II. The temporal structure of adverbial when -clauses 651 He was arrested when he tried to steal a car in 1931, but he had more success in 1933 when he tried again. (This example shows that it is sometimes irrelevant whether the speaker uses a when-clause including a second time-specifying adverbial or a time- specifying adverbial accompanied by a when-clause as second time-specifying adver- bial. In the latter case the situation time of the when-clause is contained in the first time-specifying adverbial rather than the other way round.) Because of this containment relation between the two Adv-times, it is not un- common for the time adverbial to follow when immediately: When, in late afternoon on the last day in June, he saw two people ( ) walk toward the house, he quit work immediately and strode to his rifle. (BR) When a when-clause combines with another time-specifying adverbial, the lat- ter may itself be a when-clause: [He maintains he cannot raise his arm.] When it was raised up quickly by a doctor when he wasn’t expecting it, he let out such a scream that (LOB) 13.5 The relation between the situation time of the head clause and the Adv-time of the head clause The when-clause can specify either the situation time of the head clause or an orienta- tion time which binds the situation time of the head clause in terms of T-anteriority or T-posteriority. In other words, the when-clause can be used either as a situation-time adverbial or as an orientation-time adverbial. In both cases the when-clause uses a relative tense, which represents the situation time of the when-clause as T-anterior, T- simultaneous or T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the when-clause. This means that the situation time of the when-clause is never directly related to the situation time of the head clause: the situation time of the when-clause is T-related to the con- tained orientation time of the when-clause, which is contained by the common Adv- time. The function of when is to identify an orientation time in the tense structure of the head clause with an orientation time in the tense structure of the when-clause. (The two orientation times are identified with one another in the sense that both are con- tained in a common Adv-time.) As we have seen, a when-clause does not relate the situation time of the when- clause directly to the situation time of the head clause. Rather, it relates the situation time of the when-clause to a contained orientation time of the when- clause, i. e. to an implicit orientation time that is contained by the ‘common Adv-time’ established by when. Since this common Adv-time also contains the 652 13. Adverbial when -clauses and the use of tenses situation time of the head clause or an implicit orientation time binding the situation time of the head clause, the when-clause ultimately establishes an Adv-time for the head clause. We can therefore call it the ‘Adv-time of the head clause’. The Adv-time of the head clause may directly locate (specify) the time of the head clause situation, in which case the contained orientation time of the head clause is the situation time of the head clause, or it may locate another time which is part of the tense structure of the head-clause verb form. In that case the contained orientation time of the head clause is that other orientation time. 4 In John left when Bill arrived, the Adv-time specifies the precise location of the situation time of the head clause in the past time-zone. In John had left when Bill arrived, the Adv-time specifies the precise location of the implicit contained orientation time of the head clause prior to which the situation time of the head clause is located. In other words, when a when- clause is used, the situation time of the head clause may be related to the Adv- time of the head clause in two different ways: either the situation time of the head clause is the orientation time that is located by the Adv-time (i. e. the contained orientation time of the head clause) or the situation time of the head clause is T-related to another orientation time functioning as contained orientation time of the head clause. In the former case the when-clause func- tions as a situation-time adverbial, in the latter as an orientation-time adver- bial Ϫ see 2.24Ϫ25. In both cases the when-clause uses a relative tense, i. e. the tense T-relates the situation time of the when-clause to the contained orien- tation time of the when-clause. For example: John left when he had finished his work. (ϭ ‘John left at the time [at which time he had finished his work]’) (The when-clause is used as a situation-time adverbial; had finished represents the situation time of the when-clause as T-anterior to the contained orientation time of the when-clause Ϫ see Figure 13.4 in 13.3.2.) John left when I was in the kitchen. (The when-clause is used as a situation-time adverbial; was represents the situation time of the when-clause as T-simultaneous with the contained orientation time of the when-clause Ϫ see Figure 13.7.) [I lucked out in that] they had just come available when I was going to order them. (www) (The when-clause is used as a situation-time adverbial; had come represents the situation time of the head clause as T-anterior to the contained orientation time of the head clause; was going to order represents the situation time of the when- clause as T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the when-clause Ϫ see Figure 13.8.) When I arrived, John was just going to leave. (The when-clause is used as an orienta- tion-time adverbial; arrived, which is a relative preterite, represents the situation time of the when-clause as T-simultaneous with the contained orientation time of 4. In what follows we will disregard the possibility that the when-clause is a ‘multiple- orientation-time adverbial’ (see 2.26). II. The temporal structure of adverbial when -clauses 653 the when-clause; was going to leave represents the situation time of the head clause as T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the head clause Ϫ see Figure 13.9.) The first of these sentences has the temporal structure represented by Figure 13.4. The other three have the temporal structures shown in Figures 13.7Ϫ9, respectively. left x common Adv-time x contained orientation time x was Figure 13.7. The temporal structure of John left when I was in the kitchen. x contained orientation time common Adv-time x contained orientation time x had come x was going to order Figure 13.8. The temporal structure of They had just come available when I was going to order them. contained orientation time x common Adv-time x contained orientation time x was going to leave x arrived Figure 13.9. The temporal structure of When I arrived, John was just going to leave. As is clear from these diagrams, the situation time of the when-clause is never directly related to the situation time of the head clause: the situation time of the when-clause is T-related to the contained orientation time of the when- 654 13. Adverbial when -clauses and the use of tenses clause, which is contained by the common Adv-time. 5 This leads to the conclu- sion that the tense form in an adverbial when-clause is always a relative tense form, and that the function of when is to identify an orientation time in the tense structure of the head clause with an orientation time in the tense structure of the when-clause. (The two orientation times are identified with one another in the sense that they are both contained in a common Adv-time.) 13.6 The definition of ‘simultaneity’ and ‘situation time’ T-simultaneity, as it is used here (and elsewhere in the book), is defined in terms of strict coincidence, not overlap Ϫ see also 2.17. This definition is possible because we distinguish between the situation time and the ‘time of the full situation’. The situation time is the time of the ‘predicated situation’, i. e. the time of that part of the full situation (possibly all of it) about which a statement is made Ϫ see 2.12Ϫ13. In An hour ago John was in the kitchen, the situation time is that portion of the time of the full situation that coincides with the time indicated by an hour ago. It is only this part that is referred to in the sentence and that is located in time by the tense form. The time of the full situation may be much longer Ϫ John may even still be in the kitchen at t 0 Ϫ but that is irrelevant to the definition of ‘situation time’. It is also worth noting that this definition of ‘situation time’ is also compati- ble with the claim that an Adv-time always contains a contained orientation time, in terms of either inclusion or coincidence, hence that the contained orien- tation time in question cannot be longer than the Adv-time. In John will still be in bed when I leave, the when-clause situation is interpreted as punctual. That punctual situation time is represented as T-simultaneous (ϭ coinciding) with the implicit containted orientation time of the when-clause. This means that the Adv-time of the when-clause (and hence the common Adv-time) are (by implicature) also interpreted as punctual. Since the contained orientation time of the head clause is contained in this punctual common Adv-time, it is also conceived of as punctual. Because in this example [John will still be in bed when I leave] the contained orientation time of the head clause is the situation time of the head clause (i. e. the when-clause functions as a situation- time adverbial), the situation time of the head clause is also conceived of as punctual. In sum, in John will still be in bed when I leave, the situation time of the head clause is not the time of the full situation but just that portion (point) of it that coincides with the situation time of the when-clause, which is punctual and is therefore also the time of the ‘full situation’ of the when-clause. 5. This is the rule when the situation time of the when-clause is bound directly. Apart from this, when-clauses sometimes also allow indirect binding (see 13.9Ϫ10). In that case too, the situation time of the when-clause is not directly related to the situation time of the head clause. III. Configurations of temporal relations 655 III. Configurations of temporal relations 13.7 Possible combinations of tenses in head clause and when-clause Since an adverbial when-clause represents the situation time of the when-clause as T- anterior, T-simultaneous or T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the when- clause, and since an adverbial when-clause can be used either as situation-time adver- bial or as orientation-time adverbial, there are nine unmarked configurations of tempo- ral relations, realizing nine different temporal structures involving the common Adv- time expressed by when. These nine configurations, which have in common that the situation time of the when-clause is bound by the contained orientation time of the when-clause, can be considered as forming the set of unmarked options as far as tense choice is concerned. As the examples will show, all nine of them are compatible with reference to the past as well as with reference to the post-present. Since the situation time of the when-clause may be related to the contained orientation time of the when-clause in terms of T-simultaneity, T-anteriority or T-posteriority, and since the when-clause can be used either as a situation-time adverbial or as an orientation-time adverbial, there are at least nine possible combinations of tense forms in the head clause and the when-clause. (Next to these, there are also configurations in which the situation time of the when- clause is bound indirectly Ϫ see 13.9Ϫ10. These will be disregarded in the present section.) 13.7.1 Configuration 1: the situation time of the head clause is the contained orientation time of the head clause, while the situation time of the when-clause is represented as T-simultaneous with the contained orientation time of the when-clause (see Figure 13.7): (3) When I arrived, Bill was still in his study. (4) The shops will probably still be closed when we arrive. It should be noted that the analysis offered here involves the claim that the form arrived in (3) is a relative past tense form (representing the situation time of the when-clause as T-simultaneous with the contained orientation time of the when-clause) and not an absolute preterite (relating the situation time of the when-clause directly to t 0 ). In other words, (3) realizes the same kind of temporal structure as (4). As there is no doubt that in (4) arrive does not locate the arrival at t 0 but expresses T-simultaneity (coincidence) in the post-present domain established by will be closed, we can assume that in (4) arrived is 656 13. Adverbial when -clauses and the use of tenses also a relative tense form. (Note, however, that this assumption has no drastic consequences: since T-simultaneity is defined in terms of coincidence, it is irrel- evant to the interpretation of the when-clause whether the situation time of the when-clause is analysed as related to the contained orientation time of the when-clause in terms of T-simultaneity or as being the contained orientation time of the when-clause itself.) 13.7.2 Configuration 2: the situation time of the head clause is the contained orientation time of the head clause, while the situation time of the when-clause is represented as T-anterior to the contained orientation time of the when- clause (see Figure 13.4 in section 13.3.2). For example: When John had finished eating I was still doing the washing-up. When John has finished eating I will still be doing the washing-up. 13.7.3 Configuration 3: the situation time of the head clause is the contained orientation time of the head clause, while the situation time of the when-clause is represented as T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the when- clause. For example: When Hamlet was going to kill Claudius the first time, he stopped himself, [because Claudius was in confession]. (www) [I believe that] when there is going to be another attack, we will not get a warn- ing. (www) Note that is going to be in the second example is not an absolute tense form but a form from the Pseudo-t 0 -System. It represents the situation time of the when-clause as T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the when-clause and not as T-posterior to t 0 . 13.7.4 Configuration 4: the situation time of the head clause is represented as T-anterior to the contained orientation time of the head clause, while the situation time of the when-clause is represented as T-simultaneous with the contained orientation time of the when-clause. For example: When I arrived, Bill had just left. When we arrive, the gates will probably just have been closed. 13.7.5 Configuration 5: the situation time of the head clause is represented as T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the head clause, while the situation time of the when-clause is represented as T-simultaneous with the contained orientation time of the when-clause (see Figure 13.9 in section 13.5). For example: [I knew that] when somebody left a message in my voice mail inbox, I was going to be informed about that by SMS. (adapted from www) When we reach the shop, they will already be going to put up the shutters. III. Configurations of temporal relations 657 13.7.6 Configuration 6: the situation time of the head clause is represented as T-anterior to the contained orientation time of the head clause, while the situation time of the when-clause is represented as T-anterior to the contained orientation time of the when-clause. For example: When John had finished eating, I had almost finished doing the washing-up. When John has finished eating, I will almost have finished doing the washing-up. 13.7.7 Configuration 7: the situation time of the head clause is represented as T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the head clause, while the situation time of the when-clause is represented as T-anterior to the contained orientation time of the when-clause. For example: When John had finished eating, he was going to clear the table [but his wife said he didn’t have to]. When John has finished working in the garden, it will no doubt be going to rain. (ϭ ‘I expect that at the time that John has finished working in the garden it will look as if it is going to rain.’) 13.7.8 Configuration 8: the situation time of the head clause is represented as T-anterior to the contained orientation time of the head clause, while the situa- tion time of the when-clause is represented as T-posterior to the contained orien- tation time of the when-clause (cf. Figure 13.8 in section 13.5). For example: [I lucked out in that] they had just come available when I was going to order them. (www) ? When the police were going to intervene I had already deemed it wise to leave the pub. (ϭ ‘There was a time when the police were going to intervene. At that time I had already deemed it safe to leave the pub.’) When the police are finally going to question John, he will have disappeared. 13.7.9 Configuration 9: the situation time of the head clause is represented as T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the head clause, while the situation time of the when-clause is represented as T-posterior to the contained orientation time of the when-clause. For example: ? When the police were going to intervene, the rioters were clearly going to use vio- lence. [In the end, however, both parties refrained from using violence.] ? When he is going to commit suicide, he will also be going to kill his wife and chil- dren. 13.8 Further remarks on the configurations 13.8.1 Although all of the above nine configurations are grammatically cor- rect, some of them (especially those involving T-posteriority) may sound rather awkward. This is because we tend to use simpler structures wherever possible . coincides with the situation time of the when-clause, which is punctual and is therefore also the time of the ‘full situation’ of the when-clause. 5. This is the rule when the situation time of the when-clause. relate the situation time of the when- clause directly to the situation time of the head clause. Rather, it relates the situation time of the when-clause to a contained orientation time of the when- clause,. binding the situation time of the head clause, the when-clause ultimately establishes an Adv-time for the head clause. We can therefore call it the ‘Adv-time of the head clause’. The Adv-time of the