Trang 1 BANKING ACADEMY OF VIETNAM FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES ------ GRADUATION THESIS TOPIC AN INVESTIGATION INTO BARRIERS TO CRITICAL THINKING IN ENGLISH LEARNING COURSES AT BAN
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
Cultivating critical thinking skills is essential for success in today's world, particularly for college students, as it enhances their ability to analyze, evaluate, and reconsider concepts and assumptions, leading to better decision-making (Ristanto et al., 2020; Sadri et al., 2019) In Vietnam, the educational system has adapted to global economic demands, increasingly prioritizing the integration of critical thinking to foster internationalization and innovative approaches.
In today's interconnected world, English has become the dominant global lingua franca, widely used in international trade, diplomacy, entertainment, telecommunications, and scientific publications (Rao, 2019) As a result, many universities and colleges in Vietnam have prioritized English language instruction to meet the growing demand for proficiency in this essential global language.
The research problem
Incorporating effective critical thinking in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction is essential, particularly in Vietnamese higher education, where it is increasingly integrated across various disciplines (Yang & Gamble, 2013; Tran & Marginson, 2018) However, challenges such as syllabus development, cultural context, and pedagogical approaches hinder this integration (Hoang, 2010) A comprehensive understanding of these obstacles is necessary to help educational institutions, educators, and students make informed adjustments to the curriculum, ultimately improving critical thinking instruction and enhancing English language proficiency.
Aims and research questions
This study investigates the barriers to developing critical thinking skills among students at the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Banking Academy, aiming to provide actionable recommendations for improvement Utilizing a quantitative approach, the research focuses on three key questions to uncover the challenges faced by students in enhancing their critical thinking abilities.
1) What are the internal barriers to critical thinking develoment?
2) What are the external barriers to critical thinking develoment?
3) What are the recommendations for developing critical thinking in English learning?
Significance of the study
This study explores the barriers to critical thinking in English learning at universities, specifically at the Banking Academy of Vietnam It highlights how identifying these challenges helps EFL students enhance their self-awareness and take ownership of their learning, resulting in improved motivation and engagement By recognizing obstacles to critical thinking, students can develop effective strategies to overcome them, leading to better problem-solving skills, enhanced learning outcomes, and improved decision-making abilities Ultimately, understanding these barriers is essential for becoming a more effective learner and problem-solver in both academic and real-world contexts.
EFL teachers can leverage research findings to identify and address the challenges their students encounter while learning English, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of their classes By evaluating barriers to critical thinking skill development, educators can adjust their teaching methods and strengthen critical thinking activities within the curriculum The Faculty of Foreign Languages at Banking Academy, along with similar institutions, can implement targeted strategies to foster critical thinking, thereby preparing students to become effective learners and future professionals.
Scope and limitations of the study
This study aims to identify barriers to critical thinking in English language learning among a specific group of students It will examine their experiences in developing critical thinking skills and the factors that may impede this development The research was conducted during March and April.
2023 The study will use a quantitative research design and will gather data through surveys with a sample of students
This study focuses exclusively on English-major students, which may limit the generalizability of its findings to other contexts or populations It will utilize self-reported data from students, potentially introducing bias or inaccuracies Additionally, constraints related to time and resources may affect both the sample size and the depth of data collected Furthermore, the research will primarily reflect student perspectives, potentially overlooking insights from teachers and other stakeholders involved in fostering critical thinking skills within English language learning.
Overview of the thesis
In addition to this introductory chapter, which provides the background, research problem, aims, significance, scope, and limitations of the study, the thesis comprises five other chapters:
Chapter 2 offers a comprehensive review of relevant literature, focusing on two main contents: (1) theoretical background, covering the definition of critical thinking, sub- skills of critical thinking, roles of critical thinking in ELL, and barriers to developing critical thinking in EFL courses, and (2) related studies, which critically examines previous research on critical thinking
Chapter 3 presents the methodology employed in the study, detailing the research site, participants, research instrument, data collection procedures, and data analysis process
Chapter 4 analyzes the data collected and presents the findings pertaining to student- related barriers, teacher-related barriers, and education system-related barriers, addressing each of the first two research questions
Chapter 5 discusses the findings in relation to the existing literature, offers recommendations based on the findings
Chapter 6 concludes the thesis by summarizing the findings, drawing conclusions regarding the implications for practice, highlighting the contributions, limitations of the study and suggesting directions for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of Critical Thinking
This section offers a concise history of critical thinking, highlighting insights from experts in the field It explores key concepts of critical thinking, examining their similarities and differences Additionally, it presents a working definition tailored to the objectives of the thesis.
Critical thinking lacks a unified definition, as it is a complex concept interpreted in various ways (Fisher, 2011) Dewey described it as "an active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge" (Dewey, 1910, p.6), while Ennis defined it as "reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do" (Ennis, 1989, p.45) These definitions, considered "classical" by Fisher (2011), have significantly influenced critical thinking curricula and assessment tools Both definitions highlight the necessity of reflective thinking and careful evaluation of beliefs, with Dewey emphasizing the inquiry process and Ennis focusing on practical applications in decision-making and problem-solving.
Critical thinking, as defined by Paul (2010), is a method of thinking that enhances the quality of one's thought processes by effectively managing their inherent structures and applying intellectual standards Halpern (2014) expands this concept, suggesting that critical thinking is not limited to introspection and cognitive tasks like decision-making and problem-solving; it is a deliberate and logical form of thinking aimed at achieving specific goals While both definitions emphasize the significance of critical thinking, they highlight different facets of this essential skill.
Improving the quality of thinking involves taking charge of its inherent structures and imposing intellectual standards (Fisher, 2011) Halpern emphasizes that critical thinking is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed, while Paul highlights the importance of reflecting on one's own thought processes Despite their differing perspectives, both definitions enhance our understanding of critical thinking and offer valuable frameworks for developing and assessing critical thinking skills.
Critical thinking is defined by Davies and Barnett (2015) as "an analytical process that considers all relevant variables in an issue or problem in order to arrive at a reasoned judgment" (p.2) This process involves systematically evaluating information, arguments, and evidence, while also identifying assumptions, biases, and alternative perspectives Although their definition is not specifically designed for English Language Learners (ELL), it remains relevant and adaptable to this field (Wilson, 2016) Ongoing discussions, such as those by Li (2016), highlight the need for a clearer definition of critical thinking in ELL, indicating unresolved issues in this area For this thesis, critical thinking is understood as the ability to make rational and informed judgments and decisions objectively, which is essential for effective comprehension in language learning.
Sub-skills of Critical thinking
Critical thinking is a multifaceted ability that includes various interconnected sub-skills (Facione, 2015) This section delves into a comprehensive analysis of these critical thinking sub-skills.
This study examines the six critical thinking skills identified by Facione (2015): Interpretation, Analysis, Evaluation, Inference, Explanation, and Self-Regulation This framework is particularly suitable for evaluating the critical thinking capabilities of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students Each skill plays a vital role in enhancing students' analytical abilities and overall cognitive development.
The first essential component of critical thinking is interpretation, which involves the ability to comprehend and articulate the significance of various experiences, information, and circumstances (Elder & Paul, 2001; Facione, 2015) This process includes several sub-skills such as categorization, decoding significance, recognition, and clarification of meaning, all of which contribute to a deeper understanding of evaluations, norms, convictions, regulations, processes, and standards.
The analysis component involves recognizing the intended and actual inferential connections among various forms of representation, including statements, questions, concepts, and opinions that express beliefs and information (Facione, 2015) This process includes essential sub-skills such as scrutinizing concepts, evaluating arguments, and making comparisons and distinctions.
The next step in critical thinking is evaluation, which involves assessing the credibility of a proposition by analyzing its coherence and supporting evidence (Facione, 2015) This process includes essential sub-skills such as concluding, comparing, and discriminating.
Inference is a key element of critical thinking, defined as the capacity to make logical decisions and foresee their potential outcomes Essential sub-skills of inference encompass drawing conclusions and exploring alternative possibilities.
The subsequent element is explanation Explanation refers to the capacity to communicate the cognitive process or the outcome to others According to Facione
In 2015, individuals with strong explanation skills effectively communicate their reasoning outcomes through a cohesive approach This involves detailing methodologies and results, rationalizing procedures, and offering comprehensive, logical justifications.
Self-regulation is the sixth component of critical thinking, encompassing the ability to oversee and adjust one's cognitive processes while correcting any mistakes According to Facione (2015), this self-monitoring of understanding involves the application of cognitive skills essential for effective critical thinking.
The contents of the sub-skills of critical thinking are summarized by the researcher in Table 2.1:
Table 2.1: Critical thinking sub-skills
The role of Critical thinking in English learning
Critical thinking plays a vital role in English language learning, as it enhances learners' ability to comprehend and produce language effectively By fostering critical thinking skills, learners can improve their listening, speaking, reading, and writing abilities, leading to a more profound understanding of the language.
Critical thinking has increasingly been recognized as an essential component of language education, underscoring its importance in the learning process (Alnofaie, 2013; Gunawardena & Petraki, 2014; Houghton & Yamada, 2012; Manalo & Sheppard, 2016) According to Manalo and Sheppard (2016), a language learner's proficiency is not solely determined by their linguistic skills but also by their capacity for creative and critical thinking within that language Furthermore, Asgharheidari and Tahriri (2015) emphasized that critical thinking plays a vital role in the academic and social success of language learners.
Numerous studies highlight the significant benefits of integrating critical thinking into English language learning Research by Afshar and Movassagh (2014) indicates a positive link between critical thinking skills and improved English reading comprehension, writing proficiency, and overall academic success Similarly, Zare (2018) found that these skills enhance students' ability to understand and produce English texts Additionally, other studies, including those by Bravo et al (2017) and Guerrout (2020), reveal that incorporating critical thinking fosters greater learner motivation, engagement, and autonomy in the learning process.
Critical thinking skills are vital for learners to effectively navigate the overwhelming information in the digital age A study by Conway (2022) highlights that these skills are essential for evaluating and utilizing online resources in English learning By incorporating critical thinking into English education, learners can enhance their ability to use digital resources wisely and avoid misinformation.
Research indicates that critical thinking plays a significant role in enhancing listening skills Erkek and Batur (2020) found that teaching critical listening skills, such as identifying assumptions and evaluating evidence, significantly improved students' abilities to analyze spoken arguments Similarly, Yang, Chuang, Li, and Tseng (2013) noted that integrating critical thinking strategies into listening activities boosted students' comprehension of key ideas and details Furthermore, Shahani, Chalak, and Tabrizi (2022) established a positive correlation between critical thinking and the development of listening skills among EFL learners The authors suggest that fostering critical thinking skills can enhance listening comprehension by enabling learners to effectively assess, interpret, and analyze spoken language in context.
Research by Sanavi and Tarighat (2014) indicates that a deeper understanding of critical thinking positively influences the speaking proficiency of intermediate Iranian English learners Their findings suggest that individuals who engage in critical thinking tend to excel in language acquisition Additionally, Akatsuka (2019) confirms that critical thinking questions enhance both the attitudes of language learners towards critical thinking and their speaking abilities The article emphasizes that all students, regardless of their English proficiency level, gain advantages from incorporating critical thinking into their speaking practice.
Critical thinking plays a significant role in enhancing reading skills, as numerous studies indicate its positive impact on reading comprehension and overall proficiency (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Halpern, 2014; Paul & Elder, 2006) By fostering critical thinking abilities, readers can effectively identify and evaluate arguments, recognize biases and assumptions, and establish connections between various pieces of information within a text (Muslem, 2017).
By improving critical thinking skills, individuals are better equipped to navigate complex texts and understand the underlying ideas and concepts
Research by T S Nguyen and H B Nguyen (2020) highlights a strong correlation between critical thinking and argumentative writing skills among college students, indicating that enhanced critical thinking leads to more effective use of evidence and persuasive arguments Similarly, AIKhoudary (2021) found that language learners with higher critical thinking abilities demonstrated improved English writing proficiency, particularly in organizing and presenting information effectively.
Barriers to Critical Thinking in English learning
Numerous studies have highlighted the challenges encountered by Western learners in developing critical thinking skills (Garside, 1996; Onosko, 1991; Tsui, 2001) Additionally, research has examined the difficulties faced by Asian students studying in Western universities (Egege & Kutieleh, 2004; Lun, Fischer & Ward, 2010), as well as those in the Middle East (Allamnakhrah).
Research in Asian EFL/ESL contexts, including Vietnam, has identified two main sources of barriers to developing critical thinking in education: internal and external factors Internal barriers, related to students, encompass issues such as insufficient background knowledge, low English proficiency, lack of confidence, motivation, stress, rote learning, and over-reliance on teachers External barriers stem from teachers and the education system, including teacher-centered instructional methods, inadequate theory-practice connections, insufficient corrective feedback, an emphasis on grades, overcrowded classrooms, time constraints, and a culture of obedience within the educational framework.
Buskist and Irons (2008) identify several reasons why students often hesitate to engage in critical thinking, with one key factor being a lack of foundational knowledge necessary for effective reasoning Students who do not possess a strong academic background may find it challenging to understand, analyze, integrate, or apply the material they are studying, a concern that is supported by the research of Aouaf et al.
In 2023, researchers highlight that prerequisite knowledge is crucial for fostering objective critical thinking A lack of sufficient background knowledge can lead to student disengagement in the classroom, ultimately hindering the growth of innovative ideas and the development of critical thinking skills.
Effective English communication skills, both verbal and written, are crucial for critical thinking and expressing thoughts (Quitadamo et al., 2007) Many students adopt a passive role in the classroom, often avoiding discussions due to their limited communicative abilities (Mezrigui, 2012).
Research indicates a link between students' advancement in English writing skills and their capacity for deeper cognitive expression Challenges in developing critical thinking abilities among students can often be traced back to insufficient language proficiency (Manola, 2016).
A study conducted by Aouaf et al (2023) revealed that low language fluency can be perceived as a hindrance to effective class discussions and debates, as it poses a linguistic and communicative barrier
Lack of confidence significantly impedes the development of critical thinking skills in English language learners (Ezkaya & Semerci, 2022) As noted by Erito, Bharati, and Astuti (2022), students with low self-confidence often feel self-conscious when sharing their ideas, which hinders their participation in critical thinking activities This struggle to articulate complex thoughts can lead to frustration and a diminished sense of self-worth, further undermining their confidence and willingness to engage in critical thinking tasks.
Research indicates that a lack of motivation significantly hinders learners' engagement in critical thinking tasks, ultimately stunting their skill development (Astuti, Sumantri & Boeriswati, 2018) For example, Hesamuddin and Samira (2020) found that Iranian EFL learners with low motivation exhibited reduced critical thinking skills compared to their motivated peers Similarly, Wu and Pei (2019) discovered that Chinese EFL learners who were unmotivated often avoided critical thinking tasks, preferring to rely on memorization.
Stress and fatigue significantly hinder the development of critical thinking skills in English language learners Research by Hesamuddin and Samira (2020) indicates that Iranian EFL learners with high fatigue levels exhibited lower critical thinking abilities compared to their well-rested peers, as tiredness impairs attention and concentration essential for complex thinking tasks Similarly, Liang and Fung (2021) found that Taiwanese students experiencing higher stress levels also demonstrated diminished critical thinking skills, suggesting that stress negatively impacts cognitive functioning and the capacity to process information effectively.
Memorization can be a useful tool for acquiring new vocabulary and grammar in English language learning; however, excessive reliance on rote learning may hinder the development of critical thinking skills Rote learning involves memorizing information without fully understanding its context, which can limit effective communication and problem-solving abilities Research by Johanns, Dinkens, and Moore (2017) indicates that learners who depend heavily on rote memorization tend to exhibit lower critical thinking skills than those who participate in more interactive and engaging learning methods.
Over-reliance on teachers is a significant barrier to critical thinking in English language learning, as highlighted by Aouaf, Azzouzi, and Housni (2023) Their research indicates that this dependence limits active learner engagement and hinders social skill development Learners often see themselves as passive recipients of knowledge, viewing teachers merely as information providers This misunderstanding reduces their motivation to engage in the learning process and obstructs the cultivation of critical thinking skills.
The teacher-centered approach in language education typically involves an instructor leading the classroom by asking questions, delivering lectures, demonstrating concepts, and distributing notes or handouts, while students engage in passive listening and note-taking (Schug, 2013).
A study by Sopian et al (2019) in Malaysia highlights that a teacher-centered approach negatively impacts the development of critical thinking skills by reducing learner autonomy and independence Aouaf et al (2023) further emphasize that this teaching method significantly obstructs students' critical reflection, as it restricts opportunities for idea exchange and discussion of course content.
In Vietnam's educational framework, the dominance of a teacher-centered pedagogy has resulted in students passively acquiring knowledge Research by Ho et al (2018) indicates that this approach limits students' opportunities to develop their cognitive skills and hinders the growth of their critical thinking abilities.
Lack of theory - practice linkage
A disconnect between theoretical knowledge and practical application hinders the development of critical thinking skills in students To effectively acquire and utilize these skills, learners must integrate both theory and hands-on experience (Campo et al., 2023) Without a clear link between classroom concepts and real-world scenarios, students struggle to understand their relevance, ultimately restricting their ability to cultivate critical thinking, which is essential for success in English learning.
Recent studies have highlighted the significance of linking theory and practice in promoting critical thinking skills (e.g., Campo, et al., 2023; Chen, 2017) Chen
(2017) demonstrated that incorporating practical experiences into lesson plans improved students' critical thinking abilities Similarly, Crenshaw, Hale and Harper
(2011) emphasized the benefits of hands-on learning and real-world examples in fostering critical thinking skills
Previous studies on barriers to critical thinking
The cultivation of critical thinking skills is essential in education, particularly in higher education settings To enhance critical thinking abilities, it is crucial to recognize and eliminate barriers that hinder this skill.
In a preliminary study by Mangena and Chabeli (2005), several obstacles to facilitating critical thinking in education were identified Using a qualitative, exploratory, descriptive, and contextual design, the researchers focused on fourth-year students They discovered that the main barrier to developing critical thinking skills was the instructional approach used by educators Other contributing factors included traditional teaching and assessment methods, educators' resistance to change, criteria for student selection, and the cultural backgrounds of students.
Indah and Kusuma (2016) conducted a quantitative study involving 130 English students to evaluate their critical thinking skills and the factors influencing its development The research highlighted language proficiency as a significant factor in enhancing critical thinking Additionally, the study found a weak correlation between critical thinking and cultural background, suggesting that students' culture has minimal impact on the critical thinking skills practiced in educational settings.
Eze et al (2022) conducted a qualitative study with 10 undergraduate students at a South African university to explore barriers to critical thinking development in the classroom The students identified several challenges, including a lack of instructor expertise in critical thinking, minimal student interest, and an educational system that fails to prioritize critical thinking skills The study highlights the necessity for lecturers to possess a solid foundation in critical thinking and encourages students to engage more actively in enhancing their critical thinking abilities.
Aouaf et al (2023) conducted a survey to explore the perceptions of critical thinking among 110 EFL students at two Moroccan universities The study identified teaching methods, learning experiences, and the educational system as key factors impacting critical thinking The findings revealed that the primary obstacles to critical thinking were traditional lecturing and students' prior knowledge.
The Vietnamese government's new educational initiative emphasizes the importance of developing critical thinking skills; however, challenges such as unclear guidance, outdated teaching methods, a passive learning culture, and face-saving traditions hinder progress (Ho et al., 2018) A study by T S Nguyen and H B Nguyen (2020) involving 126 EFL students from three Mekong Delta institutions revealed that the teaching strategies employed by EFL lecturers significantly impact students' critical thinking development The study urges EFL instructors and stakeholders to take prompt action to address these obstacles and enhance educational outcomes.
This article reviews the definition of critical thinking, its relevance to English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, and the challenges in fostering critical thinking within EFL courses Despite extensive research on critical thinking among international students, studies focusing on Vietnamese students remain scarce Additionally, there is an insufficient understanding of the barriers to critical thinking in EFL contexts, highlighting the need for actionable recommendations This study aims to address these gaps by employing a quantitative approach to explore three specific research questions.
1) What are the internal barriers to critical thinking develoment?
2) What are the external barriers to critical thinking development?
3) What are the recommendations for developing critical thinking in English learning?
METHODOLOGY
Research site
The present study was conducted at the Banking Academy, a renowned educational institution in Vietnam that focuses on banking, finance, and related fields Established in 1961, the academy has evolved into a premier university for banking and finance education in the country.
Banking Academy is renowned for producing skilled graduates equipped with essential knowledge in the banking and finance sector In addition to its core programs, the academy provides English language training through the Faculty of Foreign Languages, offering a range of courses from General English to English for Academic and Specific Purposes These courses are delivered by experienced teachers utilizing modern teaching methods, including multimedia tools and online resources, to enhance the learning experience.
The study involved students from the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Banking Academy, focusing on those in their second, third, and final years Participants were chosen based on their voluntary involvement and availability, while first-year students were excluded due to limited exposure to English courses at the academy.
A total of 60 students participated in the research, comprising 21 second-year, 18 third-year, and 21 final-year students Those who expressed their willingness to contribute were given a questionnaire to complete (refer to Appendix).
Research instrument
The study utilized a quantitative research methodology complemented by two open-ended questions, gathering data through an online survey distributed to participants According to Patton (2014), integrating qualitative data collection allows participants to articulate their views in their own words, free from the constraints of quantitative classifications The survey instrument (Appendix) aimed to identify barriers to developing critical thinking skills among English majors.
The survey comprises three sections totaling 18 questions The first section features two multiple-choice questions aimed at gathering general participant information The second section contains 14 Likert-scale questions designed to identify barriers to the development of critical thinking skills among students in English classes The final section includes two open-ended questions to provide deeper insights and uncover additional barriers not previously addressed Responses are measured on a five-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating strong disagreement and 5 indicating strong agreement The survey is structured with closed-ended questions, requiring numerical responses for each item.
The questionnaire was created using Google Forms and shared electronically with students, allowing 15 minutes for completion Data was collected from consenting participants over a 14-day period, ensuring confidentiality and exclusive use for research purposes Following data collection, the analysis phase commenced.
Data collection procedure
Before distributing the questionnaire to English majors at Banking Academy, a pilot test was conducted with five senior students to identify potential issues Feedback highlighted the need for open-ended questions to gather more detailed responses and to identify additional barriers not covered in the survey Participants also suggested simplifying complex terminology for better understanding In response, the researcher clarified certain questions, eliminated unnecessary ones, and added two open-ended questions Following the pilot phase, the survey was launched in the second week of April and remained open until a sufficient number of responses were collected.
Data analysis
The quantitative data collected from the questionnaire was analyzed using SPSS software, starting with the importation of data into an Excel file before transferring it for deeper examination Various analytical techniques were utilized, including calculating Cronbach's alpha to evaluate internal consistency, and determining the mean and standard deviation of items related to barriers in developing critical thinking in English learning Descriptive statistics were also assessed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the data and extract meaningful insights.
To explore the obstacles to critical thinking in English language learning, the researcher incorporated open-ended questions in the survey, enabling students to share their insights and highlight any unaddressed barriers Unfortunately, only 10-15 participants engaged with these questions, and the scarcity of meaningful responses prompted the researchers to forgo utilizing this data.
A study involving 60 EFL students from the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Banking Academy employed a quantitative approach supplemented by two open-ended questions to ensure a thorough understanding of the data Data collection was facilitated through a questionnaire divided into three sections, utilizing a 5-point Likert scale for quantitative responses and open-ended questions for qualitative insights The quantitative data analysis was conducted using SPSS, while qualitative data was excluded from the analysis due to an insufficient number of responses The subsequent section presents and interprets the analysis results.
FINDINGS
Reliability of the Measurement
Reliability refers to the consistency of scores derived from a specific instrument, with Cronbach’s Alpha being a widely used measure in academic research According to Trizano-Hermosilla and Alvarado (2016), the α coefficient is essential for establishing reliability in applied studies In this research, Cronbach's Alpha was calculated for the main sections using SPSS, and the findings are detailed in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Summary statistics of the Cronbach’s Alpha calculated
Category Cronbach's Alpha Number of question items
Table 4.1 shows that the Cronbach's Alpha coefficients for the research questionnaire sections are 0.801, 0.774, and 0.709, all falling within the recommended range for reliability (Goforth, 2015) According to Ursachi, Horodnic, and Zait (2015), a Cronbach's alpha of 0.6-0.7 is acceptable, while values of 0.8 or higher are considered excellent Therefore, the Alpha coefficients indicate a high degree of internal consistency, with the highest value being 0.801, demonstrating that the questionnaire items are strongly reliable.
General evaluation
Table 4.2: The range of interpreting the Likert scale mean score
Interpretation Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
The ranges for the mean scores are: 1 – 1.80 = Strongly disagree, 1.81 – 2.60 Disagree, 2.61 – 3.40 = Neutral, 3.41 – 4.20 = Agree, 4.20 – 5 = Strongly agree
Table 4.3: General evaluation of barriers to develop critical thinking
Based on the agreement level measurement scale presented in Table 4.2 and Table
4.3 above, the average scores for the three items, namely 3.73, 3.53, and 3.84 respectively, indicate that the participants agreed with all three research items pertaining to the barriers encountered by students in developing critical thinking skills in English classes
The study revealed that education system-related barriers scored the highest (M = 3.84) among the factors affecting the development of critical thinking skills, followed by student-related barriers (M = 3.73) In contrast, teachers-related barriers received the lowest mean score (M = 3.53), suggesting that respondents perceive education system factors as the most significant impediment to fostering critical thinking, while barriers linked to teachers were viewed as less impactful.
Findings on students-related barriers
Figure 4.1: Summary of students’ responses about students-related barriers (in percentage)
Learner-related obstacles significantly impact the development of critical thinking skills in English classes, as illustrated in Figure 4.1 Key barriers identified include a lack of background knowledge (78% agreement), which emerged as the most prevalent issue, followed by a lack of confidence (71%) Other challenges, such as low language proficiency (65%), stress and fatigue (63%), and over-reliance on teachers (59%), were also noted, though they were less common Additionally, lack of motivation and rote-learning were identified as the least significant barriers, each with 55% agreement among participants.
Findings on teachers-related barriers
Figure 4.2: Summary of students’ responses about teachers-related barriers (in percentage)
The analysis in Figure 4.2 highlights that the most significant barrier identified is the lack of feedback and detailed explanations, with 42% of respondents agreeing and 18% strongly agreeing Following closely, the second barrier is the insufficient linkage between theory and practice in teachers' lessons, with 43% agreeing and 12% strongly agreeing In contrast, teacher-centered methods represent the least prevalent barrier, with 33% agreeing and 15% strongly agreeing.
Findings on education system-related barriers
Figure 4.3: Summary of students’ responses about education system-related bariers (in percentage)
The findings in Figure 4.3 indicate that the primary obstacle in the education system is the emphasis on grades, with 77% of participants agreeing or strongly agreeing The second significant barrier identified is the time constraints of each class and subject, with 50% agreeing and 23% strongly agreeing A lesser barrier pertains to overcrowded classrooms, with 43% agreeing and 23% strongly agreeing Lastly, the issue of obedience within the system is the least recognized barrier, with 60% of participants expressing agreement or strong agreement.
This chapter outlines key findings regarding the barriers students face in developing critical thinking skills in English classes Participants unanimously identified three significant obstacles, with education system-related factors recognized as the most substantial barrier In contrast, there was less agreement on the barriers linked to teachers, highlighting a critical area for improvement in fostering critical thinking in educational settings.
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Discussion on students-related barriers
The main barrier to developing critical thinking skills in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses is linked to students' lack of foundational knowledge This finding aligns with the research conducted by Islamiyah, highlighting the importance of a solid knowledge base for fostering critical thinking in language learning.
Comprehensive content knowledge is essential for advancing critical thinking, allowing individuals to confidently tackle issues within specific domains (Al Fajri, 2020; Shirmard, 2022) A lack of fundamental knowledge can significantly hinder an international student's ability to grasp critical thinking concepts and participate effectively in educational processes (Shirmard, 2022) Research indicates that a thorough understanding of the subject matter supports students in evaluating their critical thinking skills (Case, 2005).
A significant challenge identified in the study is the lack of confidence among students, who often fear making mistakes and prefer simple, factual tasks This observation is consistent with the findings of Kasalaeli et al (2020), which indicate that students with higher confidence levels actively seek information and share their ideas in class Such engagement fosters improved classroom dynamics and enhances the overall quality of education for all learners.
Low English proficiency significantly hinders students' ability to engage in critical thinking According to Grosser and Nel (2013), students with limited language skills often struggle with understanding and interpreting learning materials primarily presented in English This observation is echoed by Indah and Kusuma (2016), who found that some Indonesian students learning English faced linguistic deficiencies, leading to unclear arguments in their critical thinking expressions.
This study highlights that student-related factors such as stress, fatigue, lack of motivation, rote learning, and over-reliance on teachers significantly hinder the development of critical thinking abilities Similarly, research by Kasalaei et al (2020) emphasizes that anxiety and stress distract students, ultimately obstructing their critical focus on important issues Furthermore, Aouaf et al (2023) found that excessive dependence on teachers and rote learning restricts student participation and impedes the enhancement of social skills.
Discussion on teachers-related barriers
Research indicates that teacher-related factors can hinder the development of critical thinking skills, with the absence of corrective feedback and detailed explanations being the most significant barrier Participants noted that without instructor feedback, they tended to delay their learning Similarly, Wambsganss et al (2020) demonstrated that providing individual feedback effectively enhances students' argumentation and reasoning skills.
In 2022, it was highlighted that students view clear instructions and feedback from teachers as essential support in developing their critical questioning skills Additionally, Sanavi and Tarighat (2014) demonstrated that offering understandable guidelines for critical thinking in English courses can significantly improve students' cognitive processes.
The finding suggests that the teacher-centered approach to instruction has an impact on the development of critical thinking This research result aligns with Ho et al
Vietnamese students often experience a passive learning style due to a teacher-centered approach, which limits their individual cognitive development and hinders critical thinking skills (2018) Massa (2014) highlights that educators who see teaching solely as information delivery can obstruct the growth of critical thinking abilities In contrast, teachers who view learning as a collaborative process between themselves and their students are more likely to incorporate critical thinking exercises into their classrooms.
Discussion on education system-related barriers
The study indicates that the barriers to developing critical thinking skills among students are largely rooted in the educational system, with a significant focus on academic performance and achievement, reflected in an average score of 4.15 for BE1 Participants noted that the pressure to achieve high grades encourages rote learning from textbooks, hindering students' ability to engage in deeper analysis and critical thinking Supporting this, Ho et al (2018) highlighted that the Vietnamese education system prioritizes a grading framework that favors knowledge transfer over fostering essential skills like comprehension, problem-solving, and decision-making Consequently, students in Vietnam exhibit limited critical thinking capabilities.
Time constraints significantly hinder lecturers' ability to teach critical thinking skills, as highlighted by Eze et al (2022) Their research indicates that the extensive curriculum leaves little room for anything beyond the required material, preventing students from practicing critical thinking This pressure to complete course content within limited time frames restricts the development and application of these essential skills Numerous studies, including those by Duro et al (2013) and Hong, stress the need for adequate time for both students and teachers to effectively foster critical thinking in the classroom.
& Yu, 2017; Kembara et al., 2019; Kaddoura, 2011)
A significant barrier to developing critical thinking skills in educational settings is the large class size, as noted by Eze et al (2022) Classes with 50 to 80 students, particularly those with diverse backgrounds, create challenges for active participation in discussions This lack of engagement ultimately hinders the cultivation of critical thinking abilities among students.
Research indicates that the hierarchical structure inherent in Confucian culture hinders the development of critical thinking skills Liu and Littlewood (1997) highlight that students from East Asian backgrounds, influenced by Confucianism, often hesitate to participate in argumentative discussions or voice opposing opinions T T B Nguyen (2016) similarly notes that traditional Vietnamese cultural values obstruct critical thinking practices, particularly the belief in the authoritative knowledge of teachers and elders The study revealed that students preferred learning from teachers over peers, particularly in foreign languages, due to the perceived expertise of educators This belief in the high status and expert knowledge of teachers contributes to students' reluctance to engage in discourse, which Dong (2015) argues creates a significant barrier to critical thinking.
Recommendations
Based on the identified barriers to critical thinking practices, some suggestions can be proposed to improve the students' involvement in the subject
To enhance students' engagement in critical thinking within English, it is essential to provide sufficient support for English language proficiency While the connection between English proficiency and critical thinking is not well-defined in existing literature, this study indicates that limited English skills impede critical thinking capabilities Universities and educators play a crucial role in addressing this challenge Emphasizing critical thinking in introductory English courses and skills-based classes is vital, integrating vocabulary, grammar, and fundamental skills such as reading, listening, writing, and speaking Through speaking and writing exercises, students can learn to articulate their personal perspectives, comprehend diverse viewpoints, and effectively use language to communicate their intentions in daily interactions.
Students can enhance their English competency and critical thinking skills by taking initiative alongside support from teachers, institutions, and the government Many students lack confidence in their English abilities and hesitate to share their opinions To address this, collaboration with teachers to develop "critical language" skills through a language awareness approach is essential Embracing risks and learning from mistakes is also a crucial aspect of language acquisition Ultimately, students must take ownership of their learning journey and commit to improving their critical thinking skills.
Effective teaching strategies foster higher-order thinking and critical thinking skills in students While various disciplines may necessitate tailored approaches, instructors should implement constructive methods like reflection, questioning, and corrective feedback to engage students and cultivate critical thinking habits Appropriate instructional techniques enable teachers to gauge students' cognitive engagement and enhance their participation in class, which is essential for critical thinking development Collaborative learning activities, including group work and discussions, along with problem-solving assignments like case studies and simulations, further promote critical thinking and skills such as research, analysis, and communication By addressing obstacles and actively working to enhance critical thinking skills, students equip themselves with essential tools for success in their academic and professional endeavors.
To enhance students' critical thinking abilities, teachers should cultivate a classroom environment that promotes questioning, challenging assumptions, and evaluating reasoning through interactions with peers and educators (Zhao et al., 2016) Snyder and Snyder (2008) emphasize the importance of assessing students' current thinking levels and guiding them to become active information users rather than passive receivers Heick (2020) recommends several strategies for fostering independent thinking, including offering practice opportunities with constructive feedback, encouraging a healthy approach to mistakes, providing feedback from slightly more advanced peers, exposing students to complex ideas, presenting diverse perspectives, and supporting self-directed learning.
To foster critical thinking in Vietnamese classrooms, teachers must navigate cultural traditions such as saving face, maintaining harmony, and respecting authority Observations from students indicate that a strict demeanor can induce stress, highlighting the need for teachers to be mindful of their behavior Monitoring facial and verbal expressions, along with maintaining a friendly demeanor, can enhance student-teacher relationships and encourage open discussions Embracing criticism and challenges in the classroom helps to reduce intimidation, while cultivating a culture that rewards risk-taking allows students to express their ideas freely, promoting a respectful and engaging learning environment.
This chapter explores research findings that highlight the relationship between critical thinking development and existing literature, suggesting solutions to address barriers in English language learning The results indicate that factors associated with students, teachers, and the education system significantly impact the cultivation of critical thinking skills This empirical evidence is consistent with previous studies (e.g., Eze et al., 2022; Ho et al., 2018; Wambsganss et al., 2020).
To enhance critical thinking, it is crucial to promote collaboration among teachers, students, and educational institutions The article concludes with recommendations aimed at overcoming identified obstacles.
CONCLUSION
Summary of the findings
This study investigates the barriers to developing critical thinking skills among EFL students at the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Banking Academy It addresses three key research questions, with the first focusing on internal barriers such as lack of background knowledge, low language proficiency, lack of confidence, motivation, stress, rote learning, and over-reliance on teachers, all of which hinder critical thinking development The second question examines external factors, revealing that challenges related to teachers and the education system, including knowledge content, teaching methods, and educational traditions, significantly impact students' critical thinking abilities Overall, the findings highlight that both student-related and educational system barriers are crucial in affecting the development of critical thinking skills.
Implications
This study highlights the barriers to developing critical thinking skills among English-majored students in EFL courses, emphasizing the need for improved teaching and assessment methods The findings reveal key obstacles that hinder critical thinking development, suggesting that both educators and students must adapt their approaches Students can enhance their critical thinking by improving their background knowledge, English proficiency, confidence, motivation, and learning strategies To effectively integrate critical thinking into English language courses, it is essential to design engaging teaching activities, such as problem-solving assignments and open-ended questions, which encourage inquiry and data analysis.
Limitations and Suggestions for further research
This study highlights the barriers hindering students from developing critical thinking skills in English learning, while also acknowledging its limitations To enhance future research, it is suggested to incorporate a wider variety of research methods, such as interviews, to gain deeper insights Additionally, the study's focus on a limited sample from the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Banking Academy may restrict the generalizability of its findings Future investigations should aim to include a more diverse student population to yield more representative results.
This chapter summarizes the study's findings on barriers to critical thinking in EFL courses, addressing the research questions through survey data analysis The results significantly aid English majors and educators in understanding these obstacles, while offering recommendations for improvement Additionally, the chapter discusses the study's implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research Although the findings may not be generalizable, they provide valuable insights into the challenges of fostering critical thinking in the Vietnamese higher education context.
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1 What year are you in university?
Section 2: The obstacles to develop critical thinking in English courses
TO WHAT EXTENT, DO YOU AGREE WITH THE STATEMENTS
( 1= Strongly Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Neutral , 4= Agree, 5= Strongly Agree)
3 A lack of background knowledge prevents my critical thinking from developing
4 Low proficiency in English prevents my critical thinking from developing
5 A lack of confidence prevents my critical thinking from developing
6 A lack of motivation prevents my critical thinking from developing
7 Stress and fatigue prevent my critical thinking from developing
8 The rote learning approach prevents my critical thinking from developing
9 Over-dependence on teachers prevents my critical thinking from developing
10 The teacher-centered approach limits my opportunity to exchange ideas and discuss course content with my peers
11 The teacher's lectures lack a connection between theory and practice, preventing my development of critical thinking
12 The lack of feedback and detailed explanation from teachers prevents my development of critical thinking
13 The education system's focus on grades makes students prioritize getting the correct answer instead of exploring different perspectives and possibilities
14 Crowded classrooms limit students' chances to interact with peers and teachers, preventing critical thinking development
14 The limited time for each subject makes me prioritize memorization over deeper understanding and critical analysis
15 The limited time for each subject makes students prioritize memorization over deeper understanding and critical analysis
16 In a classroom that emphasizes obedience to teachers, students are afraid to express their own opinions, question their teachers, or engage in open discussion
17 Do you have any additional explanation about the barriers I mentioned earlier?
18 Besides the barriers I mentioned earlier, do you see any other barriers?