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Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching
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Improving pre-service English teachers’ native cultural knowledge and English language
knowledge of native culture in a PBL classroom
Danyang Zhang, Junjie Gavin Wu & Zhuxia Fu
To cite this article: Danyang Zhang, Junjie Gavin Wu & Zhuxia Fu (21 Feb 2024): Improving
pre-service English teachers’ native cultural knowledge and English language knowledge
of native culture in a PBL classroom, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, DOI: 10.1080/17501229.2024.2318568
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2024.2318568
Published online: 21 Feb 2024
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Trang 2Improving pre-service English teachers ’ native cultural
knowledge and English language knowledge of native
culture in a PBL classroom
Danyang Zhang a, Junjie Gavin Wu band Zhuxia Fu a
a
College of International Studies, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China;b
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Macao Polytechnic University, Macao, SAR
ABSTRACT
Purpose: Globalization underscores the importance of developing
language learners’ intercultural communication competence (ICC)
English language teacher education nowadays thus necessitates
pedagogy training on not only linguistic, but also intercultural
dimensions However, the development of PSETs’ home-country cultural
knowledge (HCK) and English language knowledge of home-country
culture (ELKHC) has been overlooked Given the wide application of
project-based learning (PBL), this study aims to enhance Chinese PSETs’
HCK and ELKHC via group projects Top of Form Bottom of Form
Design: The study was conducted within a PSET training course involving
43 participants at a Chinese university An intervention comprising four
group projects was implemented, which required participants to utilize
various technologies to showcase Chinese culture via the English
language The instructor’s evaluation, students’ self-evaluation, and
reflective journals were collected
Findings: Quantitative analysis of the students’ self-evaluations and the
course instructor’s evaluations demonstrated that the PSETs made
significant progress in HCK and ELKHC Qualitative analysis of students’
reflective journals showed their learning experiences, gains, challenges,
and solutions
Originality/value: This study highlights how PBL affords authentic
learning experiences and stimulates learning motivation and autonomy
Strategies for helping learners make more progress in HCK and ELKHC
via PBL are also discussed Ultimately, we believe this study offers
insights into the training and development of foreign language
professionals
ARTICLE HISTORY Received 6 August 2022 Accepted 9 February 2024 KEYWORDS
Native culture knowledge; English language knowledge
of native culture; project-based learning; pre-service English teachers
1 Introduction
Nowadays, language learners are expected to develop their global citizenship to thrive in an increas-ingly interconnected world An essential premise to achieving this educational goal is to help language learners become intercultural speakers (Byram1997) This means they should have high intercultural communication competence (ICC) to engage in intercultural interactions using a language such as English as a lingua franca ICC, which is conceptualized as ‘the ability to communicate effectively in cross-cultural situations and to relate appropriately in a variety of cultural contexts’ (Bennett2004, 149), has become one of the most critical competencies in foreign language education (Liddicoat and Scarino2013)
CONTACT Junjie Gavin Wu junjiewu4-c@my.cityu.edu.hk R de Luís Gonzaga Gomes, Macao, China
https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2024.2318568
Trang 3Nault (2006) highlighted that the cultivation of ICC in language education should be bidirectional, including the ability to understand, compare, evaluate, and apply cultural knowledge of the target language and that of the home-country culture Similarly, Chun (2011) highlighted the significance
of the willingness to reflect on one’s home-country culture and critically evaluate the values in one’s home-country cultural practices Home-country culture, therefore, should be considered a bench-mark to help learners compare with the target language culture, protect their national identity, develop their intercultural sensitivity, and enhance their ICC
Regarding curriculum, over two decades ago, Kramsch (2000) argued that home-country culture should be integrated into language courses promptly and appropriately In China, The Guidelines for Teaching Foreign Language and Literature Undergraduates by the Chinese Ministry of Education in
2018 require establishing courses related to Chinese culture Chinese culture, in this paper, refers
to the ways of life across the 56 ethnic groups in China and their manifestations (e.g music, art, language, politics, history, and religion) The guidelines emphasize the significance of enhancing learners’ competence in understanding the culture of English-speaking countries and promoting stu-dents’ appreciation of their Chinese cultural heritage via other languages such as English However, the learning of home-country culture has been mainly stressed at the policy level, whereas implementation in the classroom has been limited Chinese English teachers’ lack of home-country cultural knowledge (HCK) and English language knowledge of home-home-country culture (ELKHC) poses a great challenge to improving learners’ ICC (Song and Xiao2009) In the current study, HCK is understood as the knowledge that constitutes a person’s heritage and identity, ranging from tangible aspects of culture (e.g architecture, food) to intangible ones (e.g language, music) in his or her country; ELKHC can be defined as the knowledge that enables speakers to intro-duce their home-country culture and communicate with others through the English language In China, the Ministry of Education stresses the importance of equipping with not only foreign cultural knowledge to know more about the world but also Chinese cultural knowledge to introduce their native identities to the world in English and, more importantly, to help future students to do so (Min-istry of Education 2022) Thus, as future English teachers, pre-service English teachers (PSETs) in China should be able to support their students to develop diverse identities that adopt the variety in ethnicity, gender, thought, personality, culture, working, and lifestyles (Darvin and Norton 2015) to engage in intercultural conversations where they can fluently introduce their home-country culture via other languages (Sehlaoui2001) Therefore, cultivating HCK and ELKHC seems to become a priority in foreign language education and the professional development of PSETs
This study applies project-based learning (PBL) to develop pre-service teachers’ HCK and ELKHC, which we argue are inseparable in learning, given Agar’s (1994) proposal of‘languageculture’ In par-ticular, we integrated Chinese culture into a PSET training course in China and used PBL to promote their learning of HCK and ELKHC, which would guide them to become capable and talented foreign language professionals
2 HCK and ELKHC teaching in China
The significant role of home-country culture in improving ICC has recently been underscored in China (Wen 2016) However, although many Chinese learners have studied English for a long period, they still face challenges in communicating their knowledge of Chinese culture in their inter-actions with non-Chinese speakers For example, Xiao et al (2010), who investigated 64 English majors and 107 non-English majors’ HCK and ELKHC, reported that Chinese university students were competent in understanding the culture of English-speaking countries but deficient in their home-country culture An important reason for this surprising result was the teachers’ little emphasis
on using English to express students’ Chinese identities and culture Liu et al (2018) focused on Chinese English majors, reporting that only a quarter of the 40 students who participated in their study could correctly and appropriately express Chinese culture in English Song and Xiao (2009)
Trang 4grouped the challenges faced by students into two main categories: one relating to students’ lack of HCK and the other concerning their deficiency in ELKHC
These challenges are caused by intertwining factors, including classroom teaching, teachers’ com-petence, and textbook development First, relatively little Chinese cultural content has been incor-porated into classroom teaching, after-school tutoring, homework, and course assessment, partly due to the exam-oriented nature of education in China Specifically, this goal-dominated type of teaching imposes a washback effect on learners and teachers, where most attention is paid to intro-ducing the knowledge of the English language and Western culture instead of Chinese culture or the two-way intercultural interactions between the different languages
Secondly, most Chinese English teachers have never systematically studied Chinese culture before, which leads to their lack of HCK and ELKHC and overlooking the significance of Chinese culture Song and Xiao (2009) investigated the HCK and ELKHC of 197 Chinese university English tea-chers and students Their results showed that teatea-chers and students performed poorly in the HCK and ELKHC tests In particular, the teachers had deficiencies in understanding key aspects of Chinese culture relating to education, philosophy, literature, and history In terms of ELKHC, although the teachers could translate Chinese cultural elements into English, they still encountered difficulties sharing their knowledge and understanding of Chinese classics, which are essential in Chinese culture
Thirdly, the HCK and ELKHC in English textbooks in China usually belong to a type of rote learning process, which is insufficient and oversimplified (Wu and Miller2021; Godwin-Jones2013; Jordan
2016; Svihla et al 2015; Wu and Miller2021) For example, Wang (2010) analyzed the proportion
of cultural elements in two national college English courses Results showed that English-American culture accounted for 68.7% and 53.1% respectively, while Chinese culture only represented 1.56% and 4.1% Furthermore, most of these Chinese cultural elements are related to traditional Chinese culture, whereas stories about more recent economic and social advances in China are comparatively scarce Therefore, teachers need to guide learners to understand and discuss contemporary societal advancements to enable them to become global citizens Besides,, the ELKHC input in the textbooks
is very low, which inevitably limits the development of students’ language ability to introduce Chinese stories in English Given the above issues, we call for more sustained efforts and systematic approaches to providing an authentic, progressive, and interesting learning environment for language students and teachers to develop their HCK and ELKHC
3 The role of projects in learning language and culture
Inspired by constructivist learning theory, PBL is centered on a project, which integrates various skills into different complex tasks, including planning, gathering and discussing information, solving pro-blems, and writing reports (Hedge1993) PBL is usually applied in language education to equip lear-ners with critical thinking skills to solve challenging problems autonomously and collaboratively (Fried-Booth2002), enabling them to learn at their own pace (Boubouka and Papanikolaou2013;
Wu and Miller2021)
Educators like Sercu (2010) have maintained that courses that involve student projects to exercise critical thinking and problem-solving skills are more effective than textbook-based spoon-fed language classrooms According to Stoller and Myers (2019), there are many benefits of PBL for L2 and foreign language students, including improving language abilities, reinforcing content learning, and mastering real-life skills (Norris 2016) Students’ language learning motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, especially intrinsic), engagement, and positive attitudes could also be pro-moted during the PBL process based on their learning pace (Brown 1994; Deci and Ryan 1995; Fischer2007; Poehner and Lantolf2005; Tsai2011)
Stoller and Myers (2019) proposed and elaborated afive-step process to guide teachers to plan, implement, and evaluate PBL in language classrooms, including (1) preparation, (2) information gathering, (3) information processing, (4) information display, and (5) reflections (Figure 1) During
Trang 5this learning process, students are in charge of their learning, with the assistance of teachers as coaches and experts (Pucher and Lehner 2011) In the first stage, students must determine the project theme, topics,final aims, and a progression plan The second stage requires students to collect information via various approaches like reading, web searches, questionnaires, and inter-views In the third stage, students are guided in processing the information by giving scaffolded instructions During the fourth stage, students share the projects with teachers and peers before assessments, including feedback, comments, or grades for finalizing the projects Scarino (2010, 327) argues that the assessment paradigm in PBL, which combines the formative and summative assessment approaches, recognizes the power of diverse assessment evidence This new paradigm enables the analysis of the ongoing, dynamic, and complex learning process and the understanding
of students’ growth over time The final stage asks students to reflect on what they have learned from the project via discussion, journal entries, or mediation This would help them identify the strengths and weaknesses of their current projects based on their teachers’ and peers’ comments
to improve their future projects (Carless and Boud2018; Larmer and Mergendoller2010) Compared with typical teacher-led classroom teaching, PBL may offer a superior alternative to achieving the objectives above, as it is effective in improving the skills of pre-service teachers, including their lea-dership, teaching motivation, collaboration, self-efficacy, and achievement (Mahasneh and Alwan
2018; Torres, Sriraman, and Ortiz 2019) All these skills are essential to being a competent and well-rounded language teacher who can impart HCK and ELKHC to one’s students
Figure 1 The five-step process of PBL (Stoller and Myers 2019 ).
Trang 6The five-step process provides instructional guidance for language teachers to carry out PBL, while only a limited number of PBL studies have sought to explore students’ HCK and ELKHC levels by following thisfive-step process The rapid advance of technology has brought authentic texts and intercultural communication experiences into the classroom, which surmounts the limit-ations of classrooms (Byram1997; Byram et al.2002) For example, social networking sites facilitate online practices that connect a classroom with the global community (Peters2009); online education communities offer collaborative opportunities that enable teachers and students to build authentic cross-cultural communication channels (Chen and Yang2014) One important study to explore the role of PBL in social networking sites is by Wu and Miller (2021), who investigated Chinese university students’ HCK via an informal PBL WeChat community Their case study demonstrated the develop-ment of HCK and ELKHC among Chinese EFL learners, as the students were more willing to partici-pate in the English learning community in the WeChat Group and to communicate and share their thoughts and experiences with others than in traditional classroom learning Nevertheless, to our knowledge, no studies have focused on PSETs, exploring their development of HCK and ELKHC in
a participatory learning environment This study focused on Chinese PSETs to enhance their HCK and ELKHC via four group projects The two overarching research questions are:
(1) Can the four group projects in the course improve Chinese PSETs’ HCK and ELKHC?
(2) How do PSETs’ HCK and ELKHC develop via the four group projects in the course?
4 Research design
4.1 An overview of the course and the participants
The present study aims to develop Chinese PSETs’ HCK and ELKHC based on a PSET training course called Multimedia and Foreign Language Teaching (see Zhang and Wu2023for the detailed project design) The course comprised four theoretical sessions (eight weeks) and four practical sessions (eight weeks) The four theoretical sessions introduced basic concepts, development, advantages, and challenges of multimedia technologies in English language teaching Based on the theories and concepts, the four practical sessions allowed learners to experience, design, and reflect on four technology-mediated approaches (i.e MOOC, micro lessons, gamification, and social media) All the sessions were taught in English to simultaneously develop learners’ English language abilities HCK and ELKHC were integrated into the theoretical and practical classes to lay the foundations for project-based group work For instance, in the computer-assisted language learning (CALL) session, the course instructor introduced online media reports on Chinese history and Chinese food in English and showed learners an example of an English MOOC named ‘Chinese Culture English’ In the mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) session, the instructor presented the example of 24 Chinese solar terms1 in English based on a report from China’s state-owned English language TV channel, CGTN Regarding the session on new technologies in English language teaching, four virtual reality (VR) examples of Chinese culture: (1) The Palace of the Emperor in the Forbidden City; (2) The ‘V-Palace’ WeChat mini-program; (3) The Virtual National Museum on WeChat’s public account; and (4) Traditional Chinese Culture in the Multilingual Context VR learning platform– were respectively illustrated and discussed in English After each practical session, the PSETs collaborated with their teammates to complete a group project relating to Chinese culture
in English, contributing to their HCK and ELKHC development
The PSETs (i.e the participants) in this study were 43 third-year undergraduate students majoring
in English language education at a comprehensive university in Mainland China All participants took
a compulsory course on Chinese culture in theirfirst year of university, but they had yet to have the chance to use English to communicate about Chinese culture in real life The PSETs formed 12 groups
in the course, and each group comprised three to four members
Trang 74.2 Research procedure
The study contained three main phases (seeFigure 2) At the onset of the course, participants were asked to self-evaluate their HCK and ELKHC Following this, the 16-week course was implemented, during which four group projects relating to Chinese culture were assigned (see Section 4.3.1) PBL in the course followed the five-step process proposed by Stoller and Myers (2019) (See Section 3) The PSETsfirst decided on the topics of their projects before gathering and processing information They were invited to present their projects in front of the class, receiving comments from the audience The course instructor, thefirst author of this article, provided feedback regarding the content and language uses and then gave marks on the PSETs’ four group projects regarding their HCK and ELKHC As the course ended, participants were invited to self-evaluate the two types of knowledge again They were also asked to complete a reflective journal to report their learn-ing experiences based on prompt questions
4.3 Intervention and instruments
4.3.1 PSET group projects
This course has four group projects, respectively centring on the four technologies taught in the course (i.e MOOC, micro lesson, game, and social media) The PSETs could choose topics they tended to explore, but the topics needed to relate to Chinese culture in order to improve their HCK and ELKHC Thefirst group project required participants to design an English MOOC outline
of Chinese culture The course outline included reasons for designing the course, the target student group, course overview, prior knowledge of students, overall course structure, homework, examinations, certificate requirements, discussion topics, and reference materials The second group assignment required the participants to apply gamification to English teaching activities, introducing and discussing Chinese culture The activity needed to cover the activity name, type, platform, length, and activity structure The third group assignment required the participants to design an English micro lesson about Chinese culture The project required participants to design
a 10-minute micro lesson involving teaching objectives, target student groups, length, course struc-ture, and script Participants were asked to design an English language teaching class activity using relevant social media knowledge in the fourth group project The submitted work needed to include the activity name, social media platform, length, and activity structure
Figure 2 Research procedure of this study.
Trang 84.3.2 PSETs’ and course instructor’s evaluations
Before and after the course intervention, participants were invited to evaluate their HCK and ELKHC
by completing two rating questions The total score for each question was 10, with 1 being the lowest and 10 being the highest No answer was not scored Near the end of the semester, the course instructor marked the PSETs’ group projects based on their HCK and ELKHC This article’s second and third authors and a teacher from the course teaching team provided their perspectives
on the scoring, and any differences were negotiated Both HCK and ELKHC had a maximum possible score of 25
In this study, descriptive analysis and statistical analysis were adopted to analyze the evaluation data Descriptive analysis was mainly used for the average score In terms of statistical analysis, the paired sample t-test was used to investigate whether there were statistical differences between the pre- and post-intervention scores SPSS 26.0 was used to descriptively and statistically analyze the data
4.3.3 PSETs’ reflective journals
As Godwin-Jones (2013) highlighted, a reflective journal is a helpful way for learners to record, report, and share their experiences and feelings After completing each group project, every participant was required to summarize their perceived gains and deficiencies along with the strategies and solutions they used to address the deficiencies In total, 164 reflective journals were collected, consisting of more than 65,000 Chinese words
This study used thematic analysis to analyze the reflective journals We firstly read all the journals several times and familiarized ourselves with the data As the journals were highly personalized, we used an open-coding method, which is efficient for initially labeling and categorizing chunks of data (Rivas2012) We descriptively labeled the data as‘units of meaning’ (Miles and Huberman1994, 56)
to obtain the initial codes at a relatively lower conceptual level Subsequently, we grouped these initial codes and reorganized them into broad categories relating to HCK and ELKHC at a more abstract level For example,‘the cooking method for Dongpo Pork2’ was coded into the broad cat-egory of HCK, while‘vocabulary about Dongpo Pork’ was coded as ELKHC
The codes were further categorized into four themes based on Pavlovich’s (2007) four dimensions
of reflective journal design: (1) descriptions of the learning experience; (2) analysis of the learning experience; (3) creation of new meanings and understandings3; and (4) actions for change4 After
defining and naming the themes as well as identifying the relationships between the themes, initial results were examined We then checked whether any information was missing and whether the coding was accurate before making modifications All journal data were coded and ana-lyzed by MAXQDA Plus
The analysis produced 312 codes in total Of these, 173 pertained to HCK, and 139 were about ELKHC To ensure inter-rater reliability, the authors randomly invited an applied linguist to analyze 40 (24.4%) reflective journals The results of the authors and the rater were then compared The consistency was 92.8%, indicating that the analysis of the PSETs’ reflective journals had high inter-rater reliability
5 Results
5.1 Research question 1: can the four group projects in the course improve Chinese
In this section, we compare (1) the PSETs’ pre- and post-self-evaluation scores; and (2) the instructor’s evaluation scores for the four group projects According to the PSETs’ self-evaluation results, their HCK and ELKHC improved Specifically, their self-evaluation average score for HCK before the course was 5.49, which increased to 6.83 at the end of the course Regarding ELKHC, the self-evalu-ation average score was 5.32 before the course and 6.66 afterward.Table 1shows that the paired
Trang 9sample t-test results demonstrate significant differences between the pre- and post-self-evaluation (p≤ 001), indicating that the PSETs believed they made noticeable progress regarding their HCK and ELKHC
The instructor scored the PSETs’ four group projects (Table 2) As the course progressed, the scores gradually increased Specifically, participants only achieved 18.10 on average for HCK in thefirst group project However, the average score rose steadily and reached 22.34 for the fourth project Regarding ELKHC, gradual growth was also evident, from 19.27 to 21.47 In comparison, the improvements in the learners’ HCK were more significant (M = 4.24) compared to ELKHC (M = 2.20) According to the paired sample t-test results, statistically significant differences could be found in both aspects (p≤ 001) (Table 3)
5.2 Research question 2: how do Chinese PSETs acquire their HCK and ELKHC via the four group projects in the course?
Reflective journals allow language learners to think about their L2 learning experiences, empowering them to adjust their approaches and perspectives over the language course (Burke and Dunn2006)
In this section, we report the PSETs’ reflective journal data concerning their acquisition of HCK and ELKHC based on Pavlovich’s (2007) four dimensions
Among the 173 codes about HCK, 32 related to‘descriptions of the learning experience’; 105 con-cerned‘analysis of the learning experience’; and 36 were classified as ‘creation of new meanings and understandings’ There was no code about ‘actions for change’ Regarding ‘descriptions of the learning experiences’, participants mainly shared how their groups worked together to complete the projects Generally, they completed their group projects by consulting online and offline litera-ture, soliciting professional suggestions from the instructor, discussing with their peers andfinishing the parts of the project for which they were responsible For instance, as Lin reported, her group gathered to brainstorm ideas about cultural themes before searching for references individually and integrating useful information collaboratively
Most answers were categorized into‘analysis of the learning experience’, which included the par-ticipants’ analysis of their gains and deficiencies in the group projects On the one hand, regarding gains, participants highlighted that their understanding of HCK had been strengthened As Lai said:
Though I come from Shandong, I previously knew little about my hometown cuisine I developed a deeper understanding of Shandong cuisine by completing the MOOC project I have learned a lot about the cooking techniques, everyday ingredients and signature dishes of Shandong cuisine.
Table 1 Paired Sample T-test of PSETs ’ self-evaluation.
Paired Di fferences
t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Std Deviation Std Error Mean
95%
Con fidence Interval of the
Di fference Lower Upper
Pair 2 Pre-ELKHC –Post-ELKHC 1.34 2.39 37 59 2.10 3.59 40 001
Table 2 Average score of four group projects for HCK and ELKHC (25 points/each project).
First group project Second group project Third group project Fourth group project
Trang 10In addition, participants’ gains in HCK were also reflected in the enhancement of their HCK learning motivation For instance, Wang shared that her HCK learning motivation was previously not very high, so she seldom paid attention to Chinese cultural issues on social media and in books However, after taking this course, she found that Chinese culture is‘interesting, brilliant and beauti-ful’ and felt responsible for acquiring more HCK in the future
On the other hand, regarding deficiencies, some participants (such as Lu) stated:
Although I agree that this course helped me understand Chinese culture better, I still don ’t know much about it, apart from the culture of my hometown Also, I think the Chinese cultural knowledge I have acquired is relatively super ficial Although I was interested in studying Chinese geography and history, it was not enough to teach these to my future students.
Xu also differentiated the HCK she had acquired, and the HCK needed for teaching She emphasized that before she could teach HCK, she needed a much higher level of knowledge Therefore, even though this course ‘opened the door’ for the participants to start acquiring HCK, there is still much work for them to do as PSETs in accumulating their HCK and developing their ICC
‘Creation of new meanings and understandings’ in this study could be interpreted as the partici-pants’ attempts to find solutions to resolve their perceived deficiencies In their reflective journals, most participants mentioned solutions, including (1) searching and reading more materials to deepen their knowledge, (2) actively participating in activities relating to HCK, and (3) seeking help from instructors and other groups For instance, participants like Chen highlighted her lack of knowl-edge concerning Chinese history, so she planned to read more media reports from sources such as CGTN and China Daily to help her future teaching In addition, participants like Liu decided to attend more HCK-related activities, as she reported following their MOOC group project:
I plan to participate in more discussions and interact more with my teammates in the next group project I plan
to read more relevant literature and search for high-quality MOOC examples Apart from classroom learning, I should attend more activities relating to Chinese culture, such as cultural knowledge competitions and cultural exchange festivals.
Some participants underscored the importance of seeking help from instructors and other groups as they acknowledged that, in this way, they could ask questions and uncover recommendations about HCK As Zheng said:
My instructor and classmates are my strongest supporters They are vital in answering my questions and provid-ing recommended resources about HCK Without their help, I would have no direction about acquirprovid-ing HCK for
my English learning and future teaching.
Among the 139 codes relating to ELKHC, there were 18 about‘descriptions of the learning experi-ence’; 97 about ‘analysis of the learning experience’; and 24 about ‘creation of new meanings and understandings’ However, no responses could be categorized as ‘actions for change’ Like the descriptions for HCK, participants prepared for their projects predominantly by reviewing materials and watching relevant course videos In these ways, they could record and then learn appropriate
Table 3 Paired sample T-test of course instructor ’s evaluation.
Paired Di fferences
t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Std Deviation Std Error Mean
95%
Con fidence Interval of the
Di fference Lower Upper
Pair 2 Pre-ELKHC –Post-ELKHC 2.20 93 15 1.90 2.49 15.15 40 000