Biotechnological approaches for pest management and ecological sustainability

This will not only lead to informed decisions for development and deployment of transgenic crops with insect resistance for pest manage-ment, but will also help in planning appropriate s

BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR PEST MANAGEMENT AND ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 21631_C000.indd i 11/12/2008 5:14:58 PM 21631_C000.indd ii 11/12/2008 5:14:59 PM BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR PEST MANAGEMENT AND ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY Hari C Sharma 21631_C000.indd iii 11/12/2008 5:14:59 PM CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-56022-163-0 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sharma, H C (Hari Chand) Biotechnological approaches for pest management and ecological sustainability / Hari C Sharma p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-56022-163-0 (alk paper) Agricultural pests Biological control Insect pests Biological control Plants Insect resistance Genetic aspects Plant biotechnology I Title SB950 S43008 632’.96 dc22 2008029544 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com 21631_C000.indd iv 11/12/2008 5:14:59 PM Contents Foreword xvii Preface xix Pest Management and the Environment Introduction Pest-Associated Crop Losses and the Need for Pest Management What Is Available in the Basket and What Can We Do? Pest Management Components Economic Thresholds Biological Control Parasitoids Predators Entomopathogenic Bacteria Baculoviruses Entomopathogenic Fungi Entomopathogenic Nematodes Cultural Control Date of Sowing and Planting Density Nutrient Management Intercropping and Crop Rotations Field Sanitation and Tillage Chemical Control Development of Resistance to Insecticides and Strategies for Resistance Management 10 Pest Resurgence 12 Pesticide Residues in Food and Food Products 12 Contamination of Soil and Water 12 Pesticides of Plant Origin 13 Host Plant Resistance 13 Integrated Pest Management 14 Mating Disruption and Mass Trapping 14 21631_C000.indd v 11/12/2008 5:14:59 PM vi Contents Population Prediction Models and Early Warning Systems The IPM practice Is Genetic Engineering of Plants and Biocontrol Agents an Answer? Conclusions References 15 16 16 17 18 Applications of Biotechnology in Agriculture: The Prospects Introduction The Genomics Revolution Marker-Assisted Selection Gene Sequence and Function Metabolic Pathways Trait Analysis Genetic Transformation Resistance to Insect Pests, Diseases, and Herbicides Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses Increased Starch and Sugar Production Altering Senescence and Drought Resistance Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency, Crop Growth, and Yield Improved Nutrition Production of Pharmaceuticals and Vaccines Production of Antibodies Genetic Improvement of Entomopathogenic Microorganisms Genetic Improvement of Natural Enemies Application of Biotechnology in Biosystematics and Diagnostics Exploitation of Male-sterility and Apomixis Conclusions References 23 23 24 25 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 30 31 32 32 33 33 34 34 35 35 Evaluation of Transgenic Plants and Mapping Populations for Resistance to Insect Pests Introduction Techniques to Screen for Resistance to Insects under Natural Infestation Use of Hot-Spot Locations Adjusting Planting Date Manipulation of Cultural Practices Planting Infester Rows Grouping the Material According to Maturity and Height Sequential Plantings Selective Control of Nontarget Insects Augmentation of Insect Populations Labelling the Plants or Inflorescences Flowering at the Same Time Techniques to Screen for Resistance to Insects under Artificial Infestation Mass Rearing Infestation Techniques Planning the Rearing Schedule and Egg and Pupal Storage Caging the Plants with Insects Greenhouse Screening Use of Excised Plant Parts Detached Leaf Assay 41 41 42 42 44 44 44 45 46 46 46 47 47 47 48 51 51 52 54 55 21631_C000.indd vi 11/12/2008 5:14:59 PM Contents Leaf Disc or Pod/Boll Assay Oviposition Nonpreference Diet Impregnation Assay to Assess Antibiosis Bioassay of Transgenic Plants for Resistance to Insects Phenotyping Mapping Populations for Resistance to Insects Measurement of Host Plant Resistance to Insects Visual Damage Rating Indirect Feeding Injury Simulated Feeding Injury Association of Physico-Chemical Characteristics and Molecular Markers with Insect Resistance Sampling Insect Populations Measurements of Yield and Quality Measurements of Insect Survival and Development Consumption and Utilization of Food Measurements of Insect Behavior Selection Indices Tolerance Index Loss in Grain Yield Relative Efficiency Index Fischer and Maurer’s Stress Susceptibility Index Fernandez Stress Tolerance Index Conclusions References vii 58 58 59 60 62 62 63 63 64 64 64 68 68 68 69 70 70 70 71 71 71 72 72 Host Plant Resistance to Insects: Potential and Limitations 83 Introduction 83 Identification and Utilization of Resistance 85 Wild Relatives of Crops as Sources of Resistance to Insects 87 Inducible Resistance 89 Factors Affecting Expression of Resistance to Insects 91 Soil Moisture 91 Plant Nutrition 91 Temperature 91 Photoperiod 92 Insect Biotypes 92 Influence of HPR on Pest Population Dynamics and Economic Injury Levels 92 Host Plant Resistance in Integrated Pest Management 94 HPR as a Principal Method of Insect Control 94 HPR and Biological Control 98 Tritrophic Interactions 99 Compatibility of Plant Resistance and Biological Control 100 Incompatibility of Plant Resistance and Biological Control 101 Plant Resistance-Insect Pathogen Interaction 102 Manipulation of Plant Characteristics to Increase the Effectiveness of Natural Enemies 102 HPR and Cultural Control 102 Asynchrony Between Plant Growth and Insect Populations 103 Genetic Diversity 103 21631_C000.indd vii 11/12/2008 5:14:59 PM viii Contents Multilines/Synthetics Trap Crops Nutrient Application and Plant Resistance HPR and Chemical Control Interaction between Antixenotic Mechanism of Resistance and Chemical Control Interaction between Antibiosis Mechanism of Resistance and Chemical Control Moderate Levels of Plant Resistance and Chemical Control High Levels of Plant Resistance and Chemical Control Advantages of HPR Limitations of HPR Conclusions References 104 104 104 105 Mechanisms and Inheritance of Resistance to Insect Pests Introduction Mechanisms of Resistance to Insects Antixenosis Antibiosis Tolerance Escape Breeding for Resistance to Insect Pests Mass Selection Recurrent Selection Pedigree Breeding Backcross Breeding Development of F1 Hybrids Using Cytoplasmic Male-sterility Genetic Basis of Resistance Oligogenic Resistance Polygenic Resistance Cytoplasmic Effects Genetics and Inheritance of Resistance to Insect Pests Rice Wheat and Barley Maize Sorghum Cotton Oilseeds Alfalfa Potato Grain Legumes Vegetables Fruits Conclusions References 125 125 126 126 127 129 131 131 131 131 132 132 133 133 133 134 134 135 135 136 137 138 138 139 139 139 139 140 141 141 141 105 106 106 109 109 110 112 113 Physico-Chemical and Molecular Markers for Resistance to Insect Pests 153 Introduction 153 Mapping Populations 155 21631_C000.indd viii 11/12/2008 5:14:59 PM Contents Physico-chemical Markers Associated with Resistance to Insects Morphological Markers Visual Stimuli Phenological Traits Leaf Hairs Trichomes Plant Growth Responses Biochemical Markers Attractants Repellents Phagostimulants Antifeedants Growth Inhibitors Nonprotein Amino Acids Nutritional Factors Enzymes Molecular Markers Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms Sequence-Tagged Sites Expressed Sequence Tags Single Strand Conformation Polymorphisms Microsatellites Simple Sequence Repeats Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA Inter Simple Sequence Repeat Sequence Characterized Amplified Regions Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Diversity Array Technology Molecular Markers Linked to Insect Resistance in Different Crops Cotton Rice Wheat Maize Sorghum Potato Tomato Chickpea Pigeonpea Cowpea Common Bean Greengram Soybean Groundnut Gene Synteny Molecular Markers and Metabolic Pathways The Transgenic Approach and Gene Pyramiding through MAS Marker-Assisted versus Phenotypic Selection Conclusions References 21631_C000.indd ix ix 156 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 162 162 162 164 164 165 165 166 166 167 167 168 168 168 168 169 169 170 170 170 170 171 171 172 173 175 176 177 178 178 179 180 180 181 181 182 183 184 184 185 187 187 11/12/2008 5:14:59 PM Species Index A Acanthoscelides obtectus, 139 Achoea janata, 330 Acyrthosiphon pisum HPR, 92, 132, 139, 165 molecular markers, 479, 482 transgenics, 232 Adalia bipunctata biological control, non-target effects, 352 Aedes aegypti, 235, 267, 298, 300, 304, 309, 479 Aegilops cylindrica, 413 squarrosa, 173 tauschii, 89, 136, 137, 174 triuncialis, 136, 174 ventricosa, 89, 174 Agelenopsis aperta, 259, 261, 262 Ageniaspis citricola, 479, 480 Agmenellum quadruplicatum, 271 Agrobacterium rhizogenes, 210 tumefaciens, 210, 320, 416, 418, 468 Agropyron elongatum, 136 Allothrombium ovatum, 350 Amphorophora idaei, 141 Ampulex compressa, 261 Amrasca biguttula biguttula HPR, 14, 41, 44, 54, 65, 67, 86, 91, 95, 112, 134, 138, 140, 149, 165, 166 interaction with transgenics, 320, 340, 346 IPM, 8, 12 Anaphes iole, 480 21631_C020.indd 513 Anaphothrips obscurus, 350 Anarhichas lupus, 301 Androctonus australis, 33, 234, 259–261 Anemonia sulcata, 259, 261, 262 Annona squamosa, Anopheles gambiae genetic engineering, 300 molecular markers, 481, 495, 496 stephensi, 297, 299, 300, 303 Antheraea pernyi, 345 Anthonomus grandis, 103, 106, 111, 161, 231 Anticarsia gemmatalis, 7, 43, 258 Anystis baccarum, 485 Aphelinus hordei, 480 Aphidius ervi molecular markers, 479, 480, 483 non-target effects, 354, 356 matricariae, 101 Aphis craccivora, 86, 140, 160, 180, 182 fabae, 91 gossypii HPR, 87, 129, 232, 238 interaction with transgenics, 317, 346, 349 IPM, 10, 12 Apis mellifera genetic transformation, 295, 300 molecular markers, 482, 484 non-target effects, 347, 348 Aproaerema modicella, 86, 88 11/12/2008 2:22:15 PM 514 Arabidopsis thaliana gene flow, 417 genomics, 24, 27, 28, 30, 31, 90, 91 transgenics, 224 Arachis appressipila, 88 cardenasii, 88, 182 duranensis, 88 ipaensis, 88 kempff-mercadoi, 88 monticola, 88 paraguariensis, 88 pusilla, 88 stenosperma, 88, 182 triseminata, 88 Araneus, Argiope minuta, 346 Artogeia rapae, 162 Aschersonia aleyrodis, 272 Aspergillus nidulans, 273 Athalia rosae, 300 Atherigona soccata HPR, 41, 43, 44, 45, 47, 52, 53, 65, 66, 68, 70, 85, 86, 89, 91, 95, 103, 108, 109, 126, 129, 130, 132, 134, 135, 138, 157, 158, 161, 169, 177 IPM, 8, transgenics, 220, 393 Autographa californica transgenic microbes, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 278, 298, 299 transgenic plants, 234 Avicennia marina, 30 Azadirachta indica, Azospirillum lipoferum, 270, 272 Species Index Bemisia tabaci interaction with transgenics, 346 HPR, 56, 67, 88, 157, 159, 161, 166, 228, 317 IPM, 10, 12 Beta vulgaris, 415 Blastophagus piniperda, 162 Blatella germanica, 495 Bombus lapidarius, 408 muscorum, 408 terrestris, 408 Bombyx mori genetic eigineering, 214, 259, 260, 263, 266, 273, 274, 299, 300 molecular markers, 478, 484 non-target effects, 345 Bracon, 3, Brassica campestris, 223, 229, 323 juncea gene flow, 408, 414 HPR, 45, 159 transgenics, 227, 229 napus gene flow, 414, 418, 423 non-target effects, 348 transgenics, 220 oleracea HPR, 102, 157 transgenics, 214, 223, 227, 229 rapa, 414, 418 Brevicoryne brassicae HPR, 41, 101, 157 molecular markers, 482 Bruchus pisorum, 56, 87, 88, 127, 162, 230 Buthotus judaicus, 261 B Bacillus polymyxa, 269, 270 poppillae, 263 sphaericus, 214, 263, 271 subtilis, 214, 263, 268, 270 thuringiensis, 3, 6, 17, 19, 20, 29, 33, 102, 184, 211–222, 224, 231, 238, 255, 256, 263–271, 318–322, 330, 339, 341, 350, 357, 369–380, 418, 448, 494, 504 Bactrocera correcta, 166 cucurbitae, 66, 67 dorsalis, 300 philippinensis, 481 Beauveria bassiana, 7, 272–274 21631_C020.indd 514 C Cadra cautella, 375 Caenorhabditis elegans, 24, 379 Cajanus acutifolius, 88, 159, 179 albicans, 88 cajanifolius, 128, 179 platycarpus, 164 scarabaeoides, 88, 134, 140, 159, 160, 164, 179 sericeus, 88, 128, 179 Callosobruchus chinensis, 88, 140 Callosobruchus maculatus, 69, 140, 230, 483 Calocoris angustatus HPR, 43, 44, 49, 68, 85, 93, 108, 129, 138 IPM, 8, 11/12/2008 2:22:15 PM 515 Species Index Campoletis chlorideae interaction with HPR, 99, 100 non-target effects, 354, 355, 361, 364 sonorensis interaction with HPR, 99, 100, 101, 104 non-target effects, 353, 354, 355 Campylomma diversicornis, 349 Carabus nemoralis, 482 punctatoauratus, 482 Carcelia, 5, 100 Cardiochiles nigriceps, 100, 101, 353 Cerotoma trifurcata, 90 Chalcodermus aeneus, 140 Cheilomenes sexmaculatus, 346, 349, 351 Chelonus, Chilo partellus HPR, 44, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 59, 62, 66, 70, 85, 89, 91, 101, 129, 132, 135, 137, 138, 161, 177 IPM, 8, transgenics, 215, 219, 220, 273, 321, 322 suppressalis HPR, 55, 56, 65, 66, 85, 89, 105, 126, 158, 159 transgenics, 215, 219, 220, 227, 229, 322, 389 Chilotraea infuscatellus, 158 Chlorella sorokiniana, 30 Chrysomela scripta, 375, 377 Chrysopa sinica, 350 Chrysoperla carnea IPM, non-target effects, 302, 344, 345, 346, 349, 351 Cicer arietinum, 178, 179, 214 bijugum, 88, 89, 164 cuneatum, 88 echinospermum, 88, 178 judaicum, 88, 89, 164 microphyllum, 88, 89 pinnatifidum, 88 reticulatum, 88, 178, 179 Clavibacter xyli, 269, 270 Clavigralla tomentosicollis, 54, 67, 88, 161 Clubiona sp., 346, 349 Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, 162, 215, 220, 322, 350 Coccinella transversalis, Coleomegilla maculata, 102, 346, 350, 351, 485 Colpa interrupta, 261 Coranus triabeatus, Cotesia congregata interaction with HPR, 100 molecular markers, 480 21631_C020.indd 515 plutellae, 354 rubecula, 90 Cucurbita fraterna, 415 pepo, 415 texana, 415 Culex quinquefasciatus, 485 Cydia pomonella, 14, 223, 258 D Danaus plexippus, 345 Datura stramonium, 450 Deraeocoris punctulatus, 346 Diabrotica undecimpunctata, 140, 215, 219, 224, 227, 228, 322 Diadegma insulare, 327, 353 Diaeretiella rapae, 479, 480, 482, 483 Diaphania hyalinata, 104 Diatraea grandiosella HPR, 59, 85, 137, 175, 186 transgenics, 215, 219, 322, 372 saccharalis HPR, 175, 186 transgenics, 215, 219, 220, 234, 322 Diuraphis noxia biopesticides, 274 HPR, 43, 53, 89, 137, 168, 174, 175, 177 molecular markers, 480, 482 Drosophila melanogaster genetic engineering, 293, 299, 300, 301, 303, 304, 307 molecular markers, 478, 481, 484, 495, 496 Dysaphis devecta, 141 plantaginea, 141 Dysdercus keonigii, 346 E Earias insulana, 218, 319 vittella HPR, 41, 44, 65, 112, 158, 161, 162 IPM, 14 transgenics, 218, 346, 372, 374 Eulophus pennicornis, 356 Elasmopalpus lignosellus, 215, 221, 323 Eldana saccharina HPR, 40, 69 transgenics, 270, 271, 322 11/12/2008 2:22:15 PM 516 Empoasca fabae HPR, 131, 132, 139, 159, 160, 165, 180 transgenics, 232, 233 kerri, 86, 88, 166 kraemeri, 139, 180 Encarsia formosa, 102 Enicospilus, Enterobacter gergoviae, 270, 272 Eoreuma loftini, 220, 234, 353 Epilachna varivestis, 86, 90, 127, 139 Eriborus tenebrans, 353 Erigone atra, 353 Eriosoma lanigerum, 14, 95 Erwinia herbicola, 274, 275 Escherichia coli, 30, 31, 90, 224, 235, 262, 268, 270, 271, 272, 275, 296, 305, 320, 416 Eupteryx aurata, 344 Eurystylus oldi HPR, 49, 67, 95, 138, 158 IPM, 14 F Flaveria bidentis, 31 Flavobacterium, 301 Frankliniella occidentalis, 230, 495 G Galanthus nivalis biosafety, 450 transgenics, 232 Gastrophysa viridula, 270, 271 Geocoris punctipes, 102 Globodera pallida, 344 rostochiensis, 344 Glycine max, 27, 155, 183, 214 Gonatocerus ashmeadi, 481 Gossypium arboreum gene flow, 388, 412 HPR, 127, 158, 218 armourianum, 88 barbadense, 127, 171 barbosanum, 88 capitis viridis, 88 gossypiodes, 88 hirsutum gene flow, 412, 423 HPR, 88, 127, 171 transgenics, 214, 320, 388 latifolium, 88 21631_C020.indd 516 Species Index raimondii, 88 somalense, 88 sturtianum, 171 thurberi, 87 trilobum, 88 H Harmonia axyridis, 485 Helicoverpa armigera biopesticides, 258–278 HPR, 41, 43–59, 65–70, 86–108, 127–140, 157–179 IPM, 5, 7–9, 11, 14–16 transgenics, 29, 33, 211–238, 297, 317–331, 340–355, 370–394 molecular markers, 481, 482, 485 assulta, 482 punctigera transgenics, 331, 372 zea biopesticides, 260, 265, 278 HPR, 41, 49, 53, 59, 65–68, 85–90, 96, 100–102, 127–134, 137, 140, 175–185 transgenics, 29, 215, 217, 219, 226, 227, 231, 238, 258, 298, 322, 326, 340, 352, 370, 379, 385, 387, 391 Heliothis virescens biopesticides, 258, 259, 260, 262, 265, 266, 267 genetic transformation, 298, 307 HPR, 29, 41, 49, 53, 65, 68, 86, 99, 103, 104, 111, 138, 158, 159, 165, 171 molecular markers, 496 resistance management, 340, 353, 354, 355, 357, 358, 370, 371, 373, 375, 376, 378, 379, 381, 382, 385, 386, 387, 388 transgenics, 211, 215, 216, 217, 226, 227, 232, 319, 325 Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, 276 Hippodamia axyridis non-target effects, 351, 352 convergens, 6, 102 Hirschfeldia incana, 414 Hololena curta, 261 Homoeosoma electellum, 139, 384 Hordeum vulgare, 155 Hyalophora cecropia, 298, 306 Hydrellia griseola, 158 Hylemyia antiqua, 126 Hypera postica, 129, 162 Hyposoter exiguae, 102 11/12/2008 2:22:15 PM 517 Species Index I Ips pini, 484 typographus, 15 Lymantria dispar IPM, 14 transgenics, 258, 265, 266, 386 Lysiphlebia japonica, 350 testaceips, 480 L Lacanobia oleracea, 232, 233, 235, 352, 356 Lactuca sativa, 140 virosa, 140 Lebia grandis, 350 Leiurus qinquostnatus, 261 Leptothorax acervorum, 483 Leptinotarsa decemlineata HPR, 65, 87, 129, 161, 162, 177 transgenics, 216, 222, 227, 228, 269, 270, 323, 325, 341, 349, 350, 351, 377, 382, 448 Leucinodes orbonalis HPR, 67 IPM, 15 transgenics, 216, 223, 323 Linepithema humile, 483 Lipaphis erysimi HPR, 41, 54, 56, 159 IPM, 10 transgenics, 232, 234 Liriomyza trifolii, 9, 178 Lucilia cuprina, 295, 297, 300 sericata, 261, 262 Lumbricus terrestris, 358 Lupinus albus, 183 Lycopersicon esculentum HPR, 88, 140, 155, 178 transgenics, 214, 225, 231, 307, 320 hirsutum, 88, 129, 140, 161 pennellii, 140, 164, 178 Lycosa pseudoannulata, 346 Lydella thompsoni molecular markers, 480, 485 non-target effects, 355 Lygus elisus, 140 hesperus, 140, 159 lineolaris HPR, 43, 45 molecular markers, 480 lucorum, 346 21631_C020.indd 517 M Macrocentrus grandii, 353 Macrosiphum euphorbiae HPR, 161 transgenics, 232, 236 Manduca sexta HPR, 100, 102 molecular markers, 483, 484 transgenics, 216, 221, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 231, 235, 237, 263, 266, 273, 274, 357, 387 Maruca vitrata, 43, 54, 67, 87, 88, 140, 158, 161 Medicago sativa, 24, 139, 231 Medicago truncatula, 183 Megachile spp., 408 Meioneta rurestris, 353 Melanagromyza obtusa, 88, 179 Melanaphis sacchari, 91, 135, 138 Melilotus infesta, 139 Meloidogyne incognita, 32, 236 Metarhizium anisopliae genetic transformation, 272, 273, 274, 505 interaction with HPR, 33, 36 IPM, Metaseiulus occidentalis genetic transformation, 294, 295, 296, 303, 305, 307, 308 IPM, Metopolophium dirhodum, 345 Microlophium carnosum, 479 Microplitis mediator, 354 Microplitis sp., 354 Musca domestica, 297, 299, 300, 303, 495 Mythimna separata HPR, 53, 86, 96, 100, 135 transgenics, 234, 262 Myzus persicae HPR, 87, 88, 101, 107, 139, 141, 161 IPM, 10 transgenics, 222, 225, 232, 233, 234, 237, 317, 325, 350, 352, 354, 356 11/12/2008 2:22:15 PM 518 N Nasonovia ribisnigri, 140 Neoscona sp., 346, 349 Neoscona theisi, 346 Neotrichoporoides diplosidis, 101, 102 Nephotettix cincticeps, 135, 136, 172, 173 virescens, 47, 53, 132, 135, 173, 232, 233 Neurospora crassa, 273, 274, 301 Nezara viridula, 340 Nicotiana alata, 238 plumbaginifolia, 225, 237 tabacum, 214, 225, 228, 231 Nilaparvata lugens HPR, 46, 47, 48, 53, 65, 66, 85, 86, 89, 92, 101, 105, 108, 110, 129, 132, 134, 135, 136, 162, 165, 170, 172 IPM, 12, 16 transgenics, 227, 229, 232, 233, 350, 389 Nomuraea rileyi genetic transformation, 272, 358 interaction with plant resistance, 102 IPM, Nosema locustae, 275 pyrausta, 358, 359 O Oedothorax apicatus, 353 Orius majusculus, 350 insidiosus, 345, 346, 349, 351 minutus, 346, 350 Orseola oryzae HPR, 44, 47, 85, 92, 95, 110, 132, 136, 166, 170, 172 IPM, 14 Oryza alta, 89 australiensis, 136, 172 eichingeri, 89 minuta, 89 officinalis, 136, 172 ridleyi, 53, 89 Ostrinia nubilalis HPR, 29, 49, 59, 65, 85, 129, 131, 132, 137, 175, 176 IPM, molecular markers, 485 21631_C020.indd 518 Species Index transgenics, 215, 219, 224, 232, 233, 271, 321, 325, 345, 352, 353, 358, 370–383, 391 Otiorhynchus sulcatus genetic transformation, 273 HPR, 161 Oulema melanopus, 104, 159 P Paecilomyces farinosus, 7, 272 fumosoroseus, 273 Paenibacillus lentimorbus, 263 poppillae, 263 Palexorista, Papilio cresphontes, 307 Papilio polyxenes, 345 Parallorhogas pyralophagus, 353 Paraponera clavata, 261 Pardosa agrestis, 353 Pectinophora gossypiella HPR, 41, 88, 103, 138, 158 IPM, 14 transgenics, 215, 217, 218, 270, 272, 300, 305, 319, 321, 324, 362, 370, 376, 379, 381, 382, 392, 393 Pemphigus bursarius, 66, 69 obesinymphae, 479 Pennisetum glaucum, 34 Peregrinus maidis, 135 Perillus bioculatus, 350 Peucetia viridana, 346 Phaedon cochleariae, 269, 270 Phaseolus lunatus, 139 vulgaris HPR, 139, 160 transgenics, 230, 231, 303, 307 Photorhabdus luminescens, 224, 263 Phthorimaea opercullela HPR, 87 transgenics, 216, 323 Phylloxera vitifoliae, 14, 95 Pieris rapae HPR, 91 transgenics, 216, 223, 227, 229, 323 Pirata subpiraticus, 350 Pisum fulvum, 88 Pisum sativum HPR, 161, 183 transgenics, 248 11/12/2008 2:22:15 PM 519 Species Index Plodia interpunctella, 374, 375, 378, 379 Plutella xylostella HPR, 45, 102 IPM, 10, 15 molecular markers, 496 transgenics, 211, 216, 223, 224, 237, 258, 266, 269, 270, 274, 275, 323, 327, 330, 352, 354, 373–382, 387, 391, 418 Podisus maculiventris, 352 Polistes annularis, 483 Pongamia pinnata, Porrhomma microphthalmum, 353 Prodoxus quinquepunctella, 483 Propylea japonica, 349, 350 Prunus persica, 141 Pseudomonas cepacia, 269, 270, 271 diminuta, 296, 301 fluorescens, 33, 269, 270, 376 stutzeri, 417, 418 Pseudoperichaeta nigrolineata, 355, 480, 485 Pseudoplusia includens, 53, 90, 139, 182, 159, 185 Psila rosae HPR, 66, 87, 126, 162 IPM, Pterostichus cuprea, 485 Pyemotes tritici, 259, 261 R Raphanus raphanistrum, 391, 414 Rhizobium leguminosarum, 269, 270, 271 Rhopalosiphum insertum, 485 maidis, 137, 175 padi, 66, 175, 345, 349 Rhynchosia aurea, 88 bracteata, 88, 179 Rubus phoenicolasius, 141 S Schizaphis graminum HPR, 47, 85, 91, 101, 129, 135–138, 169, 174, 176, 177, 330 IPM, 6, Scirpophaga excerptalis, 8, 91 incertulas HPR, 29, 53, 85, 89, 136, 166, 172 transgenics, 215, 220, 269, 270, 322, 389 21631_C020.indd 519 Secale cereale, 155 Septoria nodorum, 301 Serratia entomophila, 263 marcesens, 387, 388 Sesamia nonagrioides HPR, 137, 175 transgenics, 373 Setaria italica, 413, 414 verticillata, 413 viridis, 414 Sitobion avenae HPR, 106 molecular markers, 479 transgenics, 233, 345 Sitona lepidus, 236, 270, 271 Sitophilus oryzae, 53 zeamais, 132 Snechococcus sp., 271 Sogatella furcifera, 53, 108, 136, 173 Solanum berthaultii, 139, 161, 177 brachistotrichum, 88 integrifolium, 222, 323 neocardenasii, 160 phureja, 139 pinnatisectum, 177 sparsipilum, 139 tarijense, 139 tuberosum HPR, 155, 177 transgenics, 214, 320 vairum, 45 Sorghum amplum, 89 angustum, 89 australiense, 89 bicolor gene flow, 413 HPR, 24, 27, 34, 155 transgenics, 214 brachypodum, 89 brevocallosum, 89 bulbosum, 89 dimidiatum, 89 ecarinatum, 89 exstans, 89 halepense, 89, 413 interjectum, 89 intrans, 89 laxiflorum, 89 matarkense, 89 11/12/2008 2:22:15 PM 520 Sorghum (continued) nitidum, 89 purpureosericeum, 89 stipoideum, 89 timorense, 89 versicolor, 89 Spilosoma obliqua, 330 Spodoptera exempta, 96 exigua HPR, 159, 165 transgenics, 211, 215, 217, 226, 234, 258, 260, 265, 267, 319, 325, 376, 385, 387 frugiperda HPR, 43, 49, 53, 59, 85, 96, 131, 137 transgenics, 215, 219, 232, 261, 267, 298, 299, 303, 322, 373, 386, 387 littoralis HPR, 59 transgenics, 226, 227, 228, 258, 330, 344, 349, 351, 375, 382, 387, 388 litura HPR, 53, 54, 66, 86, 88, 129, 159 IPM, 10 transgenics, 221, 224, 227, 230, 258, 317, 330, 386 Steinernema, 7, 275 Stenchaetothrips biformis, 165 Stenodiplosis sorghicola HPR, 41, 43–45, 49, 52, 53, 65, 66, 69, 85, 89, 92, 93, 95–97, 101, 109, 112, 126, 129, 132–135, 138, 157, 158, 162, 177, 393 IPM, 8, 9, 14 Streptomyces hygroscopicus, 273 Sturmiopsis, Sylepta derogata, 159 Syrphus corollae, 345, 349 Species Index Thrips tabaci, 346 Trialeurodes vaporariorum, 102, 485 Tribolium castaneum, 165, 298, 300 Trichogramma chilonis genetic transformation, 302 interaction with plant resistance, 100, 101 IPM, minutum, 101, 480 pretiosum, 101, 480 Trichoplusia ni HPR, 65, 67, 92, 102, 129, 139, 161, 162, 164, 196, 202 transgenics, 215–217, 223, 234, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 266, 297, 298, 319, 323, 325, 375, 377 Trifolium pratense, 132 Triticum aestivum HPR, 137, 155, 174 transgenics, 214 monococcum, 89 turgidum, 89, 136, 174 ventricosum, 89 U Urtica dioica, 450 V Verticillium lecanii, 272 Vigna radiata, 140, 181 radiata var sublobata, 140, 181 vexillata, 88, 161 X T Tanaostigmodes cajaninae, 88 Tecia solanivora, 14 Telenomus, 5, 101 Tetanops myopaeformis, 131 Tetragnatha javana, 346 Tetranychus evansi, 140 pacificus, 303 urticae, 56, 140, 294, 307, 349 Therioaphis maculata HPR, 67, 87, 92, 95, 139 IPM, 14 riehmi, 139 21631_C020.indd 520 Xenorhabdus, 7, 275, 276 Y Yersinia pestis, 263 Z Zabrotes subfasciatus, 139, 166 Zea luxurians, 413 mays HPR, 24, 27, 34, 155 transgenics, 214, 307, 320, 413 perennis, 413 11/12/2008 2:22:16 PM Subject Index A Acylsugar, 178 Additive gene effects, 138 Agrobacterium, 31, 210, 213, 416, 418, 468 Allelochemicals, 64, 164, 326 allomones, 69, 99 antifeedants, 65, 66, 68, 126, 160, 163, 164, 225, 232, 234 attractants, 162, 163, 256 kairomones, 44, 47, 69, 99 phagostimulants, 160, 162, 165 repellents, 126, 160, 162 Allozymes, 179, 413, 479, 481, 482 Alternate hosts, 5, 305, 326, 384, 390, 391, 392, 418 Aminopeptidase, 228, 266, 450 Antibodies, 24, 32, 235, 236, 239, 266, 278, 455, 456, 468, 471, 472, 485 Apomixes, 34 Associate resistance, 85 B Baculoviruses, 6, 7, 33, 234, 257–263, 278, 298, 299, 303, 307, 505 AcAaIT, 260 Ac-NPV, 258, 259 AcMNPV, 260, 261 Af-MNPV, 258, 259 Ag-NPV, 258 H-NPV, 258 HaNPV, 258 HaSNPV, 259, 261 21631_C021.indd 521 Mb-NPV, 258 Sl-NPV, 258 Bazooka applicator, 49, 50, 51 Biochemical markers, 65, 162, 163 Biological control, 4–7, 14, 33, 94, 98–104, 111, 263, 272, 275–277, 294, 295, 299, 301–306, 325, 326, 343, 344, 348, 418, 501, 504 Biopesticides, 3, 18, 83, 255–278, 324, 369, 449, 494, 497, 504 Biosafety–transgenic food, 443–456 allergenicity, 276, 432, 437, 444, 445, 455, 456 chemical profile, 450 nutritional quality, 445–451 substantial equivalence, 445, 446, 447, 459 toxicological effects, 448 Biosafety–transgenic food, 448–451 Bt Cry proteins, 448 lectins, 450 protease inhibitors, 450 Biosafety-transgenic feed/forage, 451 Biosafety-microbial pesticides, 276–278 Biotypes, 92, 104, 110–112, 130, 133, 134, 136, 138, 172, 174, 294, 305, 328, 330, 385, 386, 477, 480, 481, 485 Breeding methods, 133, 340, 444, 459, 507 backcross breeding, 26, 132, 133, 181 cytoplasmic male-sterility, 133, 134, 135, 138, 141, 424 mass selection, 131 pedigree breeding, 26, 131, 132, 134 recurrent selection, 131, 132, 141, 176 11/12/2008 3:03:22 PM 522 Brown planthopper, 12, 16, 65, 66, 85, 86, 89, 92, 101, 105, 108, 110, 129, 132, 136, 162, 165, 170, 172, 227, 229, 232, 233, 350, 389 Brush border membrane, 265, 266, 378, 448, 450 Bumble bees, 343 C Chemical control, 2, 9, 10, 14, 16, 94, 105, 106, 109, 324, 325, 330, 346, 493, 506 Chitinases, 29 Collembola, 343, 357, 358 Combining ability, 135, 138, 139, 140 Constitutive resistance, 85 Consumer response, 457 Cotton bollworm, 14, 29, 41, 56, 67, 86, 127, 211, 217, 218, 265, 271, 319, 321, 330, 346, 353, 388, 481 Coumesterol, 65, 164 Crop losses, 2, 501 Cryo-preservation, 294, 299, 300 Cultural control, 8, 102, 103, 326 crop rotation, 9, 380, 384, 393, 439 flooding, intercropping, 9, 326 nutrient management, planting date, 43, 44 sanitation, Cytochrome P450, 90, 299, 303, 482, 495, 496 D Detection–genetically modified crops, 465–474 DNA-based methods, 468 ELISA, 471 mass spectrometery, 472 microarray technology, 470 multiplex PCR, 469 qualitative PCR, 468 quantitative PCR, 469 RNA based methods, 471 sampling, 466 surface plasmon resonance, 473 Development of resistance to Bt, 374–377 detection of resistance, 374 effect of host plants, 373 frequency of resistance alleles, 176, 370, 382, 392 21631_C021.indd 522 Subject Index resistance monitoring, 371, 386 variation in insect populations, 371 variation in susceptibility, 371, 372, 373 Drought resistance, 30 E Earthworms, 343, 357, 358 Ecdysterone, 262 Economic thresholds, 4, 94 Egg/pupal storage, 51 Electrophoresis, 154, 167, 170, 179, 444, 467, 468, 470, 479, 485 ELISA, 61, 217, 357, 420, 438, 448, 456, 471, 472, 473, 487 Entomopathogenic microbes, 255–279 bacteria, 263–272 fungi, 272–275 nematodos, 275–276 protozoa, 275 viruses, 257–263 Epistasis, 26, 177, 186, 331 European corn borer, 9, 29, 49, 65, 131–137, 175, 176, 215, 219, 224, 271, 320, 321, 325, 345, 353, 358, 359, 370, 372, 375, 376, 391 F Factors affecting expression of resistance, 91, 92 biotypes, 92 photoperiod, 92 plant nutrition, 91 soil moisture, 91 temperature, 91–92 Fall armyworm, 43, 49, 53, 59, 85, 102, 131, 137, 215, 219, 232, 303, 322, 373, 387 Fluorescence in situ hybridization, 154 Food labelling, 458, 459, 473, 509 Frego-bract, 105, 106, 127, 157, 158 Functional genomics, 27, 183, 483, 484, 493, 497, 506 G Gene escape, 328, 411, 421, 423, 428, 429 Gene flow, 307, 407, 408, 409, 416, 418–422, 436 horizontal gene flow, 307, 416 management of gene flow, 422–424 pollinators, 343, 347, 348, 408, 410 11/12/2008 3:03:22 PM 523 Subject Index vertical gene flow, 409, 436 viruses, 409, 417, 424 Gene pyramiding, 64, 132, 134, 141, 184, 237, 384, 386, 387, 394, 508 Genetic diversity, 4, 6, 47, 83, 103, 133, 166, 171, 175, 179, 413, 421, 477 Genetic linkage map, 62, 155, 156, 167, 172, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 187, 294, 383, 506, 507 Genetic purity, 420 Genetic basis of resistance, 133, 153 cytoplasmic male-sterility, 133, 134, 135, 138, 141, 238, 298, 304 oligogenic, 133 polygenic, 112, 133, 134, 136, 139, 140, 186 Genetic transformation–arthropods, 293–308 DNA injection into eggs, 295 electroporation, 268, 269, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 295, 416 maternal microinjection, 295, 296 paratransgenesis, 297 sperm mediated transfer, 296 Genetic transformation–plants, 209–239 Agrobacterium-mediated gene-transfer, 31, 210, 213 direct DNA transfer, 210 gene expression, 28, 90, 211, 212, 221, 237, 238, 264, 268, 276, 298, 304, 328, 330, 331, 340, 356, 384, 385, 389, 410, 432, 437, 444, 459, 503, 507, 508 microprojectile bombardment, 210, 220, 221, 295 Geographic isolation, 423 Glycoalkaloids, 165, 451 Gossypol, 59, 65, 100, 101, 102, 111, 112, 138, 162, 163, 164, 171, 388, 451 Greenbug, 6, 8, 47, 64, 85, 91, 92, 101, 129, 135, 136, 138, 169, 174, 176, 330, 342 H Hazard, 10, 83, 84, 210, 276, 277, 278, 307, 329, 339, 342, 371, 407, 418, 434, 435 Hessian fly, 14, 66, 95, 85, 89, 92, 110, 126, 134, 136, 161, 173, 174 Horizontal gene flow, 307, 416 Hormones, 25, 234, 257, 262, 299, 503 HPR in IPM, 13, 94–109 HPR and biological control, 98 HPR and chemical control, 105 HPR and cultural control, 102 21631_C021.indd 523 I Inducible resistance, 85, 89, 90, 236 Infestation techniques, 48 Inheritance of resistance to Bt, 370, 382, 385, 387, 404 autosomal, 382, 383, 394 dominant, 382, 383 partially dominant, 382 recessive, 394, 395 Inheritance of resistance to insects, 125, 133, 135–141 Insecticide resistance, 10, 11, 16, 305, 306, 394, 495, 496, 497, 506 Invasiveness, 432, 433, 434, 438 Isoquercitrin, 163 J Jasmonic acid, 91, 224, 237 L Lectins, 17, 29, 163, 184, 214, 232, 339, 350, 352, 353, 356, 386, 450, 452, 455, 503 Limitations of transgenic crops, 327–331 biotypes, 330 environmental influence, 330 insect sensitivity, 330 performance, 329 secondary pest problems, 329 stability of transgene, 328 M Malic acid, 59, 65, 162, 163, 164 Mapping populations, 25, 26, 41, 62, 63, 72, 133, 155, 171, 177–181, 187 backcross populations, 155 doubled haploids, 25, 155 random inbred lines (RILs), 26, 62, 155, 156, 178, 182 translocation lines, 154 Marker-assisted selection, 25, 26, 35, 84, 125, 153, 154, 168, 176, 186, 238, 389, 502, 506, 507, 509 Mechanisms of resistance to Bt toxins, 377–380 cross resistance, 371, 376, 378, 379, 380, 387, 394 feeding behaviour, 379 genetics of resistance, 377, 380 reduced binding, 378 reduced toxin pro-toxin conversion, 341, 370, 378 11/12/2008 3:03:22 PM 524 Mass rearing, 4, 33, 47, 293, 504 Mass trapping, 14, 15 Mating disruption, 14, 15 Maysin, 59, 65, 137, 162, 163, 165, 175, 176, 184 Medicarpin, 27, 184 Measurement of resistance, 62–72 biochemical markers, 65 consumption and utilization of food, 55, 58, 60, 63, 68, 72 indirect feeding injury, 63, 64 insect behavior, 69, 70, 72 morphological markers, 66 sampling insect populations, 64 visual damage rating, 63 yield and quality, 68 Mechanisms of resistance, 125–141 antibiosis, 127–129 antixenosis, 126–127 escape, 131 tolerance, 129–130 Metabolic pathways, 24, 27, 162, 184 Microarrays, 27, 170, 183, 465, 477, 483, 484, 496 Microsatellites, 168, 169, 183, 482 Molecular markers, 25, 34, 35, 64, 113, 125, 134, 153, 155, 166, 167, 170, 171, 172, 184, 185, 186, 273, 278, 305, 477–486, 494, 505 AFLPs, 156, 170, 172, 174, 178, 179, 181, 221, 383, 482 DArTs, 156, 170, 171, 179 ESTs, 27, 175, 183, 478, 484 ISSRs, 178, 479 RAPDs, 156, 169–173, 178–182, 304, 305, 408, 478, 479, 481, 482, 483, 485 RFLPs, 156, 167, 168, 171, 175, 185, 479, 480, 481 SCARs, 156, 170, 182, 185, 485 SNPs, 170, 183, 473 SSCPs, 168 SSRs, 156, 168, 169, 171, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 185, 479 STS, 156, 167, 172, 173 Monarch butterfly, 345 Morphological markers, 66, 156, 157, 479 cell wall thickness, 156, 175 leaf hairs, 104, 134, 159 phenological traits, 158 plant growth, 161 silica deposition, 66, 69, 158 21631_C021.indd 524 Subject Index trichomes, 66, 67, 101, 102, 134, 139, 140, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 164, 177, 238 visual stimuli, 157 Mutagenesis, 295, 494, 504 N Near isogenic lines (NILs), 155, 181 Neurotoxins, 33, 234, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 496, 505 Nicotine, 100, 101, 102, 165, 451 Non-protein amino acids, 165 Non-target effects, 339–359 earthworms, 343, 357, 358 fauna flora in rhizosphere, 356–359 parasitoids, 352–356 pollinators, 343–348 predators, 348–352 Nutritional quality, 17, 23, 24, 32, 59, 60, 61, 85, 92, 112, 129, 162, 289, 341, 351, 354, 379, 445, 446, 451 O Oligogenes, 138 Oryzacystatin, 227, 228, 229, 323, 350, 352, 359 Oviposition non-preference, 145 P Paratransgenesis, 297 Pesticide residues, 2, 10, 12, 17, 278, 279, 293, 317, 327, 443, 501 Pesticides of plant origin, 13 Pest management, 4–18 biological control, 4–8, 98–102 cultural control, 8, 102, 103, 326 chemical control, 9–12, 105–109 host plant resistance, 13–14, 94–98 Phagostimulants, 160, 162, 165 Pharmaceuticals, 24, 32, 225, 294, 421, 422, 457, 494, 504 Phenotyping, 62, 153, 187, 507 Phenylpropanoid pathway, 92, 176 Photosynthetic activity, 24, 30, 31 Plasmids, 210, 257, 263, 264, 267, 268, 273, 276, 296, 297, 416 Pleiotropic effects, 140, 153, 435, 449 Pollinators, 13, 61, 343, 347, 348, 408, 410 Population genetics, 166, 330, 482, 485, 509 11/12/2008 3:03:22 PM 525 Subject Index Promoters, 211–213, 304–305 actin1, 212, 389, 480 CaMV35S, 212, 213, 221, 222, 371, 389, 452, 453, 474 PEPC, 31, 212, 213, 220 ubiquitin, 212, 213, 220, 389 Protease inhibitors, 29, 65, 156, 166, 184, 185, 214, 225–230, 237, 339, 347, 352, 356, 387, 388, 419, 450, 452 Protoxins, 264, 265, 266, 380 Protozoa, 48, 255, 275, 357, 358, 504, 509 Pseudo-resistance, 85, 131 Pyrethroids, 10, 11, 12, 260, 262, 325, 352, 495 Q Quercetin, 65, 163, 164, 184 R Recombinant inbred lines (RILs), 26, 62, 155, 156, 178, 182 Refuge crops, 370, 377, 380–384, 390–395, 508 Resistance management in Bt crops, 383–395 crop rotations, 9, 393 destruction of carryover population, 392 gene pyramiding, 386–389 integrated pest management, 393 refuge crops, 390–392 removal of alternate hosts, 392 stable transgene expression, 384 use of planting window, 393 Resistance monitoring, 371, 386 Resistance screening, 13, 41, 42, 44, 46, 53, 84, 87 detached leaf assay, 55, 57, 58, 60, 72 diet impregnation assay, 59, 60, 62, 72 hot-spot locations, 42–44 infestation techniques, 48 infester rows, 42, 43, 44, 45 no-choice cage technique, 55, 79 planting date, 43, 44 sequential plantings, 46 Rhizosphere, 111, 356, 357, 508 Rice gall midge, 14, 44, 53, 109, 132, 170, 172 RIDL, 304 Risk assessment, 276, 277, 305, 306, 307, 308, 348, 357, 408, 410, 419, 432–440, 444, 447, 481 gene flow, 436 21631_C021.indd 525 hazard to the environment, 210, 307, 435 invasiveness, 432, 433, 434, 438 probability of harm, 434 selection for weedy traits, 433 Risk management, 340, 408, 431, 436, 437, 439, 440, 444, 504 S Secondary metabolites, 27, 28, 59, 60, 112, 156, 184, 224, 225, 257, 449–451, 477, 506 alkaloids, 27, 156, 164, 181, 184, 224, 452, 503, 506 anthocyanins, 27, 92 flavonoids, 27, 503 organic acids, 164 terpenoids, 27, 112, 156, 164, 184, 224, 503, 506 Simulation models, 96, 393, 394 Spotted stem borer, 8, 9, 44–53, 59, 66, 70, 85, 89, 91, 129, 132, 135, 137, 138, 161, 177, 215, 219, 220, 273, 321, 322 Starch production, 24 Sterile insect technique, 303, 435 Storage pests, 229 Striped stem borer, 56, 65, 66, 215, 219, 220, 322, 389 Superoxide dismutase, 331, 451 Surface plasmon resonance, 473 Synteny, 26, 27, 168, 183, 184 T Tannins, 7, 59, 65, 102, 162, 163, 164, 388 Taxonomic information, 422 Tissue culture, 25, 26, 210, 221, 431, 438 Arnon solution, 55, 58, 59 Hoagland solution, 55, 56, 58 Tomatine, 59, 65, 72, 100, 102, 111, 162, 163, 164, 448 Toxin genes for insect resistance α-amylase inhibitors, 163, 166, 225, 230, 231, 386, 452, 455 antibodies, 236 Bacillus thuringiensis toxins, 214–223 biotin binding proteins, 235, 236 enzymes, 231, 503 neuropeptides, 234 neurotoxions, 234 Photorhabdus luminescens toxins, 224 plant lectins, 232–234 11/12/2008 3:03:22 PM 526 Toxin genes for insect resistance (continued) protease inhibitors, 225–230 secondary plant metabolites, 224–225 vegetative insecticidal proteins, 17, 224, 340, 386 viruses, 234 Transgene instability, 307, 432, 439 Transducing particles, 257 Translocation lines, 154 Transposable elements, 263, 297, 307, 453, 454 hobo, 297, 307 mariner, 297, 306, 307 piggyback, 297 Transposons, 212, 257, 263, 271, 300, 416, 436 Tridecanone, 59, 65, 111, 162, 163, 164, 178 21631_C021.indd 526 Subject Index V Vaccines, 24, 32, 294, 308, 421 Vertical gene flow, 409, 436 Visual stimuli, 157 W Waste treatment, 437, 438 Weediness, 410, 411, 412, 433, 435 Y Yellow stem borer, 53, 89, 136, 172, 215, 220, 269, 322, 389 11/12/2008 3:03:22 PM