Learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging among english majors at thu dau mot university

Background of the study

In recent years, English has become an indispensable language for global communication in the era of globalization and internationalization and it is extensively used in various fields including business, tourism, medicine, and education Within the Vietnamese context, as the country is developing and embracing numerous foreign cultures, English has emerged as a predominant foreign language

Recognizing its significance, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in Vietnam has undertaken several initiatives aimed at enhancing the proficiency of English among Vietnamese learners These initiatives include the implementation of a comprehensive project for teaching and learning foreign languages from 2017 to 2025, conducting diverse training sessions for teachers, and introducing updated English textbooks Furthermore, researchers, educators, and teachers consistently strive to identify and employ the most effective methods and techniques in the classroom to ensure optimal learning outcomes for students

Writing is an essential skill for students to learn English since it fosters communication, develops thinking skills, and makes logical persuasive arguments (Klimova, 2013) However, writing seems to be the most challenging skill for students to master when “written products are often the results of thinking, drafting, and revising procedures that require specialized skills” (Brown, 2000, p.335) For Vietnamese learners, Do (2015) provided four reasons why learning writing is a challenge To be successful in writing skills, learners are required to make lots of effort and spend so much time while teachers and learners tend to pay attention to grammar and structure rather than writing Besides, today’s assessment system places a great emphasis on reading and grammar than writing, and writing is viewed as an assessment instrument rather than a means of communication As a result, there is little motivation for learners to participate actively in writing classes Scholars, researchers, and teachers always try their best to find out the most suitable tools in writing classes in order that learners do not feel distracted in learning writing classes Academic writing is a subject that has also the above challenges because it is the kind of writing (Hogue, 2008)

Although there are a variety of modern techniques in language teaching, methods applied in English classrooms, the use of the first language (L1) in the classroom has been widely controversial (Akbar & Taqi, 2020) There are two opposite perspectives on having L1 in the classroom Using L1 in the classroom is strictly forbidden by some teaching methods (eg, Direct method, Audio-lingual approach) that learners can be delayed or limited attempts to grasp the target language Moreover, L1 use can “cause the formation of bad habits and interfere in the teaching of L2” (Yavuz, 2012) According to Macaro (2009), the mother tongue should be banned in the classroom because of the fact that it can reduce the learners’ cognition and metacognition Nevertheless, traditional teaching methods such as the Grammar Translation method, and Suggestopedia affirm that L1 facilitates learning L2 There are some pieces of evidence that the use of L1 in the classroom achieves many benefits Alshehri (2017) investigated teachers’ attitudes toward using the L1 of the learners in the class The findings of the results revealed L1 is used to some extent to explain vocabulary, clarify unclear meanings, and build a good relationship with students Besides, the results also show L1 can enhance L2 learning In detail, Yadav (2014) showed that L1 is a resource for learners to arrange and rearrange L2 input data The use of L1 cultural features affects positively teaching L2 In Vietnam, Tran (2018) explored the role of L1 in a business class The results indicated that L1 had an important role in learning the second language It helped learners to understand lessons, and hard and unfamiliar terminological business terms deeper Ngo and Phuong (2018) also demonstrate that L1 facilitates controlling the class, giving feedback, and explaining cross-cultural issues In spite of the big argument, translanguaging fascinates teachers to use it in teaching four

English skills, academic writing in particular Moreover, it is extensively recognized as an approach that accepts and makes from multilingual learners’ linguistic resources (Ossa Parra & Proctor, 2021)

The concept of translanguaging has drawn significant attention among scholars and researchers worldwide including Tran, García, Lin, Baker, Canagarajah, and many others This technique enables “learners to use all their linguistic skills, experiences, and competencies acquired in L1 as well as other languages for meaning-making purposes” Nagy (2018) Apart from fostering a learner’s language proficiency, Canagarajah (2011) lists the advantages of using translanguaging in the classroom such as thinking critically and developing metacognitive awareness Garcia (2014) provides practical suggestions for teachers to incorporate translanguaging in writing classes Firstly, instructions can be written in multiple languages, employing translanguaging in the written text This approach allows students to access information and tasks using their familiar language, facilitating comprehension and engagement Secondly, when students give ideas in any language, teachers write on the board in one language or the other Besides, comments on an assignment are given in the home language or modeling translanguaging in writing Finally, teachers use cognates to develop links between words in order to enhance vocabulary acquisition and spelling skills

In the field of language teaching in Vietnam, there is a strong argument about using Vietnamese in the classroom while the tendency of teaching English is that English is considered an emerging language in the classroom In reality, it is observed that Vietnamese and English are used alternately in teaching four English skills in both general schools and universities in Vietnam In particular, when it comes to learning and teaching writing, although English major students are fairly good at English, the use of L1 is necessary for students to understand deeper problems and motivate them to take part in writing activities in the classroom Therefore, the term “translanguaging” seems relatively strange to Vietnamese teachers and is a useful pedagogical approach that needs to be employed by students and teachers (Luong, 2020).

Statement of the problem

For years, the problems in learning and teaching writing are not new issues attracting much interest from researchers, scholars, and educators to solve Like other students, it is unavoidable for Thu Dau Mot University English majors to encounter numerous challenges when learning academic writing in the classroom

First and foremost, one of the most challenging problems that students face is that vocabulary and grammar Many academic words and phrases in the textbook are abstract and the meaning of the words cannot be explained enough in English Both teachers and students encounter difficulties if English is used to make the meaning clearer Therefore, many weak students feel ambiguous when dealing with this problem

It is obvious that L1 is required to appear in this situation In the context of Japan, Ngubane et al (2020) affirm that students varying from low to high levels of English proficiency partially use L1 during interactions with L2 activities Moreover, in Vietnam, Tran (2021) states that the mixed use of L1 and L2 in the classroom is unavoidable

Another problem that Thu Dau Mot students encounter is the lack of ideas for the writing topics To solve the problem, Thu Dau Mot students often work in groups to get ideas from peers Since the topics for writing paragraphs and essays are familiar to them, the resources may come from books, and the internet in both Vietnamese and English Some students participating actively in class activities are good at English On the other hand, weak students seem to be unconfident in discussing with their classmates Hence, teachers should encourage their students to use L1 and L2 at the same time to discuss and find out the information

Last but not least, the students have difficulties in receiving feedback from teachers Returning to the students’ background, the university has a large number of students coming from different parts of the nation They have the same background receiving little practice in writing in general high schools, and most of them are weak

It is not denied that some are good at English due to having extra English classes from tutors, language centers, or other factors Therefore, if the teachers remaining correcting their mistakes completely in English, they do not understand the problems well That is why translanguaging is necessary for this stage to give them feedback in writing classes

In summary, translanguaging is considered a beneficial method to solve these above problems and gaining popularity around the world Seeing the valuable contribution of translanguaging in teaching EFL to students, the writer has decided to do research to find out the learning engagement via the use of translanguaging in academic writing classes among English majors at a Vietnamese university, Thu Dau Mot University.

Aims of the study

This study aims at exploring English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing via translanguaging in the context of Thu Dau Mot University The following objectives are:

 To examine the level of English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes when using translanguaging

 To find out factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes when using translanguaging.

Research questions

In an attempt to address the aims of the study, this research is conducted to answer two research questions:

1 How do English majors engage in academic writing classes when using translanguaging at Thu Dau Mot University?

2 What are the factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes when using translanguaging at Thu Dau Mot University?

Scope of the study

This section discusses the range of the place, subject, participants, and research design that was used for this study

Translanguaging pedagogy is a technique of teaching English that can be applied in many kinds of schools such as language centers, primary, secondary, and high schools, universities, etc In this research, however, the researcher limited the study to a regional university in Binh Duong province Thu Dau Mot University is one of the biggest universities training teachers for not only local areas but also the whole nation The researcher chose this university because the university geography’s distance was suitable for the researcher and it had available academic writing classes at the time of the current study

Translanguaging can be conducted in teaching not only language skills but also other components such as grammar, and vocabulary In this paper, academic writing was chosen to explore the English major students’ learning engagement level and factors affecting their learning engagement through the use of translanguaging This subject was instructed for students after learners were required to experience basic writing knowledge of “Essential Writing, Writing Strategies” from previous years Gaining the necessary knowledge of writing, speaking, reading, and listening, the learners will be instructed in specializing subjects in the next terms

The participants of the study were second-year major students of English and second-degree major students of English who were instructed and allowed to use translanguaging in the academic writing subject Although the students were familiar with many topics from the previous classes, they needed to use a wide range of explanations from teachers and discussions with their partners with the help of translanguaging

In order to get the answers to the two research questions, the mixed-method design with the quantitative and qualitative methods was applied in this study The two instruments questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were exploited in the study to collect the data from the participants learning academic writing via translanguaging.

Significance of the study

Likewise other studies, this present study has brought some interesting contributions to language learning and teaching

First of all, there is very little research about academic writing classes using translanguaging although there are many research papers on translanguaging in other fields in the world Returning to the Vietnamese context, translanguaging seems to be new and not much interesting to teachers, learners, and researchers Hence, this research paper contributes to the theoretical facet of translanguaging in teaching and learning academic writing for further works Besides, this study can motivate further studies on the theme

Secondly, the present paper can reverse the opinion of teachers of language teaching, leaders, and administrators that English must be used overall in class without the presence of Vietnamese The first language in a foreign language class can slow down EFL language acquisition

Thirdly, this paper can motivate students to join actively in class activities Through the data collected from the interview, it can be seen that students were worried about speaking sentences of wrong English grammar with their teachers and peers Moreover, they lacked the amount of English vocabulary to express their ideas For these reasons, they were not confident to communicate or contribute their idea in the classroom With translanguaging, they can overcome the obstacles of the language and feel comfortable speaking in the English classroom

Lastly, the study is believed to alter the perspectives of stakeholders (e.g., teachers, students, and administrators) on the role of L1 and L2 in language teaching, especially in the main school of the province like Thu Dau Mot University Thereby, teachers and authorities can create a comfortable language learning environment for learners Besides, teaching pedagogy and administration can be adjusted toward translanguaging as long as it can promote the most effectiveness in the language class.

Overview of the thesis chapter

This thesis is built with 5 chapters as follows:

Chapter 1 presents the background of the study, a statement of the problem, two aims and two research questions, the scope of the study, and the significance of the study

Next, chapter 2 reviews the related theories, translanguaging, the relation of translanguaging and code-switching, academic writing, engagement theory, learning engagement via translanguaging, factors affecting learning engagement in academic writing via translanguaging, previous studies related to the topic, the conceptual framework of the thesis

Then, chapter 3 deals with the research methodology consisting of research design, research site, participants, instruments for collecting data for the research, data analysis, reliability, and validity

After that, chapter 4 analyzes and interprets the data which collect from the questionnaires and interviews

Finally, chapter 5 presents the implications and limitations drawn from the research Through the experience of doing the study, the researcher has some suggestions for future studies relating to the topic.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Like other parts, the literature review is of great importance in the research study

It is a means of providing information for us to understand our topic, “know what has already been done on it, understand how it has been the research or grasp what the key issues are that need addressing” (Hart, 2018, p.3) In this study, the literature review offers the overall theory related to translanguaging, academic writing, and learning engagements At the same time, the chapter will supply factors affecting learning engagements, review previous studies, and research gaps.

Definition of translanguaging

Translanguaging is an attractive technique that has fascinated many scholars and researchers to investigate and have different concepts over the last decade It is essential to clarify the concept for building a theoretical framework, paying attention, and facilitating the discussion

Concerning the source of the term translanguaging, not only Lewis et al (2012) but also other scholars reveal the origin of the term which initially came from the Welsh

“Trawsieithu” and was later translated into English as “translanguaging” by Cen William (1994) They also clarify that translanguaging means “You receive information through the medium of one language (e.g., English) and use it yourself through the medium of other languages (e.g., Welsh)”

Translanguaging is the practice of using two languages to create meaning, shape experiences, and gain insight and information (Baker, 2011, p 288) While Canagarajah

(2011) defines translanguaging as “the ability of multilingual speakers to shuttle between languages, treating the diverse languages that form their repertoires as an integrated system” In the same year, Cenoz and Gorter (2011) describe the pedagogical practices conducted by having input in one language and implementing a task in another language called translanguaging Velasco and Garcia (2014) state that translanguaging is not considered the bilinguals’ languages as separate linguistic systems but it emphasizes the flexible and meaningful actions in which bilinguals use their repertoires to communicate appropriately Garcia and Wei (2014, p.66) state that translanguaging is a process in which teachers and students engage in complex discursive practices to develop new language practices Akbar and Taqi (2020) demonstrate that the construction of translanguaging is the combination of three morphemes; the prefix

“trans” to imply “transcending” moving beyond; “language” to imply a tool of communication; “ing” to imply an active act In the context of Vietnam, Tran (2021, p.2) outlines translanguaging as “ the learning practice where learners make use of their bilingualism for learning purposes”

In a word, translanguaging in the study is relating to the use of L1 and the target language English in the same learning writing activities In this way, learners can take advantage of their language sources to apply to academic writing assignments in order that they can develop their best writing ability.

Translanguaging vs code-switching

This present paper aims to explore the use of translanguaging in writing classes

So, it is necessary to distinguish the similarities and differences between the two techniques: translanguaging and code-switching in this present paper

Concerning the similarities between the two techniques, they mention the shuttling of languages in natural behavior Moreover, the use of translanguaging is similar to code-switching in the literature (Park, 2013)

However, there are some different characteristics between the two techniques Firstly, in theory, code-switching is comprehended as the process of changing two languages (Alfian, 2022; Garcia & Li Wei, 2014) Even some authors consider it to be the same as translation (MacSwan, 2017) Whereas, translanguaging is a variant of code- switching and it is considered as “bilinguals operate their entire linguistic repertoire to make meaning” (Akbar & Taqi, 2020) These comparisons are aligned with Lewis et al

(2012, p 659) who argue that code-switching operates in separated languages while translanguaging mentions the flexibility of language use and the combination of two or more languages Besides, Garcia and Wei (2014, p 22) also highlight this distinct that not only does translanguaging refer “simply to a shift or a shuttle between two languages”, but also the speakers create, employ unique, interconnected discursive practices, and “make up the speakers’ complete language repertoire” From these statements, translanguaging seems to “go beyond” and do more tasks than code- switching

Secondly, relating to the practice, translanguaging is considered a pedagogical strategy in teaching language Garcia and Li Wei (2014, p 120) affirm teachers take advantage of translanguaging to make meaning and force students to learn The classroom activities are used to transform at creative and critical moments of translanguaging On the other hand, code-switching refers to shuttling between languages in all types of contexts (Akbar & Taqi, 2020) and is “rarely institutionally endorsed or pedagogically underpinned” (Creese & Blackledeg, 2010, p.105)

In summary, although translanguaging originates in code-switching, it goes further than code-switching and is considered an effective pedagogy for teaching and learning a foreign language as well as the second language around the world.

Academic writing

Writing is one of the important skills in English that students have to master firmly at schools or universities Irvin (2010) illustrates that writing is important because it is a communication skill However, it is challenging for us to achieve good performance in this skill Johnson (2003) gives two reasons to explain this statement For the first reason, the writing process is very messy when all writers have to combat words, ideas, and organization The second reason is that we have to struggle, revise, and mess them up until we find out precisely what and how we want to say them

What is academic writing? Writing owns many different types which have particular purposes, forms, and audiences Academic writing is a kind of writing which also owns characteristics like writing However, academic writing aims to “explain something or to give information about something” This writing style stares at the objective of the teacher and students (Hogue, 2008) Besides, academic writing is used to communicate ideas and is different from creative writing and personal writing (Johnson, 2003; Oshima & Hogue, 2007) Creative writing builds images, emotion, or entertainment often using dialogue In contrast, academic writing shows ideas and hardly attaches dialogue

It is formal writing, therefore we should not use slang, contractions, or useless adjective Providing just the facts is necessary for this kind of writing Moreover, writers should pay attention to “complete sentences and organize them in a certain way” According to Bailey (2017), academic writing is categorized into some common types such as essays, notes, reports, projects, thesis/dissertation, and paper It is an indispensable subject at universities and a significant style of writing skill because of the fact that

1 People will make judgments about you based on your writing whether it is right or not

2 If you write poorly, your ideas become less credible

3 If you can not communicate your ideas in a concise, logical fashion, they will be forever trapped in your head

4 Writing helps you organize your thinking.

From these characteristics of academic writing, it can be inferred that learners are required to be active to discuss and exchange ideas so as to find the best information for the related topic that they are in the process Furthermore, struggling with academic words, suitable structures, and organization forces learners to seek the assistance of peers, teachers, and materials For these reasons, the policy of English-only classes seems to be challenging for them to attain the knowledge that they desire Therefore, translanguaging is necessary for learners to facilitate learning in this situation

For teaching writing a language, teachers not only give lessons to students with a single method but also carried out many different methods and techniques in a period When students engage in the language classroom, it is inevitable for peers, students, and teachers to have some situations that cannot use the target language to express themselves Therefore, teaching academic writing using translanguaging helps students overcome the challenges of linguistically and culturally diverse students (Rafi & Morgan, 2021)

At TDMU, academic writing is not a private subject that is combined with reading subjects and the learners have to experience them with 3 credits To learn this subject, it is required for the students to gain basic knowledge about writing, vocabulary, and grammar Therefore, they are already instructed in elementary writing in previous writing classes “Essential Writing and Strategy Writing” During the academic writing period, students are trained to write essays and other writing techniques.

Learning engagement

A variety of definitions mentioned learning engagement are discussed in the field of teaching and learning language According to Kearsley and Shneiderman (1998), learning activities must be participated meaningfully by learners through interaction with their partners and teachers and worthwhile task More clearly, these authors explain that through learning engagement, students join in learning activities related to active cognitive processes such as generating, problem-solving, thinking, decision-making, and evaluation and are intrinsically motivated to study due to the relevant nature of the learning environment and activities They also emphasize three components “Relate-Create-Donate” in the basic engagement principles While communication, planning, management, and social skills are all emphasized in Relate's team activities, “Create” makes learning a creative, purposeful activity At the same time, “Donate” emphasizes the idea of making a beneficial contribution while studying

In another opinion, learning engagement relates to interaction among the time, effort, and other relevant resources invested by either learners or teachers to optimize the student's experience and enhance the learning outcomes (Kuh, 2003; Trowler, 2010, p.3) From the same viewpoint as these researchers, Coates (2005) defines that student engagement is related to the degree to which students participate in a range of academic activities which might active learning, enriching educational experience, pursuing staff guidance, and collaborating with other partners Jung and Lee (2018) combine the previous definitions to affirm that learning engagement is students’ mental energy and effort to put into the process to achieve desired performance

Regarding the learning engagement’s function, Coates (2015) affirms it is used to determine the quality of education at a university institution From another viewpoint, Tejano (2022) believes engagement, which is crucial for any learning, enhances learners' knowledge, demonstrates what they have gained from the material, and acquires confidence

In a word, learning engagement is not only a single dimension such as students’ behavior to participate in the classroom but also includes other factors relating to motivation, cognition, and emotion (Fredricks et al., 2004).

Learning engagement via translanguaging

Like other teaching techniques, translanguaging is considered an effective way to facilitate students’ learning Depending on the theory of Fredricks and his colleagues

(2004), learning engagement via translanguaging can be measured with three dimensions “emotion, behavior, cognition”

Fredricks et al (2004) also point out that emotional engagement relates to the affective reactions of students such as interest, boredom, happiness, sadness, and anxiety to teachers, classmates, academics, and schools Besides, they also demonstrate the identification of belonging (feeling important to the school) and value (appreciating the successful outcomes) Translanguaging is a teaching technique, so emotional engagement in translanguaging can be applied to this theory in the classroom In the same way, emotions are divided into two types positive emotions and negative emotions Positive emotion can motivate learners, enhance learner’s sense of self-esteem, encourage them to invest further in learning, and make use of a variety of learning opportunities On the other hand, negative emotions may demotivate learners due to losing confidence, disappointment, and devoting time to studying (Richards, 2022)

According to Fredricks et al (2004, p.62) and Nguyen et al (2016), Behavioral engagement refers to three ways which firstly involves positive conduct including

“following the rules, adhering to classroom norms”, and “the absence of disruptive behaviors such as skipping school and getting in trouble” Secondly, it is related to learning and academic tasks and it consists of behaviors such as “effort, persistence, concentration, attention, asking questions, and contributing to the class discussion.” Thirdly, behavioral engagement concerns participation in school-related activities Based on this theory, translanguaging in academic writing encourages students' collaboration in class Learners are assigned groups in order to discuss the writing tasks, give opinions, and support partners Besides, there are interactions between learners and learners, learners and teachers

Fredricks et al (2004) stress cognitive engagement as an investment in learning and an involvement of self-regulation, a close combination of thoughtfulness and willingness to make an effort to master complicated ideas and skills Furthermore, Wang

(2012) clarifies that it consists of motivation, tasks, and self-regulated learning strategies such as planning, monitoring, and evaluating someone’s progress Furthermore, cognitive engagement involves “learners’ cognitive efforts to acquire complex content or skills” ( Jung & Lee, 2018, p.4) For cognitive engagement in translanguaging, learners have to make an effort and invest in learning They work hard with partners, teachers, or other sources by using bilingual languages for the necessary information

In short, learning engagement via translanguaging in this study is that learners combine three dimensions (emotional, cognitive, and behavioral engagement) to measure the extent of the translanguaging pedagogy supporting students in learning academic writing

Figure 2.1 Diagram of student’s learning engagement via translanguaging

Factors affecting learning engagement in Academic writing via translanguaging

Here are three main factors affecting learning engagement in Academic writing via translanguaging such as student-related factors, teacher-related factors, and learning environment-related factors

One of the core factors in deciding the success of learning acquisition is the learners In order to contribute to this, some smaller elements of students play an important role in learning engagement In this section, motivation, attitude, and language proficiency are aspects mentioned to learners factors

This is a significant factor for learners to achieve their learning purposes and has been defined by a number of considerate researchers According to Dornyei (2001), motivation refers to “the learner’s enthusiasm, commitment, and persistence” (p 5) It can be defined as the degree that students pay attention and make efforts in various academic activities (Brophy, 2004, p.4) Numerous researchers and studies have emphasized how crucial motivation in learning is Dornyei (2001) states motivation decides the learners’ success if they are diligent and vice versa Particularly, the more students invest time in the subject, the more they understand problems Therefore, it is easy for students to get the achievement Similarly, Pathan (2010) proves that student performances are related to motivation which is examined by the two main factors the instrumental and integrative factors Purmama et al (2019) affirm the appearance of motivation in learning is really important because there isn’t motivation, it is very hard for learners to achieve their learning goals

From the aforementioned discussion, motivation is an influential factor to force students’ engagement In other words, the learning achievement of learners partially depends on learners’ motivation

Attitude is an abstract term that has been defined in different ways According to Eagly and Chaiken (2007), attitude belongs to a psychological tendency that manifests as a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a specific entity Eshghinejad (2016) affirms that “attitude is an opinion and feeling that everyone has about something” Attitude is also an important factor closely related to motivation and anxiety Inversely, motivation can be a way to understand students’ attitudes (Wesely, 2012) To emphasize the importance of attitudes more, Burden (2014) studies an English conversation class of Japanese university students and concludes that learners’ learning goals can be motivated by favorable attitudes In the same vein, Eshghinejad (2016) also points out that attitude consists of three components: behavior, cognition, and emotion He concludes that “attitude as a fundamental component can improve language learning” or inversely, negative attitude toward English results in students’ poor performance in learning English

In short, likewise, in other techniques, implementing translanguaging in the academic writing class, students are required to have good attitudes to achieve the desired outcomes

Since the use of translanguaging in academic writing is also affected by this important learner’s language proficiency, this factor needs to be considered

Renandya et al (2018) define language proficiency as the ability to use a language for many communicative aims A person having a good command of the language is believed to understand the language easily, make various ideas clear in speech and writing, and interact with other people comfortably

At present, three popular levels indicate language proficiency in the world such as elementary, intermediate, and advanced Each level is divided into sub-levels for instance: pre-elementary, elementary, and post-elementary University English major students in EFL classrooms are required to have high-level language proficiency so that they can deal with their education and their future job However, not all English major students understand lecturers’ instructions well since they lack language skills Students with low proficiency tend to engage the academic activities less than high proficiency ones Sahragard et al (2011) claim that learners “who are more proficient in English can achieve academically better” One of the reasons is that students of high proficiency may understand the instructions of lecturers better and engage in the activities more often Ghenghesh (2015) concludes that higher English proficiency of students will engage fully in the learning process which results in better performance

In a word, a learner’s language proficiency plays a vital role in the use of translanguaging in an academic writing class However, different people do not have similar language proficiency So, this influence of the sub-factor on each person is not the same

Parallel to learners, teachers are considered the main factor to instruct and lead the right way for learners to get the learning purposes However, learners are affected by some elements of teachers According to Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2003), self-efficacy from teachers has a vital role in getting students engaged in class and attaining good achievement Teaching techniques and teachers’ language proficiency are factors considered in this study

Teaching techniques refer to various strategies that teachers choose to implement in the classroom so that they can bring benefits to learners and get the most learning achievement (Dorgu, 2015) The role of teaching methods is crucial because it “plays roles as guiding, facilitating learning, encouraging the learners, and setting the conditions for learning” (Nguyen et al., 2014, p.94) In terms of teacher competency, Hasriani (2022) believes pedagogical competency is the major element affecting the success of teaching and learning To get the greatest learning process and learning results, learners’ learning has to be managed by teachers’ knowledge, skills, and attitude

The role of teachers is extremely important as student engagement chiefly depends on teachers’ behavior (Devito, 2016) Luong (2020) states lesson designs and instructions can develop students’ learning skills since interesting activities make students motivated In teaching academic writing by using translanguaging, teachers decide the suitable kinds of activities to apply in the classroom Simultaneously, the time and place should be employed through translanguaging in the writing class Garcia and Wei (2014, p.131) suggested some effective techniques to teach writing via translanguaging:

 Allow students to audio record ideas first using all their language resources, before writing

 Assign students bilingual writing partners for mutual assistance

 Have students pre-write using all their language resources, then select one language/voice in which to publish it

 Have students experiment with translanguaging in writing for bilingual audiences, and then for monolingual audiences

This component is necessary to be considered because it is “one of the key components that make up a language teacher’s professional knowledge” (Renandya et al, 2018)

To measure the English proficiency of both teachers and learners, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) has launched six-point scales ranging from A1 to C2 while A1 is for beginners and C2 is for sufficient users Seeing the importance of teachers’ language proficiency, the official dispatch (2014) of the MOET regulates some requirements for teachers of English such as the level of B2 for primary and secondary school teachers and C1 for high school teachers

After investigating the teacher’s English proficiency in Korea, Taiwan, and Japan, Butler (2004) concludes that various aspects of English teaching including teacher’s confidence, pedagogical skills, teaching content, and student success are influenced by teachers’ language proficiency In the same way, discussing competence and performance in language teaching, Richards (2010) mentions that one of the factors affecting teaching language effectively is the teacher’s language proficiency Richards

(2010) also points out the ability of a high teacher’s language proficiency in the classroom such as providing good language models, using appropriate language classroom, and giving accurate explanations In the same way, Renandya et al (2018) indicate that a professional language teacher is supposed to have knowledge about the English language, how to teach English, and sufficient proficiency in the language

Without a doubt, the teacher’s language proficiency influences on learner’s engagement The more teachers are a good command of English, the better results students achieve in learning

Apart from being the main factors learners and teachers, materials, and peers also affect learning academic writing via translanguaging

Materials are also one of the factors affecting the students’ learning engagement They are stated with different definitions According to Amadioha (2009), instructional materials refer to a means of communication that instructors can use to clarify abstract ideas or principles during the learning and teaching process Materials for language learning are defined as everything taken to use for facilitating the learning of a language including coursebooks, videos, graded readers, flashcards, games, websites, and mobile- phone interaction (Tomlinson, 2012) For another idea, Wang et al (2021, p.3) show that they “are any materials that are intended to provide learning opportunities for students”

There are many kinds of materials such as Graphic materials, Dimensional materials, motion pictures, etc (Amadioha, 2009) However, they play a vital role in teaching and learning Amadioha (2009) also affirms that instructional materials are to facilitate the process of learning and teaching, present various learning theories, interest learners, offer a reality of experience, and enhance continuous thought Tomlinson

(2012) reveals that with the help of materials, learners can be guided to practice the language, provided the experience of the language in use, encouraged to use the language, and helped to make discoveries about the language Ajoke ( 2017) gives an overview role of instruction materials that it is an essential tool to “promote teachers’ efficiency and improve students’ performance.”

In short, though facilities and materials are considered sub-components, they play an important role in enhancing the teaching and learning process to happen smoothly

This peer sub-group factor has also an impact on English learning engagement in the writing class through translanguaging

Previous studies on translanguaging in L2 classroom

Not only are many studies of translanguaging conducted by scholars and researchers in many countries in the world but also attract interest in the context of Vietnam such as Tran (2021) and Luong (2022)

In 2016, Motlhaka and Makalela in South Africa conducted a study to explore the use of translanguaging techniques in raising the students’ consciousness about L2 writing strategies The researchers employed essays and a focus group interview to collect data from 8 first-year students They concluded that the translingual approach leads students to the conscious and critical appropriation of existing meanings In addition, the results addressed the effectiveness of dialogic pedagogy and provided opportunities for students to reflect on their rhetorical norms in L1 and L2 writing in terms of paragraph organization and increasing confidence in organizing both L1 and L2 essays, as well as the function of L1 and L2 writing

Another research was examined by Chen et al (2019) to investigate how translanguaging enriches writing to college students’ English for Specific purposes in Taiwan, and how students’ multiple linguistic resources are The researcher collected the data from 21 second-year college English majors who were asked to write compositions 44 participants were the samples of the study Chen found that the use of translanguaging helped students improve in three areas Students enriched by leveraging prior knowledge in L1 to express more information in the revisions, improved literacy with accurate sentence structures, and achieved a more professional style with more academic and business vocabulary

In South Africa, the learners of English First Additional Language, Further Education and Training (FET) were investigated to explore the utility of translanguaging practices in teaching writing by Ngubane et al (2020) In detail, the study checked out two main points: the translanguaging of the learners and teachers and the influence of translanguaging on learning writing 200 participants coming from the five secondary schools in Pinetown District took part in the study Classroom observation is used as an instrument to collect data through a video camera The finding revealed that translanguaging stimulated learners to involve and participate during the writing lessons Moreover, teachers emphasized the important points of the lessons by using translanguaging Therefore, it enhanced learner’s understanding and learning Lastly, translanguaging increased teachers’ pastoral care which teachers used their mother tongue “isiZulu” to make students comfortable and interested to interact with them

To investigate the attitudes, behaviors, and quality of foreign language texts, Machura (2020) conducted a case study with undergraduates at a German university in an academic writing class Two groups were chosen to take part in the study A sample of 57 participants taking a survey were divided into two groups A group with was taught through translanguaging while another group experienced a monolingual English class The first result showed that the students emerging with translanguaging could increase and deepen the learning process with materials Furthermore, they were more cognitively demanding than in one language The learners also acknowledged that translanguaging made them confident in the writing process The second result indicated that the students had positive attitudes toward translanguaging On the other hand, it was observed that no change in attitudes in the English-only class

In Sweden, Harris (2020) examined the attitudes and perceptions of Swedish student’s toward translanguaging in class The sample was 168 learners who had to complete the questionnaire and a cloze test to answer two research questions in this study The results show that the attitude of the learners who had higher English proficiency was less positive translanguaging than other learners In other words, the low-proficiency learners tended to use a high extent of translanguaging to master vocabulary, grammar, and difficult concepts, and ask questions Furthermore, translanguaging encouraged them to have confidence, collaborate, and help their peers through class activities

A study was conducted to investigate the process of teaching English materials to multilingual students by using translanguaging in the context of Indonesia by Nursanti

(2021) The study was constructed with a grounded theory design in which the semi- structured interview with teachers was analyzed by qualitative method The items of the interview were open-ended questions to get further information The findings revealed that the teachers using translanguaging impacted various teaching methods on the students to engage positively in the class So, the learners’ confidence, performance, and ideas were enhanced The learners felt comfortable and interested in learning English

In Bangladesh, Rafi and Morgan (2022) investigated the role of translanguaging pedagogies in the academic writing class of English major students in an English- medium private university Classroom observation, a pedagogic intervention, a focus group intervention with six students, and a semi-structured interview with the class teacher are instruments to be collected for the study The results of the research show that translanguaging enhances student engagement, academic performance, metalinguistic awareness and multicompetence, Bangla language proficiency, and bilingual identity development for Bangladeshi students Specifically, some interesting findings were shown in the study The students felt comfortable communicating ideas freely and understood the teacher’s instruction The semi-structured interview with the teacher also revealed that her students were interested in translanguaging intervention

In the same year 2022, in a research paper on the potential impact of translanguaging on four language skills of EFL learners in the Turkish context, Yasar and DiKilitas used two main instruments two tests with 120 high school learners and a semi-structured interview with 20 volunteer respondents to conduct the study For quantitative data, 60 participants of pre-intermediate and 60 participants of upper- intermediate did the pre-test and post-test in the school year 2018-2019 In terms of the semi-structured interview, there were 10 volunteers from each group answering the questions The findings of the study revealed that translanguaging enabled the learners to make meaning and understand learning topics Translanguaging played a vital role in facilitating the learning process The students also felt secure in communication, developed a sense of comfort, volunteered to engage, were motivated to speak, and enjoyed the learning

In the context of Vietnam, there is very little research on using translanguaging in teaching writing to university learners Luong 2020 carried out a study to explore the usefulness of translanguaging in a high school With 125 students from three classes took part in answering questions in questionnaires In accompany the questionnaire, 10 participants were interviewed to get in-depth data Classroom self-observation was also used to justify the reliability and validity of the information The results revealed that the use of translanguaging in the classroom enhanced the students’ participation in classroom learning activities, and achieved good effects on the student's learning

From the previous studies, it can be seen that translanguaging is an emerging pedagogy and has a great deal of benefits for teaching and learning “ Translanguaging is not solely a bilingual discourse or a pedagogy strategy for scaffolding instruction It is also the way that emergent bilinguals can, and do, self-regulate and advance their learning” Velasco and Garcia, (2014)

Concerning the research gap, it is necessary to suggest some factors for this investigation based on the literature review of relevant studies Translanguaging has been shown in numerous research to have a significant impact on students' writing and it may be used effectively to create a good and engaging academic writing environment One of the typical studies in the world is the article of Velasco and Garcia (2014) about translanguaging and the writing of bilingual learners or Rafi and Morgan (2022) whose article of translanguaging and power in academic writing discourse: a case of a Bangladeshi University In Vietnam, Luong (2020) explores the usefulness of translanguaging in Ha Nam high school Because translanguaging seems a new concept to scholars, researchers, and teachers in Vietnam, it receives little attention from them From these situations, two issues provoke the writer’s interest: university English major learners’ engagement in academic writing via translanguaging and factors affecting learning engagement in the classroom via translanguaging.

Conceptual framework

The conceptual framework is demonstrated based on the aims of the study, the two research questions to determine the extent and factors affecting TDMU students’ learning engagement in Academic writing via translanguaging

Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework of the thesis

This figure illustrates the framework of the whole thesis which includes the level and factors that affect English major students’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging

For the level of learning engagement, the study investigates three indicators: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement These dimensions are based on the theories of Fredricks et al (2004) In terms of emotional engagement, these authors point out that it relates to the affective reactions of students such as interest, boredom, happiness, sadness, and anxiety to teachers, classmates, academics, and schools Besides, they also demonstrate the identification of belonging (feeling important to the school) and value (appreciating the successful outcomes) Cognitive engagement stresses an investment in learning and an involvement of self-regulation, a close combination of thoughtfulness and willingness to make an effort to master complicated ideas and skills While behavioral engagement refers to three ways which firstly involves positive conduct including “following the rules, adhering to classroom norms”, and “the absence of disruptive behaviors such as skipping school and getting in trouble” Secondly, it is related to learning and academic tasks and it consists of behaviors such as “effort, persistence, concentration, attention, asking questions, and contributing to the class discussion.” Thirdly, behavioral engagement concerns participation in school- related activities

For factors affecting learning engagement when using translanguaging, student- related factors are divided into small sub-groups Firstly, the learner’s motivation is developed by the theory of Dornyei (2001), motivation refers to “the learner’s enthusiasm, commitment, and persistence.” Secondly, the learner’s attitude belongs to a psychological tendency that manifests as a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a specific entity (Eagly & Chaiken, 2007) Lastly, the learner’s language proficiency is based on the view of Renandya et al (2018) who define language proficiency as the ability to use a language for many communicative aims A person having a good command of the language is believed to understand the language easily, make various ideas clear in speech and writing, and interact with other people comfortably Returning to teacher-related factors, it contains two sub-groups in which teaching techniques refer to various strategies that teachers choose to implement in the classroom so that they can bring benefits to learners and get the most learning achievement (Dorgu, 2015), and teacher’s language proficiency is based on Richards’ (2010) theory states the ability of a high teacher’s language proficiency in the classroom such as providing good language models, using appropriate language classroom, and giving accurate explanations Relating to learning environment-related factors, according to Amadioha (2009), instructional materials refer to a means of communication that instructors can use to clarify abstract ideas or principles during the learning and teaching process Amadioha

(2009) also affirms that instructional materials are to facilitate the process of learning and teaching, present various learning theories, interest learners, offer a reality of experience, and enhance continuous thought In terms of peer sub-group, Philp et al

(2013, p.3) define peer interaction in the classroom as participants who work collaboratively to achieve learning goals

In a word, this conceptual framework is considered as a roadmap to see two main points whether translanguaging increases English majors’ learning engagement or not and factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement when using translanguaging in academic writing classes.

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The purpose of the present paper is to examine the level of English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging and find out factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging To address these purposes, the study poses two research questions:

1 How do English majors engage in academic writing classes when using translanguaging at Thu Dau Mot University?

2 What are the factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes when using translanguaging at Thu Dau Mot University?

To respond to the above questions, this chapter of the study presents the type of research design, instruments, and how data are collected and analyzed Besides, the research site and participants are described in detail.

Research setting

The study was carried out at Thu Dau Mot University located at No.6 Tran Van On Street, Phu Hoa Ward, Thu Dau Mot City, Binh Duong Province It is a public university that is managed by The People’s Committee of Binh Duong Province Over ten years of transferring from a local college of training teachers to a multidisciplinary and multi- field university, the university has 50 majors for undergraduate students, 11 majors for

MA, and 1 major for Ph.D attracting a number of students coming from different parts of the country The university has always made an effort to innovate the teaching and learning quality so that students can get the latest knowledge and skills, so it was honorary to get the UPM (University Performance Metrics) four stars standard in August

In the field of teaching English at the university, it can be seen that the students are divided into two basic groups: Non-English major students and English major ones English major students are separated into small types: Full-time English majors get bachelor's degrees after studying for four years; second-degree English majors are the students whose previous degrees not majoring in English; Bachelor English majors are students transferring from college to university

In the curriculum of English majors at TDMU, Full-time English major students have to spend 58 subjects with 120 credits, 70 credits for second-degree students to graduate while three writing courses “Essential Writing, Strategy Writing, Academic Writing, and Critical Writing” are required for students to enter the next specialized subjects The students explored the aligned coursebooks Q-Skills For Success Reading and Writing 2 to 5 Academic writing is not instructed separately but is combined with reading, and has 3 credits in total Specifically, the students have 2 credits (1 theory credit and 1 practice credit) for Academic writing and 1 credit for Reading In short, TDMU students will experience 45 periods to learn Academic writing

A writing section in the classroom often experiences three stages During pre- writing, teachers provide the necessary vocabulary related to the writing topic There are some abstract words or phrasal verbs that need to use L1 to explain for students to understand them well The appearance of translanguaging in this stage is necessary for explaining the meaning of words For while-writing, many academic activities are organized in the classroom Learners are assigned to work in groups to collect ideas Or learners also look for the topic information from various sources such as books, the internet, and so on These sources may be gathered from L1 or the target language Translanguaging in this case helps learners to gather information for the topics Finally, teachers give feedback to the students about their products in both Vietnamese and English so that high and low students can recognize their writing mistakes Translanguaging in this phrase helps students to understand their mistakes more deeply and clearly and how to avoid them

In a word, from the three stages of academic writing classes at Thu Dau Mot University, the application of translanguaging in the classroom is essential to make clear instructions from teachers and build confidence in learners' engagement Furthermore, translanguaging is the main pedagogical tool for teachers and learners to attain a successful writing period

The aim of the study is to explore the English majors’ learning engagement via translanguaging, so the population of the study is all English major students at Thu Dau Mot University Before learning Academic writing, learners experienced the subjects

“Essential Writing” and “Strategy Writing” The researcher chose convenience sampling for this study because the participants of the study “meet certain practical criteria such as geographical proximity, availability at a certain time, easy accessibility, or the willingness to volunteer” (Dornyei, 2007, p.99) Furthermore, according to Creswell (2012, p.146), the participants in convenience sampling are “willing and available to be studied” The samples of the study are 84 second-year students coming from two classes and one class from 29 second-degree students majoring in English since all of the students are taught the subject of academic writing in the second year and available at the time when the researcher was doing the study in the school year 2022-2023

Most lecturers of the foreign language faculty at TDMU have graduated from well- known international and national universities owning Ph.D and M.A degrees with high qualifications The two experienced M.A teachers were in charge of teaching these academic writing classes One teacher taught two classes of the second-year English major students and another taught the second-degree English major students Before carrying out the study, the researcher invited these lecturers to discuss translanguaging These lecturers admitted that they used it to teach students in academic writing classes

All of the participants have studied the coursebook Q-skills For Success Reading and Writing which the students have many chances to experience different topics with many academic words

Students were divided into two phases: students for the questionnaires and students for the interview The number of students for the questionnaire is the overall number of students presenting at the time the researcher collected data

The questionnaires were administered to students of three English major classes to collect data Some students were absent from the class as the researcher delivered the questionnaires, so there were 116 participants answering the questions Only 113 students’ valid questionnaires were collected from the two classes (one class of 45 students, another of 39 students) of the second year, and one class (29 students) of a second-degree major in English

The demographic information of the participants in Table 3.1 shows genders, duration of learning English, extra classes of English, and time to explore English a day

It can be seen from this table that the number of female students (73,5%) is nearly 3 times more than male students (26,5%) The number of female students in these classes is higher than the number of male students because of the distinct characteristics of language classes Next, the age from 19 to 20 of the students coming from the three classes occupies 58.4% more than the age over 20 To explain this data, the second-year students coming from two classes are between 19 and 20 while most second-degree students are over 20 years old After that, the number of students learning English under

7 years (12,4%) is proximately as much as those who study English from 7-8 years (11,5%) On the other hand, the number of students who have learned English more than

8 years (76,1%) is six times as much as those who have studied English under 7 years and from 7 to 8 years Then, the number of students who have extra English classes (20,4%) is 3 times less than those who do not have extra English classes (79,6%)

Finally, the number of students spending on self-study English from 1 to 3 hours (47,8%) is the most while over 3 hours (14,1%) is the least The information about the learners’ extra English classes and the amount of time on self-study English to use for discussion

In short, the students for the questionnaire provided useful informative items mentioned above for the next analysis and discussion

Table 3.1 The participants’ general information of questionnaires

Self-study English per day

The next phase is students for the interview The researcher returned to the three classes after two weeks of collecting the questionnaire All of the students were asked for having an interview voluntarily After all, 24 participants from these classes volunteered and were divided into 6 groups to take part in the group interview

Research design

Research design is a crucial element in research when data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted by using quantitative and qualitative research (Creswell, 2012) Polit et al (2001) affirm research design is conducted to answer the research questions or test the research hypothesis

Dawson (2009, pp.14-15) defines “Qualitative research explores attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through such methods as interviews or focus groups” In addition, he affirms the use of large-scale survey research with methods such as questionnaires or structured interviews will be generated statistics through quantitative research

Creswell (2012) also reveals that a process of gathering, analyzing, and “mixing” qualitative and quantitative methods to comprehend a research problem is known as a mixed methods research design Moreover, he mentions the benefit of using this approach is that a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches in one or more studies helps us to have a better understanding of a research problem

In general, a mixed methods research design was exploited in this study after considering the problems and answering two research questions such as the extent of English majors’ learning engagement and factors affecting students’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging at Thu Dau Mot University Furthermore, questionnaires and interviews are instruments to collect data in the study Questionnaires were analyzed by quantitative method while interviews were analyzed by qualitative method The use of mixed methods is completely suitable for this research.

Research instruments

Creswell (2012, p.157) defined that instruments measure the variables in the study After considerating the search problems, the two research questions, and the research design, two instruments such as a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview were used to collect data

Naresh (2006) declared that “a questionnaire is a formalized set of questions for obtaining information from respondents” A questionnaire is exploited in this research because it owns many advantages acknowledged by famous researchers Firstly, Naresh

(2006) affirms that the data collected from the questionnaires are consistent and coherent for analysis Besides, it is easy, accurate, and speedy to process the data Secondly, according to Creswell (2012, p.376), questionnaires allow researchers to discover the beliefs and attitudes of individuals It is a suitable method for this study to find out the learners’ engagement in the classroom through using translanguaging pedagogy A questionnaire can be seen commonly in many types of research and is a valuable tool for researchers to collect data in surveys Finally, Patten (2016, pp 1-2) lists three advantages of using questionnaires in a study They provide an effective way to get data because a questionnaire can be administered simultaneously to hundred and fifty participants and is easy to tabulate or score Questionnaires may be conducted anonymously, so they are useful for gathering information on sensitive matters Compared to interview research, questionnaires are economical when researchers conducting questionnaires just spend expenses on duplication

The questionnaire was constructed with a list of items of close-ended questions because it owns some advantages The questions tend to be quicker to administer, easier and quicker for the researcher to record responses and code (Dawson, 2009)

With the purpose of the study and two research questions, the questionnaire was adapted from the statements of Fredricks et al (2004) on students’ learning engagement, Dornyei (2001), Eagly and Chaiken (2008), Renandya et al (2018), Dorgu (2005), Richards (2010), Amadioha (2009) and Philip et al (2017) for factors affecting student’s learning engagement in academic writing classes In general, the questionnaire with 48 items contains two main parts: part I for the participant’s personal information, part II for the level of learning engagement via translanguaging, and factors affecting learning engagement in writing classes via translanguaging (see table 3.3) A five-point Likert scale is exploited in this study because it is manageable and faster than other scales Furthermore, it is easy for researchers to construct and the respondents can give their opinions straightforwardly (Tanujaya et al., 2022)

Part 2 A- The level of learning engagement via translanguaging

B- Factors affecting learning engagement in writing classes when using translanguaging

In the first part of the questionnaire, there are five variables of the participant’s demographic information investigated such as age, gender, years of experience in learning English, extra English classes if having, and the amount of time they spent on self-studying English The researcher considered these variables because of the following reasons

Firstly, knowing the participants’ age and gender, the researcher identifies the characteristics of the participant group such as cognitive, affective, and behavioral abilities about translanguaging They can represent the population of the study

Secondly, by realizing years of experience in learning English, extra English classes if having, and the amount of time spent on self-studying English, the researcher can evaluate the number of time duration that the participants have been exposed to English In this way, the research can have a conclusion about the relationship between time and the level of learning engagement via translanguaging in the class

In short, the participant's information in this study is a necessary tool that provides a general overview of respondents and valuable data for the next parts

Section A: Learning engagement via translanguaging

The items of this section were constructed from the theory of Fredricks et al (2004) in order to gauge the learners’ viewpoints on learning engagement via translanguaging in an academic writing class because this theory is suitable for the purpose of the study Moreover, it is capable for the researcher to answer the two research questions The questions in this section are developed based on three components of learning engagement: Emotional engagement, Behavioral engagement, and Cognitive engagement As a result, 12 items were built up based on these components These items with close-ended questions are answered by ranking a five-point Likert scale ( from 1 strongly dislike to 5 strongly like) It can be clearly seen in Table 3.4, each of the 4 items is designed to gauge the emotional learning engagement, cognitive engagement, and behavioral engagement of English major students via translanguaging

Table 3.4 Description of the level of English Major Students’ learning engagement via translanguaging

A Level of learning engagement via translanguaging Learning engagement components Number of items

SECTION B: Factors affecting learning engagement in writing classes via translanguaging

In this section, the items of the questionnaire are designed to examine the factors affecting the English major students’ learning engagement in writing classes via translanguaging There are three main factors: teachers, learners, and environment- related factors which are classified in this study The items of these factors are designed based on the view of Dornyei 2001, Eagly and Chaiken 2008, and Renandya et al 2018 for learner-related factors Similarly, Dorgu (2005) and Richards (2010) are for teachers- related factors while the environment-related factors are from Amadioha 2009 and Philip et al 2017

Each factor is also gauged with three dimensions: emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement, behavioral engagement The close-ended questions are also formed with five Likert scales ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree

Table 3.5 Description of English major students’ factors affecting learning engagement in writing classes via translanguaging

Besides using questionnaires, an interview in the second phase was used in this study According to Creswell (2012, p.218), interviews provide useful information as participants can not observe directly by the researcher Additionally, the interviewer has more control over the kind of information obtained

In this study, semi-structured interviews were chosen to be an instrument to collect data because they can provide specific information and important information (Dawson,

2009) The researcher conducted focus group interviews because they can provide many opinions and sentiments that people have about various subjects while also revealing the disparities in viewpoints between various groups of people Moreover, it can “generate large amounts of data in a relatively short time span” (Rabiee, 2004) Similarly, Creswell

(2012, p.218) affirms that focus group interviews likely offer the best information when informants discuss together and save time when individuals are hesitant

In this study, the participants coming from three classes were asked to attend the interview voluntarily Then the researcher divided each class into two groups and each group of four participants was chosen randomly to provide more opinions about learning engagement with using translanguaging in academic writing classes In other words, the researcher desired to get deeper information from the questionnaire Like the questionnaire, the researcher and the interviewees freely asked and answered all items in Vietnamese to make sure that the interviewees understand all the questions and answer correctly what they would like to share Moreover, the researcher carried out a pilot interview before having official interviews to make sure that all items were clear and get essential information

The items of the interview were designed to address the purpose of the study and two research problems Questions from 1 to 3 investigate the level of English major students’ learning engagement in the academic writing class via translanguaging The rest of the questions from 4 to 6 examine the factors affecting the students’ learning engagement in the academic writing class via translanguaging

Table 3.6 Description of Semi-structured interview content

1 Level of student’s emotional engagement in the academic writing class via translanguaging.

2 Level of student’s cognitive engagement in the academic writing class via translanguaging

3 Level of student’s behavioral engagement in the academic writing class via translanguaging.

4 Factors relating to students may affect English learning engagement in the academic writing class via translanguaging.

5 Factors relating to teachers may affect English learning engagement in the academic writing class via translanguaging.

6 Factors relating to the learning environment may affect English learning engagement in the academic writing class via translanguaging.

Procedure of data collection

Before administering the questionnaires and doing the official interviews with the sample of the study, these items of questionnaires and interviews were piloted Dawson

(2009) affirms piloting is an extremely important process that tests the length, structure, and wording of the questionnaire in order to discover ambiguities According to

Creswell (2012), a pilot test should be carried out in order to make sure that individuals understand the questions and capably complete the survey

For the questionnaire, the items were translated into Vietnamese in order that participants could understand the questions clearly Ten students from these writing classes, who were invited to the pilot study, did not include answers in the official questionnaire After completing the questionnaire, there were some suggestions received from them such as some problems in translating into Vietnamese and changing the degree name of part A

For the interview, two groups of participants, who did not participate in the real interview, were invited to the pilot interview The items of the interview were translated into Vietnamese to make sure that learners could understand the items well The researcher set up a comfortable atmosphere so that the interviewees could respond to the answers freely and confidently While the researcher gave the questions in order, sub- questions sometimes were added after the responses On the whole, the informants answered the questions smoothly without hesitation and misunderstanding Therefore, the items of the interview did not need changing

In short, based on the result of the pilot of the questionnaire and interview The researcher readjusted some above suggestions in the questionnaire while the items of the interview remained in the same format and questions

The present study aims to examine the level and factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging A reasonable procedure is constructed to collect data from the questionnaires and semi-structured interviews

3.5.2.1 Procedure of collecting data from the questionnaire

The questionnaire was administered to the second-year students of two classes on the two days 23 rd and the second-degree English major students on the 26 th of February which belongs to the 10 th week of studying academic writing Firstly, the researcher attended the classes to explain the purpose of the study Besides, the personal information of informants would be used in this study and kept secret Next, 116 questionnaires were delivered to participants of three classes After that, the researcher went through each item of the questionnaire in Vietnamese and made clear whether the questions were raised when the participants completed each item with a five-point Likert scale The researcher just moved to another item when all of the students completely fill in the questionnaire papers It took 35 minutes for the students to complete all of the items

3.5.2.2 Procedure of collecting data from semi-structured interviews

After collecting data from the questionnaires, the researcher read and checked the questionnaire so as to choose the interviewees A week later from the 2 nd of March to the 5 th of March, the researcher returned the three classes, chose some students, and asked some to take part in the interview voluntarily There were six groups while each class formed 2 groups, and each group had 4 participants To make sure that students understand the questions clearly, avoid equivocal answers, and get reliable results, the researcher carried out the interview in Vietnamese although the students are majors in English Each interview often lasts from 25 to 35 minutes

At the beginning of the interview, the researcher asked permission from the students to be allowed to record their speech and personal information such as name, age, years of experience in learning English, extra English classes if having, and the amount of time spent on self-studying English After that, the researcher asked questions in order The interviewer thanked for the participant's participation and cooperation at the end of the interview Then the recording was transcribed for the next analysis of the qualitative method

The data collection phase 1: Questionnaires

Samples: 113 students from English major at Thu Dau Mot University

- To examine the level of English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging

- To find out factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes when using translanguaging

Data collection from Phase 1 was used to supply the semi-structured in Phase 2

The data collection phase 2: Semi-structured interview

Samples: 24 students from English major at Thu Dau Mot University

- To explain deeply and sufficiently examine the level of English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes when using translanguaging or not

- To explain factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes when using translanguaging.

Data analysis

The researcher analyzed the data after the questionnaires were collected Because of the desire that the participants could understand clearly all the items, the researcher explained the classes about the items So, students directly completed the items in the classroom when the participants were administered copies of questionnaire papers The responses of the participants were manually entered into the software SPSS 22.0 when the data of questionnaires were analyzed by the quantitative method Specifically, descriptive statistics with Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD), and Frequency (F) were carried out to process the data of the questionnaire to examine the level of English majors’ learning engagement as well as find out factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging at TDMU

The Mean was calculated to address two problems Firstly, the five-point Likert scale was from level 1 “strongly disagree” to level 5 strongly agree for the items about the level of English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging

Secondly, the student’s responses to the five-point Likert Scale ranging from 1

“strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree” investigate the factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging at TDMU The Mean scores of the two problems were interpreted as follows:

3.6.2 Procedure for analyzing semi-structured interview

The responses from the participants were transcribed and translated into English to analyze the qualitative data The responses of participants were coded and analyzed by using a content analysis approach According to Prasad (2015), the content analysis approach studies the content of communication which refers to “the meanings, contexts, and intentions contained in messages.” The semi-structured interviews were analyzed by the following steps First, the transcript of the interview’s content was written by listening many times At the same time, the researcher read again many times to master the participants’ responses and opinions Then, the researcher made a decision to categorize and made the framework for opinions and responses After having the well- categorized, the researcher transcribed Vietnamese utterances into English sentences Finally, the data of the transcript were interpreted into two main themes, the extent of learning engagement and factors affecting learning engagement via translanguaging

Table 3.7 Methods of data analysis in relation to the research questions and instruments Research questions Instruments Data analysis

R Q-1: How do English majors engage in in academic writing classes via translanguaging at Thu

R Q-2: What are the factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging at Thu

Reliability and validity

According to Creswell (2012), reliability represents the stability and consistency of the instruments’ scores which Means that the scores do not change and are consistent at different times In terms of validity, Creswell (2012, p.159) also defines it as “ the degree to which all of the evidence points to the intended interpretation of test scores for the proposed purpose.” To achieve qualified results, reliability and validity should be discussed in this study

To ensure that the questionnaires were reliable and valid, some factors were taken into consideration as followings:

Firstly, before administering the questionnaires to the real sample, a pilot was conducted to ensure that all the items were not wordy, unclear, and ambiguous Some items were made changes based on the feedback from the piloting participants

Secondly, the researcher took part in the class, explained the purpose of the study, and created a comfortable environment for participants to answer their questions Besides, the researcher responded to some students’ questions to make clear the questions

Thirdly, the questionnaires were translated into Vietnamese to avoid students misunderstanding the items

Besides, the questionnaire content must be suitable for the purpose of the study and the samples of the study

Finally, the software SPSS 22 analyzes the data of the questionnaires by descriptive statistics while Cronbach’s alpha represents the reliability of the data Specifically, Cronbach’s alpha measures each item of the questionnaires is related closely According to Sharma (2016), the acceptable coefficient of Cronbach alpha is ranging from 0.7 to 0.95 Besides, Cristobal (2007) highlighted the item-total correlation, which is carried out to improve the levels of Cronbach’s alpha, is more than 0.3

In terms of the level of English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging at TDMU, three dimensions are analyzed with the following Cronbach alpha values Emotional engagement = 0.894 > 0.7, Cognitive engagement 0.881> 0.7, Behavioral engagement = 0.776 > 0.7 These coefficiencies show that the items of the level of English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging at TDMU ensure the reliability of a study

Table 3.8 Reliability of the level of English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging at TDMU Dimensions of learning engagement Cronbach alpha values

Next, checking the reliability of the questionnaires’ factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging at TDMU is carried out with three big factors such as teacher-related factors, learner-related factors, and learning environment-related factors Specifically, the Cronbach Alpha of learner-related factors is 0.948 > 0.7; teacher-related factors= 0.937 > 0.7; learning environment-related factors= 0.928 > 0.7 These values of the items guarantee the reliability of the study and prepare for the statistical analysis in SPSS 22.0

Table 3.9 Reliability of the factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging at TDMU Factors affecting learner’s learning engagement Cronbach alpha values

To ensure the interviews are reliable and valid, the researcher conducted the following methods Firstly, all the items of the interview were translated into Vietnamese so that the interviewees could understand the questions clearly and avoid misunderstanding Mother tongue was used during the interview Secondly, a trial interview was carried out to check whether mistakes happened before the real interview

Finally, the content of the interviews was designed consistently and systematically based on the study’s two research questions.

Summary

The chapter presents the methodology and data analysis exploited in this study The researcher specifically introduced the research setting of the research site and the research participants Next, a mix-method is mentioned to determine the research design for this study After that, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews are discussed to collect data for the next statistical analysis The researcher lists the procedures to collect data from two instruments and how to analyze them Then, some solutions are conducted to ensure the reliability and validity of the study Finally, the summary discusses the overall chapter 3 and makes plans for the next chapter of reporting and analyzing

AND DISCUSSION

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to analyze and interpret the data from questionnaires and semi-interview, then present the results and the discussion of the study In terms of the result section, two main issues are reported in the data analysis: the level of English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging and the factors affecting learning engagement in writing classes via translanguaging at TDMU

On the other side, the discussion section deals with the research findings and the summary is at the end of the chapter

4.2.1 How do English majors engage in academic writing classes when using translanguaging at Thu Dau Mot University?

Three main components emotional engagement, cognitive engagement, and behavioral engagement are demonstrated in the findings In terms of emotional engagement, the researcher desires to measure how students feel about learning academic writing, the teacher’s techniques, learning environment by using translanguaging In cognitive engagement, the researcher examines students’ perception of translanguaging’s importance in academic writing class If they realize that translanguaging is fascinating, they will actively participate in class activities and pay attention to the teacher’s instruction Behavioral engagement is used to investigate how students’ attitudes toward translanguaging in academic writing classes If they have positive attitudes, they will spend more time studying English and make an effort to improve their English

Concerning the result of the questionnaire, the overall mean score of the English majors’ learning engagement is 4.07 which means the English major students positively participate in the academic writing class using translanguaging In particular, emotional engagement gets the highest mean score with M=4.20, SD=0.91, followed by cognitive engagement (M=4.11, SD=0.96) while the least mean score belongs to behavioral engagement with M=3.92 and SD= 1.00 In general, these mean scores show that the emotional engagement from the students in academic writing classes via translanguaging is higher than the level of cognitive engagement and behavioral engagement It means that students got engaged emotionally and cognitively in academic writing classes via translanguaging more than they did behaviorally

Table 4.1 Total mean scores of the level of English majors’ learning engagement

Note: M: Mean, SD: Standard deviation

This part demonstrates the emotional engagement of English major students in academic writing via translanguaging at TDMU The questionnaire in this part consists of 4 items which are described specifically in Table 4.2

Table 4.2 Total mean scores of the level of emotional engagement

1 I like to learn writing when my teacher uses translanguaging in the academic writing class 4.16 0.95

2 I like my teacher to use translanguaging to explain new words in the academic writing class 4.35 0.87

3 I like to use translanguaging to discuss with my classmates in the academic writing class 3.96 0.94

4 I like my teacher to use translanguaging to show us writing mistakes in the academic writing class 4.33 0.87

Note: M: mean, SD: Standard deviation

As can be seen from the table, the mean score of the emotional dimension is 4.20 which is in the range of 3.41-4.20 (like) This reveals that students enjoyed learning academic writing by using translanguaging Particularly, the students liked teachers to use translanguaging to explain new words (M=4.35, SD=0.87) Next, the students liked their teachers to use translanguaging to show us writing mistakes (M=4.33, SD=0.87) Besides, the students also liked to learn writing when their teacher used translanguaging in the academic writing class (M=4.16, SD=0.95) Finally, the learners liked to use translanguaging to discuss with their classmates (M=3.96, SD=0.94)

To attain meticulous information about the English major students’ learning engagement in the writing class from the quantitative data relating to emotional engagement, the qualitative data from the interview were also taken into consideration After conducting the interview, the results indicated that 83,3% of students admitted that translanguaging was interesting They shared some reasons for that:

“I feel that it is easy to acquire the knowledge and learn new words.” (S9)

“I will be tedious in a writing class with overall English because I don’t understand what the teacher says.” (S11)

“If I don’t understand any words, I can ask the teacher about them at once in Vietnamese If the teacher uses 100%, I will get bored with the reason that I can not understand all the words in English.” (S14)

“Translanguaging helps me to understand exactly what structures are and how they form.” (S23)

However, it accounts for 12.5% of students demonstrated that translanguaging is normal Here are some reasons that they shared:

“I prefer to learn writing class in English-only classes.” (S2)

“I feel normal because my job is related to a lot of English Therefore, English is not too difficult for me.” (S7)

“Nowadays, learning English tends to use 100% of English If there is Vietnamese in class, it won’t help me improve my English.” (S15)

Unlike so many students’ ideas, there are 4.2% of students don’t agree that translanguaging is exciting because

“Our major is English We have to use 100% of English If there is a problem that we don’t understand, we use Vietnamese This reduces our acquirement of English.” (S13)

This part measures the cognitive components of English major students’ learning engagement in academic writing classes when using translanguaging This dimension is measured by 4 items listed in Table 4.3

Table 4.3 Total mean scores of the level of cognitive engagement

I pay attention more to the lesson when my teacher uses translanguaging in the academic writing class

2 I remember words better when translanguaging is used in the academic writing class 4.13 0.99

I remember sentence structures better when translanguaging is used in the academic writing class

I can correct my writing mistakes better when translanguaging has been exploited in the academic writing class

Note: M: mean, SD: Standard deviation

It can be clearly seen that the mean score (M=4.11, SD=0.97) of this component is in the range of 4.11-4.20 (agree) It is implied that the students realized that translanguaging is significant to them Specifically, the participants could correct their writing mistakes (M=4.14, SD=0.90), remembered sentence structures better (M=4.15, SD=0.95), and paid attention more to the lesson (M=4.03, SD=1.02) when translanguaging has been exploited in the academic writing class

Turning to cognitive engagement that is related to students’ perception of translanguaging to help them improve their English From the interview’s collected data, it is evident that English major Students had positive attitudes about translanguaging Though some respondents felt translanguaging was not exciting, they also admitted that it is good for them

“It is necessary for me to understand precisely what I should do in writing class.” (S3)

“Well, I don’t think that a writing class with 100% of English can meet the requirements of all the students.” (S4)

“It is applicable to me Words are understood exactly So it is good.” (S5)

“I can remember the knowledge longer For example, I remembered the knowledge of the previous lessons with the classes having translanguaging I forgot everything in the English- only classes, and I had to learn again.” (S12)

“Although the teacher carefully explains the lessons in English, I can not understand problems clearly However, I will understand more with the presence of Vietnamese If the teacher tries to use overall English for a long time, I will become less confident Therefore, translanguaging is good.” (S14)

“Because my first language is not English, I don’t understand exactly what the teacher is explaining With the presence of Vietnamese, I can catch the knowledge clearer and more specifically.” (S18)

Besides, the results also receive neutral responses from the interviewees

“The demand of using translanguaging in academic writing classes occupies 50%.” (S3)

“This technique has two aspects The advantage is that I can know the meaning of words immediately while the disadvantage is we do not use our brains so much to analyze and remember words longer.” (S8)

This section consisting of 4 items explores the behavioral engagement of TDMU English major students in academic writing via translanguaging The results of the data analysis are described in Table 4.4

Table 4.4 Total mean scores of the level of behavioral engagement

1 I discuss with my peers by using translanguaging in the academic writing class 3.73 1.09

2 I discuss with my teacher in the academic writing class by using translanguaging 3.64 1.11

I find other sources in Vietnamese and English such as the internet, books…etc, for the academic writing class

With the explanation of my teacher using translanguaging, I try my best to listen to my teacher explaining our writing mistakes in the academic writing class

Note: M: mean, SD: Standard deviation

At first glance, the mean score of behavioral components attains within the range of 3.92-1.00 (agree) It is understood that the students had positive attitudes toward learning academic writing via translanguaging In particular, learners tried their best to listen to their teacher explaining their writing mistakes (M=4.62, SD=0.82) and found other sources in Vietnamese and English such as the internet, and books…(M=4.06, SD=0.97) Besides, they tried to discuss with their peers (M=3.73, SD=1.09), and discuss with their teacher (3.64, SD= 1.11)

Aligning with the quantitative data, qualitative data show that the interviewees also had positive behavioral learning engagement toward translanguaging Many of them gave interesting comments as follows:

“ I energetically took part in writing classes and understood the problems faster instead of turning and asking other partners.” (S3)

“I participate in English classes with translanguaging more actively than in English-only writing classes.” (S4)

“Being afraid of misunderstanding the teacher’s ideas I didn’t dare to raise my hands With translanguaging, I tried to answer questions to get points.” (S10)

“Well, of course, with Vietnamese, I could understand problems deeper, I engage more in the writing class.” (S24)

Nevertheless, the data also received neutral responses from 3 participants In the interview, they expressed the same idea:

“I tried to engage actively in the writing class with overall English or translanguaging to get bonuses." (S6, S13, S15)

The researcher also got the opposite idea with the first one

“I actively participated in English-only classes.” (S2)

4.2.2 Factors affecting English major’s learning engagement in writing classes via translanguaging at TDMU

To answer the second research question, this section goes into the description of the data analysis of three main factors such as learner-related factors, teacher-related factors, and learning environment-related factors

Three main factors such as learners’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, attitudes, and language proficiency are focused on the learners With regard to learner motivation, it is essential to know whether translanguaging makes the learners interested, and motivated in writing, engaging process, writing mistake correction, and group discussion In attitude engagement, it is important to see how interesting the learners study academic writing via translanguaging, and how useful they find translanguaging to improve their writing skills, grammar, and vocabulary As for learners’ language proficiency, it is necessary to investigate the reasons why academic writing should be learned with translanguaging The learners have a low level of English proficiency, they feel translanguaging interesting and desire to get engaged in the writing process Moreover, they believe translanguaging can improve their writing knowledge, academic vocabulary, grammar, and writing mistakes because of their low level of English

As can be seen from Table 4.5, it is noticed that the mean score of the learner- related factors is rather high (M=4.03, SD=0.95) The learner's factors are assessed by

Discussion

In this section, the results of mixed methods such as quantitative and qualitative methods were discussed to clarify the two research questions in the first chapter

4.3.1 How do English majors engage in in academic writing classes when using translanguaging at Thu Dau Mot University?

This section discusses the results to clarify the first research question From the quantitative analysis of the questionnaire and the qualitative of the semi-structured interview, the findings of the study revealed that the English major students had high levels of translanguaging in three dimensions including emotional engagement, cognitive engagement, and behavioral engagement In detail, the level of emotional engagement is higher than that of cognitive and behavioral engagement It can be inferred that the student engaged emotionally more than cognitively and behaviorally in the writing class through translanguaging It can be possibly explained by the fact that most of them have learned English for a long time Some have experienced English since they were in grade 6 or even grade 3 However, they admitted their English proficiency was low In addition, they seldom had extra English classes outside the university If there was the presence of L1 (using translanguaging) in the classroom, it was sure that they liked to learn writing and discussed learning problems with their classmates They especially liked their teacher explaining new words and showed their writing mistakes by using translanguaging These findings are in line with Yazlu and Dikilitas (2022), who agreed that the students were more secure and favorable to the implementation of translanguaging in the classroom The result is also similar to Rafi and Morgan’s results

(2022) in that thanks to translanguaging, students felt comfortable communicating ideas and understanding lecturers’ instruction This finding is supported by Pekrun and Garcia

(2012) that emotions affect the learner’s effort, motivation, and strategies for learning

In terms of cognitive engagement, the findings also indicated that the students had a high level of realizing the importance of translanguaging The results can be explained that when teachers were instructing the lesson in overall English, learners did not understand at some points They found a suitable tool to make them clear Translanguaging was useful at that time Therefore, the learners agreed that translanguaging was good and necessary The finding was also consistent with Yazlu and Dikilitas (2022) that their learners promoted cognitive engagement through the use of translanguaging

Returning to behavioral engagement, the results also got a high level of behavioral engagement A possible explanation from the findings is that as the learners understood the problems clearly via L1 and were allowed to use translanguaging in the lesson, so they were confident and comfortable This led them to be eager and active to contribute their ideas to the lessons This result is also the same idea as Chen (2018) the students engaged in more writing steps, from pre-writing to revising thanks to translanguaging

However, the results of the questionnaires and semi-structured interviews also received some following neutral ideas from respondents in the three dimensions They engaged actively to get bonuses in the class whether translanguaging was used in the class or not Even they did not support the implementation of translanguaging in the class It can be explained that the learners worried about the L1 would destroy their learning Interestingly, most ideas came from learners with high English language proficiency This is similar to Yavuz’s view (2012); Kwihangana (2021) that it will build bad habits for language learning and teaching and jeopardize their effort to become fluent in English

In a word, the findings of using two instruments such as questionnaires and semi- structured interviews indicated that the English major students demonstrated positive learning engagement in the academic writing class when using translanguaging In other words, the use of translanguaging forces English majors to engage actively in emotion, cognition, and behavior in their academic writing classes at Thu Dau Mot University

4.3.2 Factors affecting English major’s learning engagement in writing classes via translanguaging

In the first discussion, it is clearly stated that the students have positive learning engagement toward translanguaging in academic writing class To address the second research question, the next discussion is about the factors affecting the learner’s learning engagement related to translanguaging

As mentioned in the previous chapters, there are three main factors mentioned in the study such as learner, teacher, and environment-related factors, teacher-related Based on the results of the questionnaire quantitative analysis, learners are the strongest factors compared with learning environment-related factors and teacher-related factors However, the findings indicate that these factors have positively affected learners’ learning engagement in the writing class via translanguaging

For the learner-related factors, the learner’s attitude is the strongest, followed by the learner’s language proficiency, and the learner’s motivation at the back From the results, it can be clearly explained that with the use of translanguaging, students felt it interesting, good, and comfortable to take part in the class For learners of a low English proficiency level, translanguaging became important to them Moreover, the students could understand the lesson and be motivated more to engage in the writing class This finding is supported by Eshghinejad (2016) who points out that attitude is a fundamental component in improving language learning although it is closely related to motivation and anxiety At the same time, this finding is also supported by Purmama et al (2019) who state that without motivation, it is difficult for learners to achieve learning goals The results provided more ideas to Ghenghesh (2015) that low language proficiency may engage fully in the learning process via translanguaging However, the results contrasted with Kwihangana’s finding (2021) that the learners preferred the English- only classes and felt uncomfortable with the use of translanguaging The findings are similar to Yagagami (2023) that students have a positive attitude toward translanguaging

Returning to learning environment-related factors, materials and peers are two sub-factors that were discussed in this section Materials sub-factors are stronger than peers In other words, the use of materials affected learning engagement more than peers The findings can be explained that materials had complicated contents, academic terms, terminological words, grammar, and abstract academic vocabulary These elements caused the learner’s curiosity and made them more engaged in the class Thanks to translanguaging, the learners could understand the complicated English structures and contents and get them to engage in the writing process The finding of this study is in line with Tomlinson (2012) that materials provide information, guide the learners in practicing the language, encourage the learners to use the language, and help the learners make discoveries about the language Peer sub-factors are also important in affecting learning engagement with M=3.92 (SD=0.97) This finding can be explained that learners had close relationships with their partners when learning tasks from materials, solving learning problems, and doing class activities Therefore, via translanguaging, peers affecting positively in their learning engagement is obvious in the writing class This result is consistent with Mbirimi-Hungwe’s finding (2020, p.254) that when translanguaging was exploited in the class, “the learners were able to work cohesively and productively using different languages.” Besides, if the learners are allowed to use translanguaging in the class, they will be confident and comfortable sharing ideas, and participating in class activities such as working with individuals, pairs, and groups

From the results of the study, teacher-related factors also affected positively the learning engagement in the writing class Specifically, sub-factors of teaching techniques are stronger than language proficiency In other words, the teacher’s teaching method affected the learner’s learning engagement more positively than the teacher’s language proficiency It can be explained that if the teacher had a good teaching method, the teacher would use translanguaging suitably in the learning process This encouraged the learners to engage more in the classroom The learners would be eager and understand the lesson more In terms of teacher language proficiency, this sub-factor also affects positively the learners’ learning engagement This result aligns with the findings of Richards and his colleagues (2013, p.243) that teachers with a high level of target language proficiency “provided rich target language input” and “a wide range of language structure and vocabulary”, and “responded spontaneously to their learners in Engish as appropriate” If a teacher’s language proficiency is good in a writing class via translanguaging, he will choose an appropriate language English or Vietnamese to provide good language models, give clear accurate explanations of words, grammatical structures, and useful feedback on the learner’s writing

In a word, based on the findings of the study, it can be concluded that with the use of translanguaging, the learning engagement of English major students at TDMU is positively affected by three main factors learner-related factors, learning environment- related factors, and teacher-related factors in order.

AND IMPLICATIONS

Introduction

This chapter is built with four sections In the first section, there is a summary of the main points of the current research Pedagogical implications for teaching and learning academic writing via translanguaging at TDMU are presented in the second section Then, the next section points out some limitations which should be avoided for further research though the current study has valuable contributions Lastly, the final section provides some suggestions for future research.

Summary of the main findings of the study

The current study was designed to investigate two problems such as whether the use of translanguaging increases the Thu Dau Mot University English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes and the factors affecting the English major students learning engagement when using translanguaging Here is the summary of the main findings to answer the two research questions

Research question 1: How do English majors engage in academic writing classes when using translanguaging at Thu Dau Mot University?

With reference to emotional, cognitive, and behavioral engagement, the results of this investigation have shown that the English major students expressed positive impacts on their learning engagement in the writing class via translanguaging Remarkably, through the collected data, it can be seen that emotional learning engagement was higher than cognitive engagement and behavioral engagement It was concluded that translanguaging made English major students more excited and comfortable to experience academic writing sections than in the classes with overall English Besides, translanguaging enables learners to invest more in the lesson such as paying attention to the lesson, remembering words and sentence structures better, and correcting writing mistakes by themselves It can not deny that translanguaging enables learners to discuss actively with teachers, partners, and find suitable other sources for learning academic writing

Research question 2: What are the factors affecting English majors’ learning engagement in academic writing classes when using translanguaging at Thu Dau Mot University?

One of the more significant findings obtained from the questionnaires and interviews to emerge from this study is that the three main factors: learner, teacher, and learning environment related-factors had also positive impacts on the student's learning engagement However, the learner-related factors had the biggest effect if compared with the teacher-related factors and learning environment-related factors Specifically, the emotion of the learners was the highest component relating to their learning engagement It could be drawn that the learners’ emotions, attitudes, and language proficiency had affected their learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging.

Implications for teaching and learning academic writing via translanguaging74

As mentioned earlier in the study, the paper set out to determine the level of English major students’ learning engagement and the factors affecting their learning engagement in academic writing classes via translanguaging From the results of the students, there are some implications for teachers, administrators, and learners

From the results of the research paper, it can be seen that the students show interest in using translanguaging in academic writing classes Therefore, after this study, teachers at TDMU need to apply translanguaging in writing classes more frequently Particularly, when translanguaging is used, teachers should flexibly decide the place of the lessons in which their students need it

In addition, all the factors such as learners, teachers, and learning environment have positively affected the English major students learning engagement in the writing sections Learner-related factors are one of the biggest impacts on learning engagement Consequently, teachers should pay more attention to the learners’ motivation, attitude, and English language proficiency so that the teacher can choose the suitable language for each situation and provide suitable teaching methods for students Besides, teachers should choose the appropriate extra materials with suitable students’ difficulty levels to supply more information or deepen the learning topics for learners Teachers ought not to choose materials that are too difficult with many academic words for learners or lower than the learners’ language proficiency However, teachers should not overuse the mother tongue which causes harmful habits to the learners in English language classes

Finally, teachers are the main moderators who control the use of translanguaging in the class If translanguaging is carried out suitably in the writing class, it is believed that the students will gain huge benefits from this technique

With the purpose of helping students learn academic writing more effectively and successfully, administrators should give teachers and students a chance to use the first language in the English classroom although the tendency of teaching English at present is overall English Specifically, the administrators should have training sections for teachers about teaching language by using translanguaging Besides, administrators should encourage teachers to collect learners’ responses about teachers’ teaching methods relating to the presence of the mother tongue in English classes

This research paper provides two big pieces of advice for learners in the case of using translanguaging in not only writing classes but also other subjects

Firstly, students should participate actively in learning activities of academic writing classes by using English For more details, students should interact energetically with teachers and partners, and try to find out information from materials in English Translanguaging should be used in case there are obstacles in the language Specifically, misunderstanding happens among teachers and learners, learners and learners while lessons are progressing Learners desire to know exactly the meaning of the words from teachers’ instructions, partners, and materials in their mother tongue

Secondly, learners should not abuse the first language in writing classes It can lead to the loss of skills such as guessing the meanings of new words, brainstorming, etc Translanguaging shows its advantages when it is exploited moderately in the language classroom In academic writing, translanguaging can clarify the meaning of unfamiliar words or concepts in L2 Thereby, it enables leaners to comprehend, build and expand vocabulary when the process of translating from L1 to L2 At the same time, learners can reinforce sentence structures, and grammar rules when teachers explain problems with the help of L1 Next, thanks to interacting with teachers, peers, and materials using translanguaging, learners can develop linguistic ability in both writing and communication skills Apart from these advantages, it can tighten the relationship between teachers and learners, peers and peers.

Limitations and suggestions for further studies

Despite the researcher’s efforts, it cannot be avoidable some limitations happening during conducting the research

The first limitation is that when the study was being conducted, it was lucky to have three academic writing classes such as two full-time classes of English major students and one class of second-degree students in progress Nevertheless, the samples of participants in these classes were not many to present the whole population of the university although it is acceptable for the mixed-method designs research Therefore, it is recommended that further research should have broader samples to gain more generalizable results for the population Besides, very little research on translanguaging in the country is carried out, so further investigations should explore translanguaging with speaking, reading, and listening skills or with other participants such as non-

English major students, high school learners, etc in order to check how translanguaging works with other situations

The next limitation is related to time since the learners were busy with their learning and part-time job, so there were twenty-four interviewees voluntarily taking part in the semi-structured interview It is believed that the more respondents participate, the more detailed and persuasive the findings achieved Therefore, it is suggested that further studies should recruit more participants for both questionnaires and semi- structured interviews

Lastly, this study was designed with mixed methods including two main instruments questionnaires and semi-structured interviews Therefore, the results are not generalizable Hence, further work should combine other instruments such as diaries and observations to investigate more precisely the level of learning engagement and factors affecting learning engagement via translanguaging Or further research in the Vietnamese context should broaden investigating the effect of translanguaging with two groups: the English-only monolingual group and the translanguaging group to see the difference between these groups

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APPENDICES APPENDIX A.1: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS

This questionnaire aims to investigate the English majors’ learning engagement when using translanguaging in academic writing classrooms All information provided will be kept secret and doesn’t affect your learning Besides, your responses will be used for this research only, not for other purposes Hope to get your real opinions and thanks for your co-operation!

Please tick () in the box that you choose

3 How long have you learned English?

Under 7 years 7-8 years Over 8 years

4 Have you learned extra English classes with tutors or at the language centers? Yes No

5 How many hours do you spend on self-study per day?

Less than 1 hour 1 to 3 hours Over 3 hours

Please read carefully, give your opinion, then choose your degree ranging from:

1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree

Please, put a tick () for each answer

Level of learning engagement via translanguaging

1 I like to learn writing when my teacher uses translanguaging in the academic writing class

2 I like my teacher to use translanguaging to explain new words in the academic writing class

3 I like to use translanguaging to discuss with my classmates in the academic writing class

4 I like my teacher to use translanguaging to show us writing mistakes in the academic writing class

5 I pay attention more to the lesson when my teacher uses translanguaging in the academic writing class

6 I remember words better when translanguaging is used in the academic writing class

7 I remember sentence structures better when translanguaging is used in the academic writing class

8 I can correct my writing mistakes better when translanguaging has been exploited in the academic writing class

9 I discuss with my peers by using translanguaging in the academic writing class

10 I discuss with my teacher in the academic writing class by using translanguaging

11 I find other sources in Vietnamese and English such as the internet, books…etc, for the academic writing class

12 With the explanation of my teacher using translanguaging,

I try my best to listen to my teacher explaining our writing mistakes in the academic writing class

Factors affecting learning Engagement in writing classes via Translanguaging

1 Learner’s motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic)

13 I am interested in writing via translanguaging in the academic writing class

14 I am motivated in writing via translanguaging in the academic writing class

15 I am motivated in engaging in the writing process via translanguaging in the academic writing class

16 I am motivated in engaging in the writing mistake correction via translanguaging in the academic writing class

17 I am motivated in engaging in the group discussion via translanguaging in the academic writing class

18 I find it exciting to learn writing via translanguaging in the academic writing class

19 I find it useful to improve my writing skill via translanguaging in the academic writing class

20 I find it useful to improve my vocabulary via translanguaging in the academic writing class

21 I find it useful to improve my grammar via translanguaging in the academic writing class

22 I find it useful to improve my cooperative learning via translanguaging in the academic writing class

23 I like to get engaged in the writing process via translanguaging in the academic writing class

24 I am interested in using translanguaging in the academic writing class because of my low level of English proficiency

25 I want to improve my knowledge of writing by using translanguaging in the academic writing class because of my low level of English proficiency

26 I want to improve my academic vocabulary of writing via using translanguaging in the academic writing class because of my vocabulary shortage

27 I want to improve my grammar by using translanguaging in the academic writing class because of my poor grammar

28 I want to improve my writing mistakes via translanguaging in the academic writing class

29 I want to get engaged in the writing process via translanguaging in the academic writing class because of my low level of English proficiency

30 My teacher’s method fascinates me to learn writing via translanguaging in the academic writing class

31 My teacher’s method improves my writing via translanguaging in the academic writing class

32 My teacher’s method makes me engage in the writing process in the academic writing class

33 My teacher likes using English in the academic writing class, which triggers me to use translanguaging

34 My teacher uses English to instruct me how to write in the academic writing class, which triggers me to use translanguaging

35 My teacher uses English to explain the academic vocabulary in the academic writing class, which triggers me to use translanguaging

36 My teacher uses English to instruct grammar in the academic writing class, which triggers me to use translanguaging

37 My teacher uses English to explain my mistakes in the academic writing class, which triggers me to use translanguaging

38 My teacher uses English to implement the writing process in the academic writing class, which triggers me to use translanguaging

III Learning environment-related factors

39 The contents of the academic writing materials make me curious to understand them via translanguaging

40 The academic terms of the academic writing materials make me curious to understand their meaning via translanguaging

41 The grammar of the academic writing materials makes me curious to understand it via translanguaging

42 Abstract academic vocabularies in materials increase my amount of vocabulary when translanguaging is used in the academic writing class

43 I can understand complicated English sentence structures in materials via translanguaging in the academic writing class

44 I can understand complicated English contents in materials via translanguaging in the academic writing class

45 Materials get me to engage in the writing process via translanguaging

46 I am excited to discuss academic writing lessons with my peers via translanguaging in the academic writing class

47 My peers help me improve my writing skill via translanguaging

48 My peers get engaged with me in the writing process via translanguaging in the academic writing class

(Vietnamese version) Các em sinh viên thân mến,

Bảng câu hỏi này với mục đích điều tra “Việc tham gia học tập của sinh viên chuyên ngành tiếng Anh trong lớp học viết học thuật có sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ” Tất cả những thông tin các em cung cấp sẽ được giữ bí mật và không ảnh hưởng đến việc học tập Ngoài ra, các câu trả lời của các em chỉ sử dụng cho mục đích bài nghiên cứu này, không dành cho mục đích khác Hy vọng sẽ nhận được câu trả lời chính xác và một lần nữa cảm ơn sự hợp tác của các em!

Phần 1: Thông tin cá nhân

Xin vui lòng chọn và đánh dấu () trong ô

3 Thời gian em học tiếng Anh bao lâu?

Dưới 7 năm 7-8 năm Trên 8 năm

4 Em có học thêm gia sư tiếng Anh hoặc ở trung tâm?

5 Mỗi ngày em tự học tiếng Anh bao lâu? Ít hơn 1 giờ 1 đến 3 giờ Trên 3 giờ

Xin vui lòng đọc kỹ, đưa ra ý kiến và chọn các mức độ bằng cách đánh dấu () cho mỗi câu trả lời:

1 = Hoàn toàn không đồng ý; 2 = Không đồng ý; 3 = Trung lập; 4 = Đồng ý; 5 = Hoàn toàn đồng ý

Mức độ tham gia học tập thông qua thủ thuật chuyển ngữ translanguaging

1 Cảm xúc tham gia học tập

1 Em thích học môn viết học thuật khi giáo viên sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ

2 Em thích giáo viên sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ để giải thích từ mới trong giờ học viết học thuật

3 Em thích giáo viên sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ để thảo luận với bạn học cùng lớp trong giờ học viết học thuật

4 Em thích giáo viên sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ để chỉ cho chúng em lỗi viết sai trong giờ học viết học thuật

2 Nhận thức tham gia học tập

5 Em chú ý bài nhiều hơn khi giáo viên sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ học viết học thuật

6 Em nhớ từ vựng tốt hơn khi giáo viên sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ học viết học thuật

7 Em nhớ cấu trúc câu tốt hơn khi thủ thuật chuyển ngữ được dùng trong giờ học viết học thuật

8 Em có thể sửa lỗi sai của em khi thủ thuật chuyển ngữ được dùng trong giờ học viết học thuật

3 Hành vi tham gia học tập

9 Em thảo luận với bạn học trong giờ viết học thuật bằng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ

10 Em thảo luận bài với giáo viên trong giờ viết học thuật bằng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ

11 Em tìm các nguồn học khác như trên internet, sách…bằng tiếng Anh lẫn tiếng Việt trong giờ viết học thuật

12 Giáo viên giảng bài sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ, em cố gắng hết sức để lắng nghe thầy cô giảng bài về lỗi sai của chúng em trong giờ học viết học thuật

Yếu tố tác động đến việc tham gia học tập trong giờ học viết học thuật có sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ translanguaging

I Yếu tố liên quan đến người học

1 Động lực của người học (Bên trong và bên ngoài)

13 Em quan tâm đến việc học viết thông qua thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ viết học thuật

14 Em có động lực học viết thông qua thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ viết học thuật

15 Em có động lực tham gia vào quá trình học viết thông qua thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ viết học thuật

16 Em có động lực tham gia vào quá trình sửa lỗi viết sai thông qua thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ viết học thuật

17 Em có động lực tham gia vào thảo luận nhóm thông qua thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ viết học thuật

18 Em nhận thấy sự hứng thú khi học viết thông qua thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ viết học thuật

19 Em nhận thấy thủ thuật chuyển ngữ hữu ích để cải thiện kỹ năng viết của em trong giờ viết học thuật

20 Em nhận thấy thủ thuật chuyển ngữ hữu ích để cải thiện từ vựng của em trong giờ viết học thuật

21 Em nhận thấy thủ thuật chuyển ngữ hữu ích để cải thiện ngữ pháp của em trong giờ viết học thuật

22 Em nhận thấy thủ thuật chuyển ngữ hữu ích để cải thiện học tập hợp tác của em trong giờ viết học thuật

23 Em muốn được tham gia vào quá trình viết thông qua thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ viết học thuật

3 Trình độ ngôn ngữ người học

24 Em thích sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ trong giờ học viết học thuật bởi vì năng lực tiếng Anh của em thấp

25 Thông qua học thủ thuật chuyển ngữ, em muốn cải thiện kiến thức viết của em trong giờ học viết học thuật bởi vì năng lực tiếng Anh của em thấp

26 Thông qua học thủ thuật chuyển ngữ, em muốn cải thiện từ vựng học thuật của em trong giờ học viết học thuật bởi vì lượng từ vựng của em ít

27 Thông qua học thủ thuật chuyển ngữ, em muốn cải thiện ngữ pháp của em trong giờ học viết học thuật bởi vì ngữ pháp của em kém

28 Thông qua học thủ thuật chuyển ngữ, em muốn cải thiện những lỗi viết của em trong lớp học viết học thuật

29 Em muốn tham gia vào quá trình học viết có sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ bởi vì năng lực tiếng Anh em thấp

II Yếu tố liên quan đến giáo viên

1 Phương pháp của giáo viên

30 Trong giờ học viết học thuật có sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ, phương pháp của giáo viên cuốn hút em học viết

31 Trong giờ học viết học thuật có sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ, phương pháp của giáo viên cải thiện kỹ năng viết của em

32 Trong giờ học viết học thuật có sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ, phương pháp của giáo viên làm em tham gia tích cực học viết

2 Năng lực ngôn ngữ của giáo viên

33 Trong giờ học viết học thuật, giáo viên của em sử dụng hoàn toàn tiếng Anh điều này làm em sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ

34 Trong giờ học viết học thuật, giáo viên của em sử dụng hoàn toàn tiếng Anh để dạy em viết điều này làm em sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ

35 Trong giờ học viết học thuật, giáo viên của em sử dụng hoàn toàn tiếng Anh để giải thích từ vựng điều này làm em sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ

36 Trong giờ học viết học thuật, giáo viên của em sử dụng hoàn toàn tiếng Anh để dạy ngữ pháp điều này làm em sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ

37 Trong giờ học viết học thuật, giáo viên của em sử dụng hoàn toàn tiếng Anh để giải thích lỗi của em điều này làm em sử dụng thủ thuật chuyển ngữ