Analyzing classifiers in english, vietnamese and chinese master graduation project in english language

ABSTRACT Classifiers CLs are linguistic elements that play an integral role in many languages, particularly in Asian languages such as Chinese and Vietnamese, where they are used to spec

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

LAC HONG UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN QUANG HUY

ANALYZING CLASSIFIERS IN ENGLISH, VIETNAMESE

1 Assoc Prof Dr PHAM HUU DUC

2 Dr NGUYEN THI CHAU ANH

DONG NAI, 2024

2.4 Research instruments 39

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Assoc Prof Pham Huu Duc and Dr Nguyen Thi Chau Anh for being amazing mentors and supporting me throughout my research Their assistance and guidance were invaluable to me

Assoc Prof Pham Huu Duc, you are incredibly knowledgeable, and your invaluable advice significantly enhanced my understanding of my research Thank you for your consistent availability to address my inquiries and provide encouragement

Dr Nguyen Thi Chau Anh, your valuable feedback and constructive criticism have been incredibly helpful in shaping my ideas and methodologies I am really appreciative of the time you dedicated to assisting me in enhancing my work

I would also like to extend my gratitude to the faculty and staff of LHU for fostering a supportive environment conducive to my research endeavors Your encouragement and enthusiasm significantly contributed to my academic pursuits

Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their unwavering love, support, and encouragement Their belief in me has been a constant motivation, driving me to push the boundaries of knowledge and strive for excellence in all that

I do

In conclusion, I am profoundly grateful to Assoc Prof Pham Huu Duc and

Dr Nguyen Thi Chau Anh for their invaluable support and mentorship throughout

my research journey Once again, I am really thankful for their willingness to share their expertise and provide constructive feedback, which has greatly enriched my understanding of the research process

Dong Nai, July 2024

Author

Nguyen Quang Huy

ABSTRACT

Classifiers (CLs) are linguistic elements that play an integral role in many

languages, particularly in Asian languages such as Chinese and Vietnamese, where

they are used to specify quantity, measure, or type English, while not as

classifier-dependent, also employs classifiers in certain contexts to indicate unit, measure, or

category This study examines the use of classifiers in English, Chinese, and

Vietnamese, using the classic Vietnamese work, “The Tale of Kiều,” as a case study

to understand their functions, structure, and semantic roles across these languages

The analysis explores how classifiers are used in different contexts and

compares their application and syntax in each language Mandarin Chinese classifiers

are inherently tied to nouns and often mandatory, providing specific types of

categorization and measurement Vietnamese classifiers, much like Chinese, are

integral to grammatical correctness, playing a significant role in expressing number

and measure English classifiers, while not as structurally essential, serve to clarify,

quantify, or categorize, often in a more flexible manner

By examining translations and interpretations of “The Tale of Kiều” across

these three languages, the study identifies patterns in classifier usage, explores the

semantic and syntactic functions of classifiers, and highlights the differences and

similarities among the languages The findings suggest that while classifiers serve

similar purposes in terms of adding specificity and reducing ambiguity, their

implementation and grammatical requirements vary, reflecting deeper linguistic

structures and cultural distinctions This study contributes to a broader understanding

of classifiers and their role in language, providing insights into how different cultures

use these linguistic tools to communicate clearly and effectively

Keywords: Classifiers; classification system; diplomatic notes

THE RECOGNIZANCE FOR NON-PLAGIARISM

I hereby declare that all the work presented in this projectis my own, except where indicated otherwise I have acknowledged all sources of information and ideas used in this work through proper citation and referencing Any assistance I received from individuals or sources has been acknowledged and credited accordingly

I understand that plagiarism, using someone else's ideas or work without giving credit, is a serious academic offense I am fully aware of the consequences, including disciplinary action and academic penalties, which could harm my academic reputation

By signing this declaration, I affirm my commitment to academic integrity and honesty I pledge to follow ethical standards, avoid plagiarism, and produce original work that reflects my own ideas and efforts

Dong Nai, July 2024

Author

Nguyen Quang Huy

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Rel Clause Relative Clauses

LIST OF TABLES

Table 6: Chinese common classifier constructions 21

INTRODUCTION

❖ Background of the Study

Classifiers are linguistic elements that serve a critical role in many languages, particularly in East Asian languages like Mandarin Chinese (MC), Japanese and Vietnamese Classifiers are used to indicate type, measure, or count when referring

to nouns, offering a means to add precision and reduce ambiguity in communication (Sybesma, 1996)

MC has a rich system of classifiers, with over 100 distinct classifiers for different categories of nouns (Chao, 1968) They are mandatory when quantifying nouns and are integral to sentence structure (Cheng & Sybesma, 2005) Vietnamese classifiers operate in a similar manner, providing specificity and supporting grammatical accuracy (Le, 2010) English, however, has a more flexible approach

to classifiers, using them for certain contexts but not requiring them as extensively

as Mandarin or Vietnamese (Erbaugh, 1986)

“The Tale of Kiều,” (TK) written by Nguyễn Du in the early 19th century, is

a classic Vietnamese literary work that has been translated into multiple languages, including English and Chinese The poem narrates the life of Kieu, a young woman whose story is marked by sacrifice and hardship The various translations offer an opportunity to examine how classifiers are used across different languages and cultural contexts

Classifiers are an essential part of East Asian languages, with Vietnamese and Chinese employing them extensively, while English uses them less frequently The intricate use of classifiers in Vietnamese and Chinese presents unique challenges and opportunities for comparative linguistic studies It seeks to compare the use and structure of classifiers, examining their semantic functions and syntactic roles By exploring different translations, this research aims to uncover the nuances and differences in how classifiers function in English, Vietnamese, and Chinese This

study is particularly relevant given the increasing interest in comparative linguistics and the need to understand cross-linguistic influences and structures

By investigating these aspects, this study contributes to the broader understanding of how classifiers shape language and meaning, providing insights into the cultural context of TK TK with its complex narrative and rich language, serves as an ideal text for exploring these linguistic features through the three languages Additionally, this comparative approach offers practical implications for language learners, translators, and educators in understanding the complexities and

roles of classifiers in various languages

❖ Statement of the Problem

Despite the significant role that classifiers play in Vietnamese and Chinese, and their occasional use in English, there is a lack of comprehensive comparative studies that examine these linguistic elements across the three languages using a single literary text The TK, with its rich use of language and cultural significance, provides an ideal basis for such an analysis The problem this research seeks to address is the gap in understanding the comparative use and function of classifiers

in English, Vietnamese, and Chinese Specifically, this study aims to identify how classifiers are employed in the TK, compare their usage across the three languages, and analyze the implications of these findings for broader linguistic theories and language learning This research will contribute to a deeper understanding of classifiers and their role in language structure and usage, providing valuable insights

for linguists, translators, and language educators

❖ Objectives of the Study

The primary objective of this study is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of classifiers in English, Chinese, and Vietnamese, using TK as a source text for cross-linguistic comparison Classifiers, which play a significant role in conveying quantity, specificity, and context in many languages, are central to understanding the syntactic and semantic differences among English, Chinese, and Vietnamese

This research aims to achieve the following specific objectives:

✓ Identify Classifiers in the TK: Systematically identify and catalog the classifiers

used in the TK in its original Vietnamese version, as well as in its English and Chinese translations

✓ Compare Classifier Usage Across Languages: Analyze and compare the usage

of classifiers in English, Vietnamese, and Chinese to highlight similarities and differences in their linguistic structures

✓ Examine Contextual Variations: Investigate how classifiers are used in different

contexts within the TK and how these usages may differ across the three languages

✓ Evaluate Translation Strategies: Assess the translation strategies employed to

handle classifiers in the English and Chinese versions of the TK and their effectiveness in preserving the original meaning and nuance

✓ Contribute to Comparative Linguistics: Provide insights and contribute to the

field of comparative linguistics by highlighting the role and function of classifiers

in English, Vietnamese, and Chinese

✓ Enhance Language Learning and Translation: Offer practical

recommendations for language learners and translators on handling classifiers in

cross-linguistic contexts, based on the findings from the analysis of the TK

Through this approach, the study attempts to expand the understanding of classifiers in various languages and to explore how they contribute to linguistic and cultural variety By focusing on TK the research attempts to illuminate the ways in which classifiers create meaning and communication, creating a bridge between linguistic analysis and cultural interpretation

❖ Research Questions

The purpose of the study is to focus on answering the following research questions:

1 What are the key differences and similarities in the use of classifiers across

English, Vietnamese, and Chinese translations of TK?

2 What types of classifier constructions are most commonly used in English,

Vietnamese and Chinese translations of TK?

❖ Scope of The Study

The scope of this study involves the investigation of classifiers in English, Chinese, and Vietnamese, focusing primarily on their application within TK This section discusses the bounds and limitations of the research to clarify what is included and what is not

✓ Languages Analyzed: The study examines classifiers in three languages—

English, Chinese, and Vietnamese It does not explore other languages or dialects The emphasis is on comparing the usage and functions of classifiers across these three linguistic systems

✓ Text Selection: The primary text for analysis is TK, written by Nguyễn Du

The study uses various translations of this poem to compare classifiers across the three languages No other literary works are included in

the analysis

✓ Classifier Types and Functions: The research focuses on both sortal classifiers

(those used to count or categorize nouns) and measure classifiers (those used

to indicate quantity or measurement) The study explores their semantic roles and syntactic structures within the context of the poem It does not examine other grammatical elements or broader linguistic features

✓ Methodology: The study employs a comparative analysis methodology,

focusing on identifying, categorizing, and comparing classifiers in the English, Chinese, and Vietnamese translations of TK The research includes both qualitative and quantitative approaches to evaluate the frequency and context

of classifiers

✓ Cultural and Linguistic Context: While the study explores the cultural

implications of classifiers, it primarily focuses on their linguistic roles Broader cultural interpretations are mentioned but are not the central focus of the study

✓ Implications and Applications: The purpose of this study is to provide insights

into the use of classifiers across the three languages and offer practical implications for language learning and translation It enhances understanding

of how classifiers function in different linguistic contexts and informs translation strategies

❖ Significance of Study

Classifiers are key linguistic features that contribute greatly to the structure and meaning of sentences in many languages They act as markers that help define, count, or measure nouns, offering more context and precision Understanding the relevance of classifiers is crucial to grasping the nuances of language use and interpretation This section summarizes the fundamental reasons why classifiers are significant, notably in English, Chinese, and Vietnamese

✓ Clarifying Quantity and Specificity: Classifiers help specify the quantity of

nouns, reducing ambiguity In languages like Chinese and Vietnamese, classifiers are mandatory when expressing numerical information, ensuring that the meaning is clear and unambiguous

✓ Structuring Noun Phrases: Classifiers play a role in organizing noun phrases,

guiding the reader or listener on how to interpret and understand different elements of a sentence The use of specific classifiers can indicate relationships between nouns and quantifiers, thereby structuring the overall syntax

✓ Reflecting Cultural Nuances: Classifiers can reflect cultural perceptions and

linguistic patterns Their usage and selection can be tied to cultural contexts, indicating how a language categorizes and understands various objects, people, and concepts For example, CLs might differ based on the cultural significance

of certain objects or entities

✓ Supporting Translation and Cross-Linguistic Understanding: CLs are central

to translating texts across different languages Understanding how CLs are used in one language versus another helps ensure accurate translation and cross-linguistic comprehension Inconsistent or incorrect use of CLs can lead

to misunderstanding or misinterpretation

✓ Enhancing Semantic Meaning: CLs add semantic depth to language, providing

a way to convey additional information about nouns, such as their shape, size,

or function This added layer of meaning can be crucial for conveying complex concepts or specific details

This study examines how classifiers play a role in English, Chinese, and Vietnamese by centering on TK Recognizing their significance offers a deeper understanding of linguistic frameworks, cultural background, and translation techniques, emphasizing how classifiers help ensure precise and effective communication

❖ The Organization of The Project

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the study, providing an overview of the research topic and its significance It also introduces the reader to the study's focus on analyzing classifiers in English, Vietnamese, and Chinese through Nguyen Du’s TK The introduction outlines the objectives of the study, and provides a brief overview of the subsequent chapters

Chapter 1: Literature Review

This chapter critically examines previous studies related to classifiers in English, Vietnamese, and Chinese languages It explores key concepts, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies used in previous studies on classifiers The literature review identifies gaps in the current body of knowledge and sets the foundation for the present study by highlighting aspects where further research is required

Chapter 2: Methodology

This chapter outlines the approach and methods used in the study to analyze classifiers in TK It discusses the rationale behind the selection of TK as the primary text for analysis and explains why the comparative analysis methodology

is employed The chapter details the process of data collection, including text selection, translation, and analysis procedures It also tackles any limitations or challenges encountered during the research process

Chapter 3: Findings and Discussions

This chapter presents the findings of the study and engages in discussions based on the analysis of classifiers in English, Vietnamese, and Chinese translations of TK It examines patterns, and differences observed in the use of classifiers in all three languages, drawing comparisons and identifying similarities

The chapter also discusses the implications of the findings for language learning, translation, and cross-cultural communication, offering insights into the role of classifiers in each language’s linguistic and cultural context

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review aims to explore the theoretical underpinnings and definitions of classifiers in English, Vietnamese, and Chinese, with a focus on their application in literary texts By examining relevant previous studies and establishing

a conceptual framework, this section lays the groundwork for a detailed analysis of classifiers in Nguyen Du's work

1.1 Overview of Classifiers

Over the past few years, classifiers have given rise to a controversy among linguists Classifiers have been subject to diverse interpretations and definitions For instance, Lock (1996, as referenced in Aziz, 2009, p.18) described classifiers as elements that categorize objects, using the example of “assistant instructor” where

“assistant” acts as a classifier to further classify the noun “instructor” Lock emphasized the sub-classification function of classifiers

Celce-Muria and Larsen-Freeman (1999, as cited in Aziz, 2009, p.18), provide another perspective on classifier constructions, describing them as phrases consisting of a countable noun, followed by “of”, and then another noun, such as “a school of dolphins” On the other hand, Fromkin et al (2003, as cited Aziz, 2009, p.18) defined a classifier as a grammatical morpheme indicating the semantic class

of a noun

Goddard (2005) offered a definition that focused on how classifiers categorize referents based on significant social, physical, or functional properties In contrast to other linguists, Goddard placed a strong emphasis on the referent's importance and how the classifier categorizes inanimate referents using physical attributes such as shape and material, function, or a combination of both.tion of both This perspective aligns with Aikhenvald’s (2000) definition of classifiers, where they are words used to categorize word classes based on attributes such as shape, function, or animacy

Matthew (2007, p.58, as cited in Aziz, 2009, p 18) defined a classifier as a specific form that marks a noun belonging to a particular semantic class and must accompany a numeral Different linguists have defined classifiers in various ways, reflecting the ongoing debate and controversy over their precise definition This diversity of definitions also underscores the utility of classifiers in categorizing words based on their attributes and the necessity of being accompanied by a numeral

Allan (1977) defined classifiers as having two characteristics: (a) they occur

as morphemes in surface structures under particular circumstances; and (b) they have meaning, in the sense that a classifier denotes some salient perceived or imputed characteristic of the entity to which an associated noun refers (or may refer) The four categories of languages categorized in classifiers that Allan also took into account were numeral classifier languages, competitive classifier languages, predicate classifier languages, and intra-locative classifier languages Vietnamese has been identified as one of the four numeral classifier languages, meaning that classifiers frequently make an appearance as a component of Vietnamese noun phrase structure

2012, p 60) Despite their variety, these systems, according to Goddard (2011), are

"mainly, if not entirely, semantic" and typically don't play a role in grammatical agreement Classifiers are closely related to the nouns they refer to or modify

Lehrer's (1986) study on classifiers discusses how certain words or expressions are used to categorize or quantify nouns in the English language The term

“classifiers” is most frequently connected with East Asian languages, such as

Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese, but it also occurs in English Here is an overview

of the main types of English classifiers identified by Lehrer:

1.2.1 Partitive Classifiers

Partitives, as defined by Huddleston and Pullum (2005: 98,303), are words that denote a part of a whole, such as “a piece of,” “a slice of,” “a bit of,” and so on This means that the The first noun (head) is a singular noun that enables the second noun (postmodifier) to be quantified or measured Celce-Muria and Larsen-Freeman (1998) stated that partitive is a phrase in which a countable noun comes before another noun

a pound of

a meter of fabric

an acre of land

a hour of work

a kilogram of

an inch of rope

a yard of ribbon

a square food

of flooring

A week of vacation

1.3 Classifiers in Vietnamese

Despite Vietnamese being recognized as an Asian language with a complex numeral classifier system, there have been limited attempts to define classifiers in Vietnamese, except in English (Tran, 2011, p.1) Unlike English where one typically chooses between singular and plural forms for most nouns (e.g., candle vs candles) (Wierzbicka, 2014, p.130, as cited in Thu, 2015), Vietnamese nouns lack inherent indications of number or quantity In this aspect, they resemble English mass nouns such as milk, water, and flour (Thompson & Martinet, 2015, p.193, as cited in Thu, 2015) In essence, many Vietnamese nouns cannot inherently be quantified Tran (2011, p.16) explains that classifiers are used in Vietnamese to give nouns individuality and allow for quantification This pattern is the prevalent structural characteristic in Vietnamese, featuring a numeral as the numerator and a head comprising a classifier followed by a noun (e.g., một con mèo - a cat, hai quyển sách – two books) (Thompson & Martinet, 2015, p.193, as cited in Thu, 2015) Unlike English classifiers, the meaning of a Vietnamese classifier lacks specification in isolation and necessitates accompanying a noun (Tran, 2011, p.47,) In summary, the primary role of a Vietnamese classifier (CL) is to specify and count nouns within the structure of a Num + CL + N

As referenced by Tran, H T T (2021), Grinevald (2015) discusses four classifier systems, one of which is the numeral classifier Researchers including Allan (1977), Aikhenvald (2000), Bisang (1999), and P P Nguyen (2002) argue that Vietnamese operates as a numeral classifier system, utilizing the Numeral - Classifier - Noun structure I concur with their assertions as Vietnamese seems to align with the characteristics of a numeral classifier language, as categorized by Allan (1977) This implies that classifiers in Vietnamese are necessary before nouns

to enable their counting or individuation Nonetheless, D H Nguyen (1957) highlights, based on Grinevald (2015), that Vietnamese also features noun and verbal classifiers alongside numeral classifiers D H Nguyen (1957) further notes

a substantial number of noun classifiers, with over 100 being prevalent in Vietnamese This diversity is understandable as languages may incorporate multiple classifier types Consequently, when multiple classifier types coexist in a language, the classification of the system typically reflects the majority or primary functions

of classifiers, rather than encompassing all types Therefore, Vietnamese is primarily categorized as a numeral classifier system based on the predominant functions of its classifiers

1.3.1 Classifiers Construction in Vietnamese

Tran (2011, as cited in Thu, 2015) stated that a classifier is required whenever

a numeral is present Vietnamese classifiers can function in anaphoric constructions, acting as pronouns to replace omitted head nouns (Diep, 2004; Dinh, 1997; Hoang, 1996; Phan, 1988; Nguyen, 1975, all as cited in Thu, 2015) “When used like this, the classifier appears with a modifier, but without a noun It is functioning as a noun substitute, similar in some ways to English “one”’(as in: a small one)” (Goddard,

2005, p 104, as cited in Thu, 2015) This structure can be represented as (Num + CL)

Tran (2011) also stated that a classifier cannot convey meaning on its own; it must always be paired with a noun, typically following the structure (CL + N) The prototypical classifiers are “cái” for inanimate objects, “con” for animate, non-human objects, and “người” for human beings” (Nguyen, 2004, p 86; Cao, 1998 &

2000, as cited in Thu, 2015)

To summarize, common classifier constructions in Vietnamese include element classifiers, three-element classifiers, and four-element classifiers Below are possible classifier constructions in Vietnamese (adopted from Thu, 2015, p.26)

two-Form Example English Translation

a) two bowls (of “pho”)

Table 2: Two-element classifiers

Table 2: Three-element classifiers

Form Example English Translation

a) these two boys

a) what two things?

a) the guy that you saw

Form Example English Translation

a) thằng nhóc con này

a) this little boy

a) con rùa nhỏ nào?

a) which small turtle?

a) hai con bé này b) hai con hổ kia

a) these two girls

a) hai đứa con của tôi

a) what two tables?

a) cái người mà tôi gặp

a) the person that I met

bought

Table 3: Four-element classifiers

1.4 Classifiers in Chinese

The use of classifiers in Chinese saw significant development during the Han dynasty, though the system’s structure was quite distinct from the current one In the first and second centuries, specific types of classifiers emerged in ancient Mandarin Chinese, leading to a significant increase in the use of a classifier system (Sybesma,

2017, as cited in Aaton, 2023, P.2)

MC is a numeral classifier language (Allan, 1977, as cited in Zhang and Lu, 2013) In this language, a numeral classifier, which is a morpheme, must be placed between the determiner and the noun (Li & Thompson, 1989, as cited in Zhang and

Lu, 2013) when the noun is preceded by a determiner such as a number (e.g., “一 yī”,

meaning “one”), a demonstrative (e.g., “那nà”, meaning “that”), or a quantifier (e.g.,

“一些yī xiē”, meaning “some”) Consequently, a classifier phrase consists of a determiner, a numeral classifier (CL), and a noun phrase

1.4.1 Types of Classifiers in Chinese

Erbaugh (1986), Chao (1968), and Lii (1981) identified approximately 40 classifiers commonly used in Mandarin However, Cheng and Sybesma (2005), Chien, Lust, and Chiang (2003), as well as Tai (1994), list a total of 150 classifiers; Zhang (2013) even identifies over 900 classifiers MC can be divided into two categories: sortal and mensural (Grinevald, 2000, as cited in Zhang and Lu, 2013)

Sortal classifiers are used to categorize and quantify objects The selection of

a sortal classifier is typically based on the physical characteristics of the object, and many classifier-noun pairings have become conventional through

grammaticalization For instance, the classifier 张 (zhāng) is used for flat objects like

paper or a table (as in “一张纸 yì zhāng zhǐ”, meaning “one sheet of paper”); 朵 (duǒ) is used for flowers and clouds (as in “一朵云 yì duǒ yún,” meaning “one cloud”); …etc

Mensural classifiers are employed to measure uncountable objects and are

frequently utilized with mass nouns They are also present in languages without classifier systems In Chinese, they are classified according to how they organize uncountable objects into countable units (Li & Thompson, 1989, as cited in Zhang and Lu, 2013) Collective classifiers merge entities into larger groupings (for

instance, “一群人 yī qún rén” denotes “a group of people”), container classifiers

group items based on the containers they occupy (such as “一瓶水 yì píng shuǐ”

meaning “a bottle of water”), and measurement units signify length, weight, or volume

In general, Chinese classifiers are essential to the structure of the language, and they are categorized into sortal and mensural types Sortal classifiers are used to group nouns according to inherent characteristics like shape, function, or natural

groupings For example, classifiers for people (个, gè), books (本, běn), and animals

(只, zhī) fall under this category Mensural classifiers, on the other hand, measure

uncountable nouns by specifying units, such as containers or standard quantities

Examples include classifiers for cups (杯, bēi), bottles (瓶, píng), and bowls (碗, wǎn) These distinctions are well-supported by linguistic research, demonstrating their significant role in MC grammar (Li & Thompson, 1989; Erbaugh, 1986; Cheng

& Sybesma, 2005; Zhang, 2013)

To understand more about the differences between sortal and mensural classifiers in Chinese, we can examine the following table:

Type Classifier Example Meaning

Type Classifier Example Meaning

Table 4: Sortal Classifiers

Type Classifier Example Meaning

Volume

(Liquid) 升 (shēng) 一升牛奶 (yī shēng niúnǎi) one liter of milk

Gram 克 (kè) 一克盐 (yī kè yán) one gram of salt

Table 5: Measural Classifiers

1.4.2 Classifiers Construction in Chinese

Chinese classifier constructions come in various forms, each serving different

purposes in communication (Biq, 2002 & 張寧, 2011, as cited in Her, 2017) For

instance, “个 (gè)” is a common classifier used for counting people or generic items,

while “ 本 (běn)” is used for counting books Additionally, Num + CL + N

constructions are frequently employed to indicate the quantity of items, such as “三

本 书 (sān běn shū),” meaning “three books.” Furthermore, Chinese classifier constructions can involve the repetition of classifiers to provide emphasis or

specificity, as in “个个学生 (gè gè xuéshēng),” meaning “every students.” Adj +- CL

+ N structures allow for the modification of nouns with descriptive attributes, like

“大碗米 (dà wǎn mǐ),” meaning “a big bowl of rice.” Interrogative words can also be integrated into classifier constructions to specify the type or identity of the noun, as

in “哪本书 (nǎ běn shū),” meaning “which book.” Overall, these diverse classifier

constructions contribute to the precision and flexibility of MC communication, enabling speakers to convey nuanced meanings and quantities effectively The table below outlines some common classifier constructions in Chinese, illustrating their syntax and usage

Form Example English Translation

Table 6: Chinese common classifier constructions

1.5 Previous Studies

Previous research has yielded comparable results concerning the instruction and acquisition of classifiers (CLs), as well as the successful methods for assisting students in utilizing CLs accurately and suitably in their writing and translation abilities

Hui, S S (2005) described Vietnamese classifiers using the framework proposed by Aikhenvald (2000), offering a functional-typological and empirically based account of noun categorization devices across languages The paper aimed to clarify and consolidate knowledge about Vietnamese classifiers using Aikhenvald’s framework, which had not been extensively applied to a single language, particularly

in the context of Southeast Asian languages where classifier systems are still superficially understood By adopting this framework, the study attempted to test its validity against Vietnamese, thus contributing to analytical work on languages and their noun categorization systems The study also examined fundamental parameters for the typology of classifiers in Vietnamese, including semantic organization, morphosyntactic coding, categorization scope, principles of classifier choice, and interaction with other grammatical categories It also explored properties of classifiers from both areal and genetic perspectives and evaluated Aikhenvald’s framework’s ability to accommodate Vietnamese data while suggesting possible refinements

Pham, G., & Kohnert, K.J (2008) examined the use of two common Vietnamese 'classifiers,' con (animacy) and cái (inanimacy), using language corpora data of over one million words This study contributed to an ongoing debate about whether Vietnamese classifiers were a distinct word class or a subclass of nouns Frequency and distributions were calculated using computer software, and lexical-semantic functions were manually analyzed for each occurrence The findings indicated that con and cái were highly frequent and distributed across text genres However, neither form consistently demonstrated a classifying function: con indicated animacy less than 24% of the time, and cái indicated inanimacy less than 65% of the time Corpus-based analysis proved to be a useful tool for comparing prototypical and “real-life” language use The study suggested that if Vietnamese classifiers were not consistently used as such, considering this group of words as a subclass of nouns rather than a distinct word class might be more parsimonious

Dao, L (2012) analyzed the lexical semantics of the two most commonly used classifiers in Vietnamese, “con” and “cái”, using the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) approach The study originated from teaching Vietnamese as

a foreign language in Australia, where students had difficulty learning the usage of Vietnamese classifiers and classifier noun phrases The ultimate aim was to use the semantic analysis achieved through NSM to enhance the teaching and learning of Vietnamese as a foreign language and to advance the understanding of its extensive and elaborate classifier system The study would support the effectiveness of NSM

in explaining lexical semantics and language-specific grammatical categories and constructions

Dang, T K P (2022) investigated the use of the three most common Vietnamese classifiers: “cái, con, and người” and to identify patterns for their use when translating English noun phrases into Vietnamese A corpus was built from the

English versions of the bestselling literary works The Great Gatsby and Tuesdays with Morrie, along with their Vietnamese translations The data were analyzed by

counting occurrences, calculating percentages, and determining frequency to identify the most frequently used classifier among the three The findings revealed

that “cái” is used for inanimate objects, while “con” and “người” are used for animate ones, with the exception of “con” sometimes being used with inanimate nouns The research also provided formulae for translating each classifier in specific cases and discussed the formation of double and triple classifiers The findings may help Vietnamese learners use classifiers correctly when translating English noun phrases into Vietnamese and vice versa

Tran, H T T (2021) studied inanimate classifiers in Vietnamese to identify usage patterns across different genres, spoken and written discourse, and among various age groups It analyzes three corpora: the Vietnamese Narrative Corpus, the Vietnamese Online Newspaper Corpus, and the Vietnamese Spoken Corpus The study focuses on the frequency, distribution, and function of classifiers, particularly

“cái” (inanimate) and double classifiers Key findings included higher classifier frequency in spoken language compared to written, frequent use of “cái” with non-classified nouns as emphatics in spoken discourse, and a decline in classifier use among younger speakers The research also identified “cái” functioning as a cataphoric reference and explored the nominalizing role of some classifiers with verbs and adjectival verbs The findings indicated language change over time and that classifier choice may depend on genre formality, revealing a more complex classifier system than traditionally described

Tran, J T (2011) analyzed the acquisition of the numeral classifier system in Vietnamese, analyzing both syntactic and semantic development through longitudinal and cross-sectional data Longitudinal data were acquired over 6–9 months from four monolingual Vietnamese children aged 1;9, 1;11, 2;4, and 2;5, to trace the early appearance and development of classifier phrases Cross-sectional data from 38 children aged 2;10 to 5;7 at a daycare center in Saigon were utilized to study later development

The study aimed to enhance understanding of language acquisition strategies and compare Vietnamese data with classifier acquisition in other Asian languages like Cantonese, Mandarin, and Thai Confirmed cross-linguistic strategies include

using a general classifier as a placeholder and overgeneralizing known classifiers Consistent findings showed children handled non-numeral classifier phrases better, acquire specific classifiers slowly while mastering general and animal classifiers early, and have early knowledge of core classifiers Common errors include classifier omission in numeral noun phrases and the use of double classifiers Additionally, children demonstrated a lower rate of general classifier use and a higher percentage

of correct particular classifier usage Unexpectedly, children preferred to omit classifiers with disyllabic nouns and regularly employed nouns with classifiers as amalgams, demonstrating early acquisition of classifier-noun combinations

Phan, T (2019) examined the acquisition of numeral classifiers and their syntactic structures in Vietnamese, focusing on both Typically-Developing (TD) children and those with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) The study tracked the development of numeral classifier patterns over three years, from kindergarten to second grade It highlighted differences in performance between TD children and those with DLD, identifying areas where classifier use is particularly challenging for the latter group The findings showed higher rates of classifier omission, more random alternations in representational forms, and delays in developing three-element classifier structures among children with DLD The discussion suggested future research directions for studying classifier use in Vietnamese speakers with DLD

Simpson, A., & Ngo, B (2018) explored the use of numeral classifiers in Vietnamese, a language where nouns fall into three categories: some nouns always require classifiers (obligatory-classifier nouns), some can optionally use classifiers (optional-classifier nouns), and some never use classifiers (non-classified nouns) This distribution provided significant insights into whether classifiers functionally combine with numerals or nouns, challenging existing theories on the basic semantic type of nouns in different languages, which assume a uniform pattern of classifier usage in numeral classifier languages The study described the broad distribution of classifiers in Vietnamese and examined the syntactic properties of classifiers with the three noun types This included analyzing double classifier patterns, fragment