning process.] Since then I am a little more relaxed in front of the crowds. (www) (since then ϭ ‘since and because of that experience’) [I am by origin catholic but also went through the born-again stage with the As- sembly of God for 2 years.] Since then I am back to being a catholic but with many different beliefs. (www) (Compare: {From that time onwards / For the last three years} I {have been / *am} back to being a catholic.) [I decided to give it a try and] since then I don’t take any painkillers or inflamma- tory tablets. (www) Ever since then, I don’t just listen, I hear. (www) [Dear Nikki, one year ago I had a hysterectomy and] ever since then I don’t want sex very much. (www) The following are examples with a since-clause: I’m feeling much better since I {began / have begun} doing yoga exercises. Since I have started doing Atkins I have terrible leg cramps. [How can I alleviate them?] (www) There is no doubt that more people are flying into BUR than ever before since United has cancelled all direct flights from SFO to ONT. (www) Since Switzerland has legalised “dope” Swiss banks, airliners, tunnels, roads and government offices are the unsafest places in the world. (www) (b) In examples like the following, since then only ostensibly collocates with the present tense. In fact, since then has been ‘raised’ from the subclause into the head clause in order to be fronted: [He turned them around, and got them out of the relegation zone at the end of last season. In that sense he was certainly a success.] But since then he doesn’t seem to have been able to take them forward. (www) (ϭ ‘It seems that since then he hasn’t been able to take them forward.’) (Note that the present tense is the default option here: Since then he hasn’t seemed to be able to take them forward doesn’t sound as good.) Since then I (don’t) think I have seen him here. (ϭ ‘I (don’t) think I have seen him here since then.’) 12.12 For -adverbials A for-adverbial functioning as a pure duration adverbial is compatible both with the past tense and with the present perfect (e. g. I {lived / have lived} in London for three years). If it functions as a pure time-specifying adverbial or bifunctional adverbial 612 12. Preterite vs present perfect in clauses with temporal adverbials establising a pre-present Adv-time, it is compatible with the present perfect but not with the past tense (e. g. I {*lived /*was living / have been living} here for six months now). In this section we also address the question which of the three temporal W-inter- pretations of the present perfect (indefinite, constitution, continuative) combines with which of the three uses of a for-adverbial. 12.12.1 A for-adverbial usually specifies no more than the duration of the full situation, i. e. it usually functions as a pure duration adverbial (see 2.31.1). In this function it is compatible with any tense: I {had worked / worked / would work / have worked / will work / will have worked} in that factory for three years. In fact, it is only as a pure duration adverbial that a for-phrase can combine with the past tense: I lived in London for three years. (For three years specifies the time of the full situation. Since the past tense represents the situation time as completely over at t 0 , and since the situation time here coincides with the time of the full situation, this sentence implies that I no longer live in London.) However, in combination with the present perfect, a for-adverbial can also function as a bifunctional adverbial, i. e. as an adverbial which at the same time specifies the duration of the factual full situation (see 5.7) and estab- lishes an Adv-time leading up to t 0 , i. e. a pre-present period. In addition, a for-adverbial can also be used as a pure time-specifying adverbial, doing no more than establishing a period up to t 0 . Compare: “[I know Brighton well because] I have lived there for some time.” Ϫ [“When was that?” Ϫ “From 2001 to 2003”.] (The present perfect clause receives an indefinite interpretation. This implies that the situation referred to has come to an end before t 0 and that for some time specifies the duration of the full situation.) I’ve been living here for six months now [and I like it]. (The present perfect clause receives a continuative interpretation. This implies that for three years specifies the duration of the ‘factual full situation’, i. e. that portion of the full situation that leads up to t 0 . At the same time it establishes the relevant period up to t 0 .) [“When did you last see him?”] Ϫ “I haven’t seen him for a very long time.” (The present perfect clause receives a constitution interpretation. This implies that for a very long time specifies the Adv-time that counts as period up to t 0 . Since no situa- tion has actualized, for a very long time does not specify the duration of a full situation or of a factual full situation. In this case it is used as a pure time-specify- ing adverbial.) In sum, whereas a for-adverbial can only be a pure durational adverbial in clauses in the past tense, it may in principle be a pure duration adverbial, a II. Temporal adverbials and the choice between past tense and present perfect 613 pure time-specifying adverbial or a combination of both (i. e. a bifunctional adverbial) in clauses in the present perfect. The question that remains to be answered is which of the three interpretations of the present perfect is compati- ble with which of the three uses of the for-adverbial. This question will be dealt with in the remaining subsections of 12.12. 12.12.2 On a continuative interpretation of a present perfect clause, the situa- tion time fills the entire pre-present zone. This means that on that reading, a for-adverbial is a bifunctional adverbial, which indicates the length of the ‘fac- tual full situation’ (see 5.7) as well as the length of the pre-present zone: We have been using this kind of machine for three weeks. (For three weeks indicates the Adv-time leading up to t 0 as well as the length of the factual full situation, i. e. the full situation as it has actualized up to now. Nothing is said about the length of the ‘potential full situation’ Ϫ see 5.7.) The interpretation of for as indicating a period up to t 0 can be enforced by the addition of now to the for-adverbial: I’ve been waiting here for two hours now. 12.12.3 On an unmarked up-to-now reading (see 5.18) and on a nonquan- tificational constitution reading (see 5.4.8), the situation time of a present perfect clause also fills the entire pre-present zone. Here too a for-adverbial will be interpreted as a bifunctional adverbial: [The news that some of them are going to be made redundant has shocked the workers.] We’ve been telling them for years that this wouldn’t happen. (unmarked up-to-now reading) What have you been doing for the last two hours? [I’ve been looking for you all over the place!] (nonquantificational constitution reading) 12.12.4 On a quantificational constitution reading (see 5.19.1) of a present perfect clause, the situation time of the repetitive hypersituation also fills the entire pre-present zone. However, in this case a for-adverbial cannot be interpreted as a bifunctional adverbial. It can only be used in the follow- ing cases: (a) The for-adverbial can indicate the period-up-to-now, but only if the number of subsituations is zero. Otherwise we have to use (with)in instead. I haven’t seen him for weeks. (also possible: in weeks) (For weeks is a time-specify- ing adverbial only.) Seven people have been murdered in this area {in / within / *for} the last three months. I’ve met him three times {in / *for} the last week. (b) If the number of subsituations is not zero, a for-adverbial can be used to specify the duration of the individual subsituations making up the repeti- 614 12. Preterite vs present perfect in clauses with temporal adverbials tive hypersituation or to specify the sum-total of the duration of the subsi- tuations. In both cases it is used as a pure duration adverbial. Since then I’ve visited him in prison for a short time three or four times. (Each subsituation lasted a short time.) I’ve often been abroad for longer than two weeks since I have been a student. (The for-adverbial indicates the duration of the various subsituations; the Adv-time-up- to-now is specified by the since-clause.) [He’s often been ill in his life.] All in all he’s been ill for a total of at least two years. 12.12.5 On an indefinite perfect interpretation,afor-adverbial can only indicate the duration of the full situation(s): I’ve recently spoken with her in hospital for nearly an hour [and I can assure you she’s not dying yet]. [I’ve done a lot of jobs in my life.] I’ve been a factory-hand for three years, a free- lance journalist for nineteen months, a postman for two years, [and God knows what other jobs I’ve done so far]. It follows that a for-adverbial also naturally combines with an experiential indefinite perfect (see 5.13) if the duration phrase is part of the description of the situation rather than an adverbial measuring the duration of the situa- tion: Have you ever worked in a factory for at least a year (not just as a student holiday job)?’ (The experience being asked about is working-in-a-factory-for-at-least-a-year, not ‘working in a factory’.) 12.12.6 A clause using the present perfect and a for-adverbial may sometimes be ambiguous between a continuative and an indefinite interpretation. In the continuative interpretation, the for-phrase indicates a period-up-to-t 0 as well as the duration of the situation time: the two time intervals coincide. In the indefinite interpretation, the for-phrase indicates the duration of the full situa- tion, which is shorter than the length of the period up to t 0 . If a present perfect is ambiguous in this way, the continuative interpretation is always the unmarked one. In fact, the indefinite interpretation requires a very specialized context (as detailed below the examples below). For example, the second example below requires a context in which it is relevant whether or not there has been a three-week period Ϫ specifically not a two-week or four-week period Ϫ of using ‘this kind of machine’. I have lived in London for three years. (unmarked reading: I still live in London; out of context, the indefinite interpretation ‘There has been a three-year period in my life during which I lived in London’ will not be chosen, unless there is a heavy accent on have, in which case the sentence contradicts an explicit or implicit claim to the contrary.) II. Temporal adverbials and the choice between past tense and present perfect 615 We have used this kind of machine for three weeks. (continuative or indefinite; the former interpretation will predominate if there is no indication to the contrary. The indefinite reading requires a contrastive accent on three.) I have helped him with his papers for two years. (ambiguous; the continuative read- ing is the unmarked one) The indefinite interpretation of the last example is: ‘Somewhere in a period leading up to now there has been a two-year period when I helped him with his papers, but that period is over now.’ The markedness of this interpretation is clear from the fact that if we ask what question this sentence could be used to answer, then Have you ever helped him with his papers for two years? (meaning ‘Have you ever done a two-year stint of helping him with his pa- pers?’, ‘Do you have experience of a two-year-helping-him-with-his-papers situ- ation?’) is fine, but Have you ever helped him with his papers? is not. This means that the for-Adv-time does not form part of the new information pro- vided by the answer and that the nuclear accent in I have helped him with his papers for two years tends to fall on have.IfI have helped him with his papers for two years is nonetheless used as an answer to Have you ever helped him with his papers?, then it must be understood as a two-part answer: ‘Yes, I have helped him, I helped him for two years’. In such a present perfect sentence with a for-adverbial, a continuative or indefinite reading may be promoted or enforced by one of the following factors: (a) The continuative interpretation is strongly promoted by the use of the progressive form: We have been using this kind of machine for three weeks. (b) The continuative interpretation is enforced by the addition of now to the for-adverbial: We have used this kind of machine for three weeks now. (c) The indefinite interpretation can be enforced by the context. This is the case, for example, when We’ve lived in London for ten years forms part of a piece of discourse like the following: [We’ve lived in various European capitals so far.] We’ve lived in London for ten years, in Paris for seven years, in Berlin for three years and for a short while in Brussels. Similarly, the unmarked continuative reading of I have stayed in college for two months is ruled out by the context in the following example: Since I have been a student I have regularly stayed in college for two months without going home. . allow the inter- pretation of the since-clause to be ‘since the inception of the state that the referent of the subject NP is now in’ (with ‘state’, of course, including habits). That is, there. which of the three interpretations of the present perfect is compati- ble with which of the three uses of the for-adverbial. This question will be dealt with in the remaining subsections of 12.12. 12.12.2. for-adverbial also naturally combines with an experiential indefinite perfect (see 5.13) if the duration phrase is part of the description of the situation rather than an adverbial measuring the