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INTRODUCTION

Rationale

The 26th annual Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP26) is a pivotal international event where global leaders, policymakers, scientists, and activists unite to strengthen commitments under the Paris Agreement and address climate change Taking place at a crucial moment, COP26 emphasized the urgent need to halve global emissions by 2030 and achieve net-zero by 2050, as highlighted in the 2021 IPCC report The conference serves as a vital platform for leaders to articulate their positions on climate change, influence policy, and garner support, with careful language chosen to convey urgency and mobilize resources However, research analyzing the speeches of public officials during such significant events remains limited, despite previous studies revealing insights into communicative strategies and media framing of climate change This raises the question of how world leaders articulate their commitments and priorities regarding climate change to foster collective action during COP26.

This study aims to address the existing knowledge gap regarding the use of action verbs in COP26 speeches, which serve as crucial platforms for world leaders, policymakers, scientists, and activists to communicate their visions and commitments on climate change By analyzing these action verbs, the research seeks to uncover insights into the rhetoric, themes, and priorities highlighted during the conference, as well as the persuasive strategies employed by speakers to engage their audience effectively.

Aims and objectives of the study

This study investigates the use of action verbs in speeches from the 26th Conference of the Parties (COP26) to analyze their semantic significance in climate change discussions By employing a semantic framework, it categorizes action verbs based on their meanings and functions Additionally, the research explores the frequency and distribution of these verbs among various speakers and contexts, providing insights into their role in climate discourse.

This study aims to achieve three key objectives: first, to create a comprehensive list of action verbs utilized in speeches at COP26; second, to categorize and analyze these verbs according to their semantic properties; and third, to investigate how the selection and emphasis on particular action verbs influence the communication of messages, priorities, and commitments concerning climate change.

Research questions

To fulfill the above objectives, the following questions are set as follows:

(1) What are the prominent action verbs used in the speeches delivered during COP26?

(2) What are the semantic characteristics associated with the action verbs used in the speeches?

(3) How do the action verbs employed in the speeches reflect the priorities, commitments, and actions advocated by the speakers and their respective countries?

Scope of the study

This study analyzes action verbs used in speeches at the 26th Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow, Scotland, from October 31 to November 13, 2021 It focuses on the role of these verbs within climate change discourse, aiming to uncover their semantic significance in the context of COP26.

Certain speeches were excluded from the analysis due to specific criteria outlined in the Methodology section The study does not include speeches in different languages or irrelevant details that do not directly relate to the topic This research aims to explore how action verbs convey messages, priorities, commitments, and actions regarding climate change Additionally, it includes a semantic analysis of these action verbs, focusing on their contextual variations and nuances in the speeches.

This study focuses solely on action verbs used in speeches delivered during COP26, without extending to a broader analysis of climate change discourse or the various language and rhetorical devices present in these speeches As a result, the findings are limited to the specific speeches examined and may not be applicable to other contexts or discussions surrounding climate change.

Methods of the study

This study utilized both quantitative and qualitative methods to thoroughly analyze the action verbs present in speeches, revealing their frequency, semantic characteristics, and communicative effects related to climate change discourse.

The study was carried out in two phases, beginning with the use of spaCy and AntConc to identify and analyze potential action verbs in selected speeches This analysis concentrated on the frequency and different forms of action verbs, enabling the calculation of percentages and the identification of commonly used action verbs Consequently, this initial phase of the study emphasized quantitative analysis.

In the second stage of the study, action verbs extracted from speeches were categorized and analyzed using AntConc, a process known as semantic grouping This method involved organizing the verbs based on their meanings and contextual usage, identifying common themes and patterns among them By examining these clusters of action verbs, the analysis revealed how different groups are utilized to communicate and emphasize specific aspects of climate change.

The study utilized both quantitative and qualitative methods to thoroughly analyze the action verbs in speeches related to climate change, revealing insights into their frequency, semantic characteristics, and communicative effectiveness.

Significance of the study

This study aims to enhance the understanding of how action verbs are utilized in speeches during COP26 to promote collective action against climate change By concentrating on the use of action verbs in these speeches, it offers insights into the language and rhetoric prevalent in major international climate events This research ultimately sheds light on the communication strategies and persuasive techniques employed to effectively convey the urgency of addressing climate change.

The study enhances linguistic analysis by employing spaCy and natural language processing techniques, broadening the analytical tools available for examining language and rhetoric across various domains This research aims to inspire and guide future studies that adopt similar methodologies for analyzing language use in diverse contexts.

Structure of the study

This study explores environmental communication, focusing on how climate change is conveyed in political discourse, drawing on existing literature to highlight the role of language in presenting its complexities It introduces corpus analysis, a linguistic method for examining the use of action verbs, and details the research design, data collection, and analytical tools employed The findings reveal the identification and analysis of action verbs, their semantic groupings, and contextual implications The conclusion summarizes the key contributions of the study and proposes directions for future research.

Environmental communication

Effective communication is essential in influencing public perceptions and behaviors regarding environmental issues, as it is the primary means through which individuals gain knowledge and make informed decisions The relationship between communication and environmental awareness is so deeply interconnected that they cannot be viewed in isolation Our understanding of the environment is significantly shaped by the language and narratives we use to discuss it.

2], and how we communicate about the environment has a significant impact on our perception of it and ourselves Consequently, this influences how we define our relationship with the environment [2, p 2]

Environmental communication extends beyond merely transmitting information about environmental issues; it encompasses various forms of symbolic action This broader perspective allows for a more comprehensive definition, as proposed by Cox [2], which emphasizes the multifaceted nature of how we engage with and understand environmental topics.

Environmental communication is a practical and foundational tool that enhances our understanding of the environment and our connections to the natural world It acts as a symbolic medium through which we frame environmental issues and navigate society's varied responses to these challenges This definition highlights two key functions of environmental communication.

Environmental communication serves a pragmatic purpose by educating, informing, persuading, mobilizing, and facilitating solutions to environmental challenges This instrumental function is often the primary way we engage with urgent environmental issues, acting as a medium to promote public discourse, debate, and educational initiatives.

(2) Environmental communication is constitutive It plays a subtle yet significant role in constructing nature and environmental issues as subjects for our understanding

Identifying issues as problems allows us to associate them with important values like health, well-being, and economic prosperity This perception shapes pragmatic communication that seeks to educate and motivate the public to tackle these challenges and uphold these essential values.

The advancement of communication technologies has heightened the urgency surrounding climate change discussions, leading to a notable rise in environmental communication as a distinct field of study This discipline examines the significance and challenges of conveying climate change messages to diverse audiences, while also exploring the relationship between climate change communication and behavior modification It focuses on how language, symbols, discourse, and ideology shape our perceptions of nature and influence human interactions, involving various stakeholders such as scientists, politicians, businesses, activists, and the general public.

The politics of climate change and the role of language

1.2.1 The controversial nature of climate change

Climate change has emerged as a significant public concern, gaining prominence in a short time Despite its urgency, opinions on the issue remain controversial due to its complexity, making the communication of climate change consequences a challenging endeavor.

Climate change has prompted a diverse range of stakeholders, including governments, citizens, NGOs, businesses, and celebrities, to engage in communication efforts These interactions aim to raise awareness, influence political choices, support government initiatives, and explore new business opportunities Within each interest group, contrasting objectives emerge across various sectors such as sustainable food production, alternative energy, and social justice, leading to complex communication processes The differing perspectives often involve unique languages and symbols tailored to specific audiences, resulting in debates and opposition over priorities and approaches to addressing climate change.

Skepticism surrounding climate change primarily arises from two viewpoints Firstly, some skeptics argue that the link between human activity and current global warming is unproven, despite a strong scientific consensus on its anthropogenic nature They emphasize historical natural climate fluctuations, suggesting the present scenario is not unique Secondly, while acknowledging climate change and its human causes, others believe the associated dangers are exaggerated, prioritizing other global issues such as poverty, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and AIDS as more immediate threats.

Research indicates a significant gap in understanding climate change between the scientific community and the general public Despite scientists' efforts to clarify complex concepts, the public often interprets these ideas based on their own knowledge and experiences, leading to potential misunderstandings While there is a general awareness of climate change and its human causes, many individuals believe it will primarily impact distant regions and future generations, resulting in the perception that it is not an urgent issue for themselves.

Research indicates that while many believe human activities drive climate change, there is a significant lack of understanding regarding its processes, including causes and effects Commonly used terms like "climate change," "greenhouse effect," and "global warming" are often confused and used interchangeably, highlighting the need for clearer definitions and education on their interconnections.

1.2.2 The role of language in climate change communication

Language plays a crucial role in shaping our understanding and interpretation of climate change, making it essential to examine how it is communicated According to Nerlich et al., various "linguistic repertoires" represent different ways of discussing and conceptualizing climate change These repertoires provide valuable resources for consumers, journalists, and politicians, influencing their perspectives and responses to the climate crisis.

Metaphors play a crucial role in climate change communication, as they effectively shape public perception and understanding of complex social issues Linguists, psychologists, and communication experts agree on their influence, making them essential tools for conveying the intricate nature of climate change By establishing common ground, metaphors help individuals utilize their existing knowledge to better comprehend and reason about the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change.

Language plays a crucial role in shaping our understanding of climate change, which is the focus of this study A significant challenge in communicating climate change is the complexity of its scientific concepts, which span various disciplines and are often misunderstood by the general public.

Effective communication between scientists and the public is crucial for aligning perceptions of scientific opinions The choice of words significantly impacts understanding; for instance, terms like “enhance” and “positive” can carry different meanings in scientific contexts compared to everyday usage This misalignment can lead to misconceptions, as phrases such as “enhanced greenhouse effect” may sound beneficial to laypeople To bridge this gap, it is suggested that scientists adopt more informal language that reflects the varying interpretations across social groups, such as replacing “positive feedback” with “self-reinforcing cycle.” However, this approach must be cautious, as it can inadvertently overlook the complexities of public knowledge and lead to agenda manipulation A more effective strategy involves fostering a dynamic dialogue that encourages questioning of established assumptions and power structures, promoting a deeper engagement between science and society.

1.2.3 Political speech on climate change

Politicians play a crucial role in climate politics, as many strategies to combat climate change require legislative action, making them responsible for final policy decisions Their involvement encompasses advocacy, implementation, and monitoring of climate initiatives, yet their motivations and actions regarding climate change are complex and not fully understood While there is significant scrutiny on consumer behavior and corporate strategies, political decision-makers often receive less attention Politicians do not respond to scientific evidence about climate change in a straightforward manner; instead, they tend to adapt issues to fit their ideologies, the beliefs of voters, and existing conventions This suggests that the translation of scientific evidence into political action is far from simple, as it is influenced by various factors beyond mere data.

Framing significantly influences issue discussions, affecting the language used and determining which aspects are highlighted or ignored Language serves as a crucial tool for this framing process A notable instance occurred in the late 2000s when the UK Labour Government strategically framed climate change as an economic issue by publishing the Stern Report, which was commissioned by the government.

In 2007, a report characterized climate change as a "market failure," analyzing the economic costs and benefits associated with climate action Despite some controversy, this perspective received backing from business organizations and facilitated bipartisan support, ultimately leading to the successful enactment of the Climate Change Act.

[39] The Labour government’s approach can be viewed as part of a broader trend known as “ecological modernization”, which employs economic language and policy tools to achieve environmental objectives [39]

Addressing certain issues, particularly climate change, often involves complexities that hinder their progression to the political agenda, despite strong scientific evidence The concept of "policy windows" highlights that an issue gains political traction when a clearly defined problem, viable solutions, and political support converge However, many issues, including climate change, struggle to enter formal political processes The challenge lies in the fact that modern political systems depend on stable environmental conditions and abundant resources; thus, the increasing scarcity and instability caused by climate change pose significant threats to the foundations of liberal democracy This transformation in the political landscape complicates the ability to address climate change through traditional parliamentary methods.

The 26th annual Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework

The 26th annual Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP26) is a crucial international event where representatives from nearly 200 countries convene to address climate change This conference evaluates progress, sets new targets, and fosters global cooperation on climate action It serves as a platform for leaders, policymakers, scientists, and activists to share knowledge and commit to the Paris Agreement's goals Key discussions at COP26 focus on emissions reduction strategies, climate finance, adaptation measures, and enhancing international collaboration to combat climate change.

COP26, held in Glasgow in November 2021, marked a pivotal moment in the global climate change agenda, as all nations united to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, with an ambitious aim of 1.5 degrees Celsius Additionally, they pledged to adapt to climate impacts and ensure the necessary financial resources are available to meet these objectives.

Corpus analysis

Corpus analysis is a vital method in linguistic research that utilizes computers to systematically examine extensive collections of natural texts, known as corpora According to Bennett, corpus linguistics is a unique approach to language analysis that incorporates specific methodological principles Key characteristics of this approach include its empirical nature, reliance on a substantial collection of authentic texts, the crucial role of computers in processing linguistic data, and the integration of both quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques These features enable researchers to conduct thorough investigations into language use, leading to reliable conclusions based on real-world linguistic evidence.

Corpus analysis has gained recognition in the social sciences, particularly for exploring the interplay between language and climate change While it utilizes statistical techniques and computerized tools, the interpretation of corpus findings requires significant researcher involvement Researchers are responsible for selecting texts, choosing analytical methods, segmenting data, and setting parameters Therefore, corpus analysis complements qualitative discourse analysis, offering a deeper understanding of texts within their social, cultural, and political contexts.

This study employs Willis's methodology, which merges corpus analysis with critical discourse analysis (CDA) in an iterative manner CDA serves as a comprehensive theoretical framework that combines detailed text examination with insights into its social, political, and cultural contexts The research aims to achieve two main objectives: first, to contextualize the corpus by integrating insights from the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, and second, to qualitatively interpret the speaker's speech while clarifying the findings derived from the corpus analysis.

Theoretical background

Semantics, as defined by Crystal, is the study of meaning that explores the relationship between signifiers—such as words, phrases, signs, and symbols—and their denotations This concept varies across different fields, with philosophical semantics focusing on the link between linguistic expressions and real-world phenomena, including the conditions for truth and interpretation In contrast, formal semantics employs logical systems to analyze meaning, aligning more closely with mathematics than linguistics Linguistic semantics, meanwhile, investigates the semantic properties of natural languages, examining relationships among linguistic units like homonymy, synonymy, and antonymy It also delves into how meaning is constructed from smaller units and applied to larger texts, incorporating aspects such as sense, denotative reference, truth conditions, and discourse analysis.

Semantic features refer to the basic building blocks of meaning used for representing the meaning of a word and its contrastive element For instance, the word

The term "girl" encompasses semantic features such as "young," "female," and "human," which are crucial for understanding the relationships between words within the same semantic domain Differences in word meanings can be attributed to distinct semantic features; for instance, "father" and "son" share components like "human," "kinship," and "male," situating them within the semantic realm of male family relationships However, they diverge in characteristics such as "generation" and "adulthood," which impart unique meanings to each term.

Semantic features analysis is a linguistic technique that uncovers the fundamental meanings of words by dissecting them into their essential components This method allows for the comparison of a word's features with those of other words, facilitating an understanding of their semantic relationships.

Semantic features analysis is part of ethnographic analysis, a framework developed by Spradley that includes four key components: domain analysis, taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, and theme analysis These elements aim to uncover the cultural significance systems used by individuals Ethnographic analyses are grounded in the belief that informants possess valuable cultural knowledge, allowing their words to be systematically examined While componential analysis can be performed alongside domain and taxonomic analyses, it can also stand alone as an independent process.

Spradley describes componential analysis as a systematic method for exploring the attributes or components of meaning associated with cultural symbols This approach utilizes matrices or tables to differentiate among subcomponents within a domain, effectively mapping the cultural knowledge of informants Typically, the tables in componential analysis feature two dimensions: the contrast set, which includes a collection of attributes related to a specific term, and the dimensions of contrast, which consist of yes-or-no questions formulated by the researcher to delineate the contrast set.

1.5.4 The grammatical category of verbs

Verbs are a fundamental word class essential for clause structure, as noted by Aarts [57] They express variations in tense, aspect, mood, voice, number, and person, often in combination with other syntactic components.

Traditionally, verbs are classified as 'doing' or 'action' words, but this definition has faced challenges in linguistics due to the existence of non-action verbs like "seem" and "be." Contemporary grammar now emphasizes a definition of verbs based on their distribution and morphosyntactic properties, as highlighted by Aarts.

[57] According to Aarts [57], verbs are usually subdivided first into lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs

Lexical verbs, also known as main or full verbs, are essential in conveying the primary meaning of a sentence, expressing actions, events, or states of being They can be categorized into transitive, intransitive, and linking verbs Transitive verbs require a direct object to complete their meaning, such as in “She ate an apple,” where “ate” needs the object “an apple.” In contrast, intransitive verbs, like “smiled” in “He smiled,” do not need a direct object, expressing actions or states independently Linking verbs, or copular verbs, connect the subject to a subject complement, describing a state of being, as seen in “She is happy,” where “is” links the subject “She” to the complement “happy.” Understanding these classifications is crucial for grasping sentence structure and meaning.

Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are essential in English as they accompany main verbs to indicate tense, voice, or mood They contribute grammatical meaning to clauses and are crucial for forming verb phrases Key auxiliary verbs include "be," "do," and "have," which are used in various tenses like the present continuous ("I am eating") and the present perfect ("I have eaten") Auxiliary verbs can be categorized into primary and modal verbs, with further distinctions such as aspectual auxiliaries like "be" and "have," as well as the dummy "do" used in passive constructions.

Action verbs, as defined by Aarts, are verbs that describe situations occurring over a limited time with a clear beginning and end, performed by the subject of a sentence Examples include "run," "eat," and "jump," which emphasize observable dynamic actions In contrast, state verbs, or stative verbs, describe conditions or states of being, such as "know," "love," and "have," often relating to thoughts and emotions Unlike action verbs, state verbs typically do not appear in continuous tenses Aarts' definition expands on traditional views, like Croft's, which limit action verbs to physical movements, by recognizing a wider array of dynamic situations and activities.

The terms "action" and "event" are often used interchangeably with "dynamic" to describe verbs, while "state verb" is commonly referred to as "stative verb." However, these terms are not strictly synonymous For example, in the sentence "I am growing old," the main verb is dynamic but does not indicate an action or event The distinction between state verbs and action verbs parallels the contrast between stative and dynamic verbs Although state verbs typically shouldn't appear in progressive forms, some can convey a dynamic meaning, such as in "We’re having a party" or "You’re being difficult." Additionally, certain state verbs can reflect a temporary state, like "I think I’ll go to bed," contrasting with a temporary action like "I’m thinking about it." Examples of stative verbs include "believe," "know," "love," "understand," and "own," which express enduring qualities, mental states, or static relationships, as seen in sentences like "I believe in you" and "She knows the answer."

“She owns a car” all demonstrate the stative nature of these verbs

Certain verbs, such as "have," "feel," "see," and "smell," can serve both as stative verbs, indicating a state or condition, and as dynamic verbs, representing an action or event Their meaning shifts based on context; for example, "have" expresses possession in "I have a car," while it conveys an action in "I'm having dinner." This dual functionality highlights the versatility of these verbs in describing enduring states, emotions, or perceptions, depending on how they are used in a sentence.

The term "feel" encompasses both emotions and physical sensations, exemplified by phrases like "I feel happy" and "He feels cold." Additionally, it serves as an action verb in contexts such as "She felt the soft fabric," highlighting its tactile nature Similarly, "see" functions as a stative verb to denote visual perception, as in "I see a beautiful sunset," but also acts as an action verb in instances like "She saw a shooting star." This versatility in language facilitates nuanced communication, allowing us to express ongoing states and specific actions However, the varied meanings of action verbs can complicate their identification, as context plays a crucial role in understanding their usage While verbs like "run," "write," and "jump" clearly depict physical actions, others may present challenges in classification due to their broader interpretations.

Verbs like "think," "consider," and "imagine" represent mental actions, despite their abstract nature Additionally, certain verbs can serve as both action and stative verbs, depending on the context Therefore, accurately identifying whether a verb indicates an action or a state of being necessitates careful analysis of the surrounding context and intended meaning.

Previous studies

Research on action verbs has largely focused on psychology and cognitive neuroscience, where studies explore their impact on cognitive processes and neural activation Investigations into brain activation patterns during the processing of action verbs reveal how language interacts with our cognitive functions Additionally, some researchers examine the significance of action verbs in the planning and execution of physical movements.

Research has shown that action verbs significantly impact individuals with cognitive impairments and neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's These findings enhance our understanding of the connection between action verbs, cognition, and brain function, revealing important underlying mechanisms Nevertheless, further investigation is necessary to explore the influence of action verbs in additional contexts beyond these established areas.

Research on action verbs in communication and discourse analysis, like that by Amma et al., remains underexplored, particularly in environmental communication Current literature tends to focus on metaphors and pronouns, with studies such as Flusberg et al examining metaphorical framing's influence on climate change attitudes Their findings indicate that metaphors, such as framing climate action as a war, enhance urgency and conservation willingness Similarly, Willis analyzed UK political discourse surrounding the 2008 Climate Change Bill, revealing that politicians primarily frame climate change as an economic issue, neglecting its social aspects This emphasis on other linguistic elements leaves a significant gap in understanding the role of action verbs in shaping discourse.

In summary, there is a significant gap in understanding the role of action verbs in communication and discourse analysis, as their study has been overshadowed by research in psychology and cognitive neuroscience While these fields have provided insights into the cognitive and neural dimensions of action verbs, their impact on discourse analysis remains largely unexamined This highlights the necessity for further research focused on action verbs in discourse analysis to explore their effects on language use, communication strategies, and meaning construction in various contexts Consequently, this thesis aims to broaden the understanding of action verbs beyond psychology and neuroscience, specifically investigating their role in communication and discourse analysis in the context of COP26.

This chapter delves into environmental communication, emphasizing how language shapes public understanding and attitudes toward climate change It underscores the interconnectedness of communication and environmental issues, illustrating that our discourse influences both perception and action regarding the environment Furthermore, it provides a comprehensive definition of environmental communication as a pragmatic and constitutive tool for addressing environmental challenges The chapter also examines the significance of language in climate change communication, focusing on the impact of metaphors and word choice.

This chapter explores the crucial role of politicians in climate change communication and policy-making, highlighting the complexity of their motivations It emphasizes how politicians frame climate change issues to resonate with their ideologies, as well as the beliefs of voters and stakeholders.

This chapter concludes with an overview of corpus analysis and the examination of semantic features in environmental communication These methodologies are essential for understanding the impact of language on perceptions, the interpretation of scientific concepts, and the role of political discourse in shaping the dialogue surrounding climate change.

Study design

This research employs a dual methodology of corpus analysis and critical discourse analysis (CDA) to explore action verbs related to climate change Corpus analysis offers a systematic, data-driven approach to identify frequently used action verbs and their semantic variations through quantitative methods In contrast, CDA reveals the deeper meanings and implications of these action verbs within speeches By integrating these methodologies, the study provides a nuanced interpretation of the rhetorical functions and implications of action verbs in the context of climate change discourse.

In the initial phase of the research, the natural language processing library spaCy was utilized to identify action verbs in selected speeches, while the AntConc concordance tool assessed the frequency of these verbs and their variations A significant benefit of corpus analysis is its capacity to manage extensive text volumes, allowing for the detection of relationships and insights into language use, all while reducing the labor-intensive effort typically required for analyzing large texts This phase primarily focused on frequency analysis, which involved identifying and counting the valid occurrences of action verbs within the corpus.

In the second part of the thesis, action verbs extracted from speeches were categorized and analyzed using the AntConc concordance tool This analysis employed two main techniques: concordance analysis, which generates and examines context-specific lines for particular words or phrases, and semantic grouping, which organizes action verbs based on their meanings The findings were further interpreted to explore their context and implications.

Computerized assistance used

In this study, we utilized AntConc and spaCy as our primary computational tools spaCy is a free, open-source library for advanced natural language processing (NLP) in Python, designed for quick and efficient text data analysis With a focus on performance, scalability, and accuracy, it offers a range of pre-trained models for various NLP tasks, including tokenization, part-of-speech (POS) tagging, named entity recognition, dependency parsing, and text classification For our research, we concentrated on POS tagging, which assigns word types to tokens, and lemmatization, which identifies the base forms of words, to explore potential use cases of action verbs for further analysis.

In spaCy, the POS tagger identifies the grammatical category of each word in a sentence, determining whether a word is an action verb by analyzing its context This process combines syntactic and semantic analysis, where syntactic analysis examines the grammatical structure and relationships between verbs and their arguments, while semantic analysis focuses on the meaning of the verb and its arguments Utilizing a statistical model trained on extensive annotated text data, the tagger considers various contextual factors, including surrounding words and overall sentence structure, to assign the most likely POS tag for each word.

The verb "runs" can be classified differently based on its context In the sentence "She runs a marathon," it functions as an action verb, taking "a marathon" as its direct object and indicating a physical activity Conversely, in "She runs a successful business," "runs" signifies management rather than physical action, as it refers to overseeing a business SpaCy can distinguish between these usages by analyzing the syntactic and semantic context surrounding the verb.

AntConc is a powerful corpus analysis software widely utilized in linguistics, language teaching, and translation studies It enables researchers to analyze textual data and extract significant insights from extensive text corpora With features like keyword analysis, concordance, collocation, and frequency distribution, AntConc enhances the precision of searches by allowing users to explore phrases containing high-frequency words and identify effective collocates for adjacency searching.

For this study, two features of AntConc were mainly used:

The KeyWord In Context (KWIC) feature enables researchers to observe the context of action verbs by presenting concordance lines These lines illustrate the specific action verb along with the surrounding words, providing valuable insights into its usage within the text.

Collocation analysis of action verbs involves examining the words that frequently accompany them, known as collocates This method highlights the common occurrence of specific terms within five words before or after the action verb, referred to as the 'node.' By analyzing these collocates, we gain valuable insights into the contextual usage of the keyword, enhancing our understanding of its application.

The tools utilized effectively verified the action verbs identified by spaCy, accounting for their various occurrences and calculating the total frequencies of these verbs across different contexts and forms.

SpaCy and AntConc are well-established tools that have gained considerable recognition across multiple industries and research fields SpaCy is extensively utilized in various sectors, with numerous studies highlighting its effectiveness in linguistic research Similarly, AntConc is a popular choice for text mining, concordancing, and keyword analysis, thanks to its robust array of powerful features.

Preparation of the corpus

The speeches from COP26 were gathered from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change's official website, which archives all statements made by participants These speeches are organized into five segments, including those delivered at the conference's opening ceremony.

To select speeches and statements for this study, certain criteria were applied and they are as follows:

• It must be in English or has an English version

• It must be readable as a digital text file and not an image file

• It must not have emblems or logos as the background, or other formatting features that obstruct the readability of the file as a digital text file

• It must be available for download

A total of 127 speeches from diverse speakers across various nations, regions, and organizations were selected based on specific criteria These speeches were converted from PDF to TXT files using UTF-8 encoding to enhance spaCy's reading accuracy, ensuring a uniform format During this process, all formatting elements, including emblems, were removed, which improved efficiency and consistency The resulting corpus comprised 81,455 tokens, accessible via AntConc and spaCy.

Corpus analysis

A Python program was developed for corpus analysis, focusing on extracting action verbs from a processed corpus using spaCy By loading an English language model, the program analyzes each text file and identifies action verbs through a set of predefined rules in the is_action_verb() function.

The code begins by importing essential libraries and initializing variables, including loading the English language model for spaCy It defines a function, is_action_verb(), which assesses whether a token is an action verb by examining its part of speech, lemma, and dependency relations Certain verb forms, such as modal verbs and linking verbs, are excluded based on syntactic properties; for instance, linking verbs are identified through the dependency label “attr.” While these exclusions streamline the extraction of action verbs, human intervention remains necessary for other research steps The program processes all files in the corpus, reading and analyzing the text with spaCy, and extracts action verbs by applying the is_action_verb() function to each token.

While analyzing the corpus, three corpus analysis techniques were used: frequency analysis, concordance, and semantic grouping

Frequency analysis is a technique used to assess the occurrence and count of action verbs within a given corpus This study employed statistical measures such as raw frequency counts and percentage distributions for the analysis The frequencies of action verbs were recorded in tables, facilitating the identification of usage patterns, which are detailed in the Findings section.

Concordance analysis involves examining the context of specific action verbs within a corpus using the AntConc software to generate concordance lines that display these verbs alongside their immediate context This method, combined with spaCy, allows for the identification of action verbs in various speech contexts, their collocates, and associated syntactic structures Additionally, this approach provides valuable contextual information to better situate and interpret the use of action verbs.

Semantic grouping is a technique that categorizes action verbs by their semantic features, identifying clusters of related terms within a corpus and organizing them into meaningful categories This method highlights the characteristics and recurring themes of these verbs in specific contexts, providing a detailed analysis of their usage.

To reiterate, this research employed critical discourse analysis (CDA) in combination with corpus analysis techniques to accomplish two key objectives Firstly,

CDA was employed to contextualize the corpus by examining the significance of the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, the socio-political dynamics surrounding climate change, and notable moments referenced by the speakers This approach facilitated a thorough analysis of the conference speeches, allowing for qualitative interpretations that reveal deeper meanings within the discourse By applying CDA, the findings were contextualized, highlighting the speakers' motives, personal values, and their framing of climate change and its associated issues.

Limitations

While algorithms like spaCy are powerful tools for identifying action verbs, they are not infallible and may misidentify or overlook certain verbs due to contextual nuances and variations in speech patterns The spaCy model, although versatile, may not adequately address the specific language and jargon found in political speeches at COP26, particularly those related to climate change This limitation can hinder its ability to accurately recognize domain-specific action verbs and their subtleties Additionally, the complexity of expressions and collocations in speeches can obscure the intended meaning of verbs, complicating spaCy's dependency parsing and POS tagging Furthermore, the author's lack of a formal background in computer science, combined with limited resources and time, may affect the overall data analysis and the program's outcomes.

To ensure accuracy, extensive testing was conducted using various corpus sizes, from small (40,000 tokens) to medium (100,000 tokens), featuring similar content to assess the program's functionality Although spaCy played a crucial role in identifying potential action verbs, it was just one part of the process; significant human intervention was necessary to reach the conclusions presented in this study.

Politicians and leaders often rely on professional speechwriters for assistance in crafting their speeches, particularly evident at events like COP26 The degree of personal input from these leaders in the speechwriting process remains unclear, as does the level of support provided by speechwriters, which can vary widely The choice of action verbs is crucial in speeches, serving as powerful tools to convey ideas and inspire action However, this raises concerns about the origin of these action verbs, leaving uncertainty as to whether they were chosen by the speaker or the speechwriter.

The study faced challenges due to the varying text formats of official speeches from different nations and their governmental agencies, which included inconsistencies in font, spacing, headlines, and page numbers Additionally, some speeches featured emblems, images, and anecdotes that were not integral to the content To enhance efficiency and accuracy, all speeches were converted to TXT files with UTF-8 coding; however, labor-intensive editing was still necessary to remove irrelevant details and ensure consistency across the documents.

This chapter outlines a study design that integrates corpus analysis and critical discourse analysis (CDA) to examine action verbs in speeches from COP26 By employing quantitative methods, corpus analysis identifies frequently used action verbs and their semantic variations, while CDA reveals the deeper meanings and implications of these verbs The research utilizes tools such as spaCy and AntConc for corpus analysis, detailing their functionalities Speeches are sourced from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change's website, with specific criteria applied for selection The methodology includes extracting action verbs with spaCy, performing frequency and concordance analyses, and grouping semantics Additionally, the chapter addresses the limitations of automated tools in identifying action verbs and considers the impact of speechwriters on verb selection in political discourse.

Most frequently used action verbs

The table below shows the most frequent action verbs used by speakers in their speeches and their frequency

Table 4.1 Most frequently used action verbs in the speeches at COP2

No Action verbs Frequency Percentage

The analysis of speakers at COP26 reveals a strong preference for action verbs, particularly "make" and "take," indicating a focus on practical actions and implementation in addressing climate change This trend underscores the necessity for individuals, organizations, and governments to enhance their commitments, emphasizing COP26's historical significance in fostering global cooperation Furthermore, leaders utilize these verbs to convey empowerment, highlighting that positive changes can be realized through intentional and collective efforts.

The verb "take" emphasizes the importance of agency in addressing climate change, highlighting the necessity for individuals to assume responsibility and ownership It suggests that combating climate change demands proactive measures, decision-making, and active engagement rather than a passive approach.

Action verbs like "make" and "take" play a crucial role in our daily choices, and even small actions can lead to significant positive changes The progress we achieve is rooted in the concrete decisions we make today Now is the time to act and make impactful choices.

We must act decisively and take bold actions to protect our planet, which plays a crucial role in regulating the climate The choices we make now will significantly influence global warming and the future of our environment Every moment of inaction increases the challenges we face Let's strive to keep the 1.5°C target alive by demonstrating the courage to implement ambitious and urgent measures Your commitment to action is essential for a sustainable future.

In 2018, I took significant steps to secure the ratification of the Paris Agreement, marking a pivotal moment in our commitment to climate action Now, we stand on the brink of making perhaps the most important decision of all regarding our environmental future.

At COP26, action verbs like "address" and "work" highlight the importance of collective efforts in tackling climate change The verb "address" signifies a proactive stance toward recognizing and confronting climate challenges, emphasizing the need for action, policy implementation, and strategy development Meanwhile, "work" reflects the necessity for collaboration and concerted efforts among nations to effectively combat climate change This suggests a commitment to sustained, coordinated actions across various sectors, fostering partnerships, and mobilizing essential resources.

A significant number of pledges and agreements are being made to tackle climate and nature emergencies, yet two-thirds of the public find political efforts to address the climate crisis unsatisfactory There is a pressing need for a comprehensive multilateral response to effectively confront this crisis, as mere promises often lead to empty rhetoric The upcoming COP is expected to transform these pledges into concrete actions, emphasizing global solidarity and collaboration among nations To successfully combat climate change and move towards net zero, it is essential for countries to work together, fostering development and manufacturing initiatives in partnership with pan-African and other global entities.

At COP26, action verbs account for approximately 18% of all verbal expressions, highlighting a shared theme and key concerns among speakers The frequent use of these verbs emphasizes urgency, necessity, implementation, and collective efforts in addressing climate change This concentration suggests a coherent alignment in perspectives, objectives, and priorities, underscoring the critical need for immediate action and collaboration to confront the challenges of climate change.

Connotations of all action verbs used during COP26

All of the 665 action verbs identified were divided into 37 individual groups based on their semantic features and meanings The figure below illustrates these groups, as well as their distribution

Frequency of top 10 commonly used action verbs Total frequency of all action verbs used

Figure 4.1 The percentage of most commonly used action verbs in COP26

Figure 4.2 Connotations of action verbs in the speeches at COP26

Efforts Cognitive activities Social interactions Technicality Initiation Economical activities Confrontation Progresssion Government Annilation Representation/Self-identification

Provision Emphasis Reversion/Repetition Assimilation/Dependency

Vitality Approval Forceful acts Invert perception

Degradation Movement/position Downgrade Relation Superiority Intensification Disruption Sense of time Limitation Multiplicative growth

Some action verbs possess multiple meanings and can be utilized in various contexts, leading to distinct semantic features that may not relate to others in the same category This study evaluates and categorizes these verbs based on their contextual usage within the corpus, which supports their classification For instance, the verb "to miss" exhibits semantic features such as [action], indicating the failure to hit or reach something anticipated, and [negation], reflecting the absence or lack of a desired outcome Additionally, it conveys [emotion], often linked to feelings of longing and emptiness due to loss While it can belong to multiple groups, in the analyzed speeches, "to miss" is predominantly associated with the concept of absence or failure to achieve an abstract goal, solidifying its classification as demonstrated in examples (44a) and (24) (see Appendix 1).

(44a) “…of posterity and we must not fluff our lines or miss our cue because if we fail they will not…” - Boris Johnson, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of

Great Britain and Northern Island

(24) “…this COP will be critiqued as an exclusionary event where disabled people are miss ing Our voices are miss ing Our access is miss ing Our rights are missing

Disability Justice is missing.” - Jason Boberg, Member of the Sustained Ability

3.2.1 Action verbs denoting general activities

The analysis reveals that action verbs representing general activities, such as "go," "hand," "breathe," "walk," and "roll," are among the most frequently utilized in making statements Additionally, more generic verbs like "take," "use," and "come" also play a significant role These verbs encompass a range of semantic features that contribute to their common usage.

Bodily functions, motion, manipulation, movement, handling, rotation, and speed are essential concepts that effectively communicate complex topics like climate change Their simplicity and flexibility allow for a rich variety of expressions, making them easily understood and relevant beyond their primary meanings.

Patricia Espinosa, the UNFCC Executive Secretary, highlights the urgent concerns of small island states facing rising sea levels, emphasizing the fear expressed by school children about their uncertain futures She notes the struggles of women who bear the impacts of climate change at home yet are excluded from discussions on solutions Additionally, she addresses the frustration of youth who perceive a dismal outlook for their future, underscoring the pressing need for inclusive climate action.

Espinosa emphasizes the gender inequality and exclusion faced by minority and subordinate groups in climate policy planning, noting their marginalization in critical decision-making processes that significantly impact their lives The phrase "they walk out the door" symbolizes a deeper movement beyond mere physical relocation, highlighting the profound implications of being left out of essential discussions and actions.

Espinosa emphasizes that when a woman attempts to break free from societal norms, even through a simple act like walking out of her home, she may face social ostracism and devaluation from existing power structures By highlighting the vulnerabilities of those most affected by climate change, she underscores the importance of recognizing and including marginalized voices The use of the action verb "walk" serves to convey her message in a bold and accessible manner, ensuring clarity for her audience.

H.E Egils Levits, President of Latvia, emphasizes the need to go beyond mere commitments and address the practicalities of transition Key questions include the implementation process, funding sources, and the allocation of responsibilities among stakeholders.

(11) “This is the COP to stan d with the vulnerable, to show you are for us not against us.” - Alok Sharma, President of Belize

António Guterres, the Secretary General of the United Nations, emphasizes the urgent need to stop harming our planet through carbon emissions and environmental degradation He calls for an end to the reckless exploitation of natural resources, warning that our destructive actions are leading us toward a perilous future.

(77) “You all have the power here today to be better To remember that your meeting rooms and drafting documents are not just black-and-white objects

To remember that in your words, you wie ld the weapons that can save us or sell us out.” - Brianna Fruean, Environmental activist

The examples highlight the use of action verbs related to bodily functions, particularly focusing on hands and feet, with terms like carry, stand, and dig These verbs share common semantic features, including duration and support, emphasizing the physical nature of the activities described.

Action verbs such as "dig" and "wield" are deliberately chosen to convey urgency, control, and support in the context of climate change discussions For instance, Guterres uses "dig" in the phrase "to dig someone’s grave" to emphasize humanity's role in both the problem and the potential solutions to climate change, suggesting that our self-destructive habits threaten our existence Similarly, Fruean's use of "wield" illustrates the control we possess over climate change, indicating that positive change is achievable with determination Analyzing these verbs in speeches reveals a critical and dissatisfied attitude among speakers regarding collective efforts to combat climate change, highlighting the need for urgent action through their choice of impactful language.

Action verbs that signify efforts toward specific outcomes, comprising 7.8% of usage, are prevalent in discussions about achieving goals, overcoming challenges, and demonstrating commitment, particularly in the context of climate change The recent event emphasized the need for increased commitments from countries to reduce coal usage, cut greenhouse gas emissions, and support developing nations in addressing climate impacts (Danaher, 2021) This focus on action verbs is significant as they form one of the largest groups in speech, with frequently used verbs like "achieve" and "address" appearing 103 (1.93%) and 94 (1.76%) times, respectively These verbs embody themes of collaboration, persistence, commitment, achievement, uncertainty, and coordination, essential for collective efforts to meet the 1.5°C limit outlined in the Paris Agreement (United Nations, n.d.) and for advancing sustainable development.

The economic recovery following COVID-19 should prioritize social justice, environmental sustainability, resilience, and climate neutrality to meet the ambitious targets set by the Paris Agreement and the United Nations.

Agenda 2030.” - Umaro Sissoco Embaló, President of the Republic of Guinea -

(60) “Developed countries are collectively committed to the 100 billion USD per year goal of climate finance However, we have not yet ac hieved this target.” -

Fumio Kishida, Prime Minister of Japan

Establishing an international carbon market mechanism is essential for directing funds to the most effective emission reduction areas, mobilizing significant private investment for climate initiatives, and fostering vital innovation, according to Hage G Geingob, President of Namibia.

"We share a single planet and an interconnected environmental system, emphasizing the need for global unity As one humanity, it is crucial that we come together to safeguard our planet."

Marshall Islands speaking on behalf of Pacific SIDS

(118) “We want guarantees from the rich countries to deliver the climate finance that they promi sed in 2009 This shameful situation must end.” - Roz Foyer,

General Secretary of the Scottish Trades Union Congress, speaking on behalf of the

At COP26, speakers emphasized collective action in addressing environmental issues, frequently using action verbs like "unite" and "mobilize" that reflect collaboration This trend highlights the importance of combined efforts in their rhetoric Additionally, some verbs carried negative connotations; for instance, the Prime Minister of Japan used "achieve" in conjunction with "have not" to underscore the failure to meet the commitment of providing $100 billion annually to developing countries, illustrating the challenges faced in fulfilling promises made by developed nations.

CONCLUSION

Research summary

This study examines the semantic features of action verbs utilized by leaders during the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) held in Glasgow from October 31 to November 13, 2021 The focus is on how these verbs reflect the articulation of climate change ideas and the perspectives of leaders regarding this urgent issue By analyzing the deployment of action verbs, the research aims to clarify how international efforts are mobilized to address climate change challenges and reduce carbon emissions The study addresses two key questions: the primary semantic characteristics of the action verbs used by speakers at COP26 and the manner in which leaders framed climate change through these verbs.

During COP26, action verbs were extracted from speeches using spaCy, adhering to specific criteria A comprehensive list detailing the frequency of these verbs was created with AntConc, revealing insights into speakers' stances on climate change In total, 665 action verbs appeared across 5,348 instances, categorized into 37 groups, each reflecting different connotations.

At COP26, speakers emphasized the urgency of addressing environmental issues, often prioritizing action through the use of strong action verbs that convey a sense of immediacy and control Their speeches highlighted themes of cooperation, commitment, and problem-solving, reflecting a collective responsibility to combat climate change The deliberate use of generic action verbs indicated a critical attitude towards ongoing efforts, underscoring the need for significant change Additionally, some speakers employed powerful language to evoke emotional responses and stress the existential threat posed by climate change, urging all actors to actively engage in global efforts for a collaborative and inclusive approach to environmental challenges.

This study, consistent with previous research, highlights that speakers at COP26 predominantly focused on economic and scientific aspects of climate change, frequently using action verbs like decarbonize, emit, and offset These verbs frame the issue and assign responsibility to specific actors, while the human element and emotional expressions were largely overlooked Although some action verbs conveyed emotions to encourage introspection and accountability, their use was minimal compared to other terms that lacked a focus on human suffering and personal values Despite this, moral and ethical questions were raised, indicating that a thorough corpus analysis might yield different insights regarding the existential implications of climate change.

Implication of the study

This research analyzes how world leaders and public figures frame and communicate environmental issues at COP26, revealing their core values, attitudes, and beliefs By focusing on the action verbs utilized in their speeches, the study highlights how these influential figures shape public messages about the environment The findings align with previous corpus analyses, such as those by Willis, reinforcing existing research on politicians' discourse regarding climate change This study enhances our understanding of the discussion surrounding environmental issues and illustrates the role of language in framing complex risks like climate change.

This research highlights the importance of action verbs in climate change speeches, providing insights into linguistic strategies that enhance environmental communication effectiveness By leveraging these findings, environmental communicators can craft targeted messages that resonate with various audience segments, driving behavior change and increasing environmental responsibility Additionally, policymakers can utilize this research to choose language that effectively engages the public, fostering support for climate initiatives By incorporating action verbs with positive connotations, they can tailor their messages to specific audiences, promoting a sense of ownership and empowerment in addressing climate change.

This research highlights the theoretical implications of automation in linguistic analysis by utilizing spaCy, a powerful natural language processing library, to efficiently process large datasets and categorize action verbs Future studies can build on this design, leveraging spaCy's computational capabilities to expedite research and enable more comprehensive investigations into linguistic phenomena within corpus analysis Ultimately, this study exemplifies how computerized tools can deepen our understanding of language use and enhance communication strategies in specific areas, such as climate change communication.

Limitations of the study

No algorithm, including spaCy, is perfect, and identifying action verbs necessitates a thorough analysis that goes beyond basic POS tagging The complexities of natural language processing, variations in speech patterns, and factors such as context and modifiers all influence the identification of action verbs This challenge is compounded by the domain-specific language found in COP26 speeches, which can lead to misinterpretations Additionally, the author's limited resources and lack of a computer science background may have further affected the data analysis process.

Future potential research avenues

Future research can expand to analyze a broader range of political speeches beyond COP26, including various contexts and environmental communications Focusing on specific political figures, researchers can examine the use of action verbs in their speeches to understand how they persuade audiences to confront climate change Additionally, a compelling area of study could involve corpus analysis to investigate how environmental issues are framed across different COP conferences, comparing these perspectives with the portrayals by media and influential leaders within their domestic political landscapes.

This study offers a detailed analysis of the language used in speeches at the 26th Conference of the Parties (COP26), focusing on action verbs employed by world leaders, policymakers, and activists By exploring the semantic nuances of these verbs, the research highlights the communication priorities and commitments articulated during this pivotal climate change conference Ultimately, this analysis aims to enhance understanding of language in international climate negotiations and provide a basis for future research in environmental communication.

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APPENDICES Appendix 1 All the speech files in the corpus

Speech name Designated code for reference

ANGOLA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 1

ANTIGUA_AND_BARBUDA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 2

ARMENIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN_0.txt 3

AUSTRALIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 4

AUSTRIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 5

AZERBAIJAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 6

BAHRAIN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 7

BANGLADESH_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 8

BARBADOS_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 9

BELARUS_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 10

BELIZE_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 11

BHUTAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 12

BINGO_cop26cmp16cma3.txt 13

BRAZIL_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 14

BRUNEI_DARUSSALAM_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 15

BULGARIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 16

CAMBODIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 17

CFRN_PAPUA_NEW_GUINEA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 18

CGIAR_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 19

COSTA_RICA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 20

CROATIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 21

CYPRUS_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 22

DENMARK_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 23

Disability_Caucus_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 24

DOMINICA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 25

ECOS_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 26

EMBL_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 27

ENGO_CAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 28

ESTONIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 29

ESWATINI_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 30

EUROPEAN_UNION_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 31

EUROPEAN_UNION_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN_part2.txt 32

Faculty_of_Public_Health_of_the_Royal_Colleges_of_Physicians_of_the_

United_Kingdom_cop26cmp16cma3.txt

Farmers_constituency_cop26cmp16cma3.txt 34

FBO_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 35

FINLAND_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 36

GECF cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 37

GEORGIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 38

GREECE_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 39

GRENADA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 40

GUATEMALA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 41

GUINEA_BISSAU_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 42

Her_Excellency_Ms._Mia_Mottley_Prime_Minister_of_Barbados.txt 43

His_Excellency_Mr._Boris_Johnson,Prime_Minister_of_the_United_King dom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland.txt

His_Excellency_Mr._Mario_Draghi_Prime_Minister_of_Italy.txt 45

HOLY_SEE_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 46

ICELAND_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 47

ICIMOD_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 48

IDLO_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 49

IFRC_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 50

IGAD_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 51

IIF_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 52

INDONESIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 53

IPO_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 54

IRAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 55

IRELAND_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 56

ITF_OECD_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 57

IUCN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 58

JAMAICA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 59

JAPAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 60

JORDAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 61

KENYA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 62

KYRGYZSTAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 63

LAO_PEOPLEs_DEMOCRATIC_REPUBLIC_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_

LATVIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 65

LGMA_cop26cmp16cma3.txt 66

LIBERIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 67

LIECHTENSTEIN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 68

LITHUANIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 69

MALAYSIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 70

MARSHALL_ISLANDS_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 71

MAURITIUS_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 72

MONGOLIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 73

MONTENEGRO_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 74

Mr_António_Guterres_Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations.txt 75

Ms Yrsa-Daley-Ward.txt 76

Ms_Brianna_Fruean_Ms_Txai_Suruí_Ms_Elizabeth_Wathuti.txt 77

NAMIBIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 78

NAURU_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 79

NCM_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 80

NEPAL_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 81

NETHERLANDS_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 82

NIUE_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 83

NORTH_MACEDONIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN_0.txt 84

On_behalf_of_the_EU_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 85

OPEC_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 86

Pacific_Islands_Forum_Secretariat_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 87

PAKISTAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 88

PALAU_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 89

PAM_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 90

PAPUA_NEW_GUINEA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 91

Parliamentarians_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 92

PHILIPPINES_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 93

PORTUGAL_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 94

Remarks by UNFCCC Executive Secretary Patricia Espinosa to open

REPUBLIC_OF_KOREA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 96

RINGO_cop26cmp16cma3.txt 97

ROMANIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 98

RUSSIAN_FEDERATION_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 99

RWANDA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 100

SACEP_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.pdf.txt 101

SAINT_KITTS_AND_NEVIS cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 102

SAINT_LUCIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 103

SAINT_VINCENT_AND_THE_GRENADINES_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_

SAMOA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 105

SAN_MARINO_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 106

SAUDI_ARABIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 107

SEYCHELLES_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 108

SIDS_MARSHALL_ISLANDS_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 109

SINGAPORE_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 110

SLOVAKIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 111

SOUTH_AFRICA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 112

SOUTH_SUDAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 113

SRI_LANKA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 114

TAJIKISTAN_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 115

TONGA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 116

TRINIDAD_AND_TOBAGO_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN_0.txt 117

TUNGO_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 118

TUVALU_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 119

UNITED_ARAB_EMIRATES_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 120

VANUATU_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 121

VIET_NAM_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 122

Waterkeepr Alliance_cop26cmp16cma3.txt 123

WGC_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 124

YOUNGO_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS.txt 125

ZAMBIA_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 126

ZIMBABWE_cop26cmp16cma3_HLS_EN.txt 127

(*) Note: All of the speeches collected are available at: https://unfccc.int/cop-26/speeches-and-statements

Appendix 2 Categories of action verbs used in COP26

No Connotations Action verbs extracted Total Percentage

General activities encompass a wide range of actions such as going, raising, and handing objects Individuals engage in activities like picking, carrying, and working, while also running, leaning, and breathing Movement is essential, whether it's turning, throwing, or embarking on a journey Walking and migrating are common forms of travel, alongside rolling, standing, and playing People often pull, wield, and step in various contexts, as well as open, close, and stay in places Leaving, bringing, and lying down are also part of daily life Movement can involve digging, pointing, or dropping items, as well as tapping, entering, and coming into spaces Shuttering, signing, and traveling are key actions, with driving, holding, and blowing being vital for interaction Finding, drawing, and escaping are important skills, just as noting, following, and putting things in order Writing, placing, and fitting items into their surroundings, along with charting, cleaning, and taking action, are essential Finally, using and wearing objects complete the spectrum of general activities.

To overcome challenges, it is essential to devote resources and effort to accomplish goals By allocating time and trying new strategies, we can dedicate ourselves to tackling issues effectively It is important to attribute success to collaborative efforts that underpin our initiatives Mobilizing support and delivering results ensures that we act decisively and complement each other's strengths We intend to attempt innovative solutions while coordinating efforts to succeed Replanting ideas and solving problems requires us to handle obstacles with assistance and support from our community By cooperating and collaborating, we can unite our efforts to back initiatives that help others Contributing our skills and lending support empowers us to align our goals and strengthen our impact As we pursue our objectives, we pledge to equate our sacrifices with meaningful outcomes, assuring that we strive to prepare and implement effective strategies While we may face failures, addressing challenges and promising to fulfill our commitments will help us meet our goals and bridge gaps in our endeavors.

Cognitive activities encompass a range of mental processes, including the ability to forget and remember, as well as to recognize and realize information Engaging in reflection and acknowledgment allows individuals to learn and assess their experiences Thinking critically involves guessing, pondering, and estimating outcomes, while focusing and deciding help in planning and translating thoughts into actions Worrying and hoping can influence our aspirations, and the act of choosing and opting reflects our judgments Ultimately, cherishing memories and seeking knowledge are vital for personal growth and development.

Social interactions encompass a variety of actions that foster connection and communication among individuals These include asking, demanding, welcoming, discussing, and calling, which facilitate dialogue and engagement Participating in conversations, caring for others, and congratulating achievements build relationships and trust Endorsing ideas, requesting invitations, and sharing information enhance collaboration and community Behaving positively, belonging to groups, and convening for events promote a sense of unity Celebrating milestones, connecting with others, and accompanying friends inspire deeper bonds Additionally, affirming support, praying for one another, and imploring for understanding enrich social ties Claiming participation, attending gatherings, and proposing ideas spur collective growth Greeting others, recommending actions, and joining efforts imply a commitment to shared goals, while asserting opinions and commending achievements further strengthen connections Extending invitations, subscribing to initiatives, and openly communicating are essential for nurturing meaningful relationships.

In today's rapidly evolving technological landscape, it is essential to design and integrate systems that effectively monitor and measure performance while adhering to environmental standards Organizations must prioritize decarbonization efforts, formulate strategies to recycle materials, and mitigate pollution to minimize their ecological footprint By analyzing data and predicting trends, companies can optimize operations and replace outdated practices to avoid overheating and energy waste Additionally, it is crucial to offset emissions, decommission harmful processes, and gear efforts towards sustainable solutions that balance economic growth with environmental responsibility As we explore innovative approaches, we must remain vigilant in reviewing and reporting our progress, ensuring that we adapt to changing conditions and mainstream sustainable practices across all sectors.

Categories of action verbs used in COP26

No Connotations Action verbs extracted Total Percentage

General activities encompass a wide range of actions including going, raising, handing, picking, carrying, working, running, leaning, breathing, turning, throwing, embarking, walking, migrating, rolling, standing, playing, pulling, wielding, stepping, opening, closing, staying, leaving, bringing, lying, moving, digging, pointing, dropping, tapping, entering, coming, shuttering, signing, traveling, driving, holding, blowing, finding, drawing, escaping, noting, following, putting, writing, placing, fitting, charting, cleaning, taking, using, and wearing.

To overcome challenges, it is essential to dedicate efforts and allocate resources effectively By tackling obstacles and mobilizing support, we can ensure successful outcomes It is important to cooperate and collaborate with others to empower and strengthen our initiatives We must strive to address issues, fulfill our promises, and bridge gaps through coordinated actions By aligning our intentions and complementing each other's strengths, we can accomplish our goals and make a meaningful impact.

Cognitive activities encompass a wide range of mental processes, including the ability to forget, realize, and think critically Individuals recognize and reflect on their experiences, acknowledging their expectations and focusing on learning They guess, ponder, and hope while estimating and wishing for outcomes Waking up each day, they bless their knowledge and imagination, considering various perspectives Confirming their thoughts, they experience decisions and remember past events, often worrying and persisting in their aspirations They assess situations, count their options, and plan accordingly, allowing ideas to resonate and translate into actions People agree on concepts, recall important information, and reconsider their choices, sometimes vacillating between options They spell out their thoughts, seek clarity, and opt for paths that may lead to underestimating challenges Ultimately, they judge their experiences, cherish memories, and remind themselves to choose wisely, even when gambling with uncertainties.

Social interactions encompass a wide range of actions, including asking, demanding, welcoming, and discussing They involve calling, urging, hosting, and talking, as well as participating and caring for one another Celebrating and congratulating are essential, alongside endorsing, requesting, and inviting others to connect Effective communication is key, whether through speaking, informing, sharing, or telling Announcing and exchanging ideas fosters belonging, while behaving and convening together strengthens relationships Trusting, affirming, and inspiring one another are vital for meaningful connections, as is the act of praying and imploring Claiming, attending, proposing, and spurring conversations forward encourage engagement, while greeting, recommending, and joining in discussions imply a sense of community Asserting, commending, extending invitations, and subscribing to shared values further enhance social bonds.

In today's rapidly evolving landscape, it is essential to design and integrate sustainable practices that minimize pollution and decarbonize our operations By monitoring and measuring emissions, we can formulate strategies to mitigate environmental impact and recycle resources effectively The process of commissioning and decommissioning systems requires careful analysis to ensure we adhere to regulations while offsetting any negative effects As we explore new technologies, it is crucial to balance innovation with the need to recharge and maintain existing systems, preventing overheating and waste By adopting a proactive approach, we can predict challenges, review our progress, and adapt strategies to yield positive outcomes in sustainability efforts.

To effectively initiate and activate projects, it is crucial to spearhead the execution of strategies that engage stakeholders and enable progress By committing to launch innovative ideas and pioneering new approaches, organizations can kickstart their objectives and generate impactful results Establishing a clear framework allows teams to formalize their efforts, ignite collaboration, and trigger meaningful outcomes As initiatives commence and evolve, discovering opportunities to catalyze growth becomes essential in ensuring success and sustainability.

Economic activities encompass a range of processes including manufacturing, scaling, and building, which are essential for production Investment and finance play crucial roles in managing costs and risks, ultimately aiming to maximize profit Exporting and importing goods facilitate trade, while exploiting resources efficiently helps to minimize waste and consumption Companies must account for expenses and profits to ensure they can afford to capitalize on opportunities By offering competitive products and services, businesses can attract customers, paving the way for sustained growth and benefits that compound over time.

Confrontation involves a range of actions such as confronting, denying, negotiating, and persuading It can include challenging and facing issues head-on, as well as combating threats and violations Engaging in arguments, forcing discussions, and warning others are common responses To capture or defeat challenges, one may need to blame, fight, or declare their stance The act of battling requires daring to resist and counter opposing views, while also responding effectively to resolve conflicts Correcting misunderstandings and exhorting others to see a different perspective can help in navigating confrontational situations, though one must be cautious of being misled.

Progression is essential for transformation and advancement, enabling individuals and organizations to push boundaries and achieve their goals To continue developing and reaching new heights, one must accelerate efforts to improve and expand capabilities Completing tasks and finalizing projects leads to a successful transition, allowing for growth and innovation By upgrading skills and updating strategies, it is possible to thrive in a dynamic environment Avoiding stagnation and instead focusing on progress can help to broaden perspectives and shape a prosperous future.

10 Government legislate, constitute, govern, enact, serve, arrest, enlist, control, authorize, regulate, manage, prohibit, ban, permit, restrict, impose, limit, disseminate, abdicate, ratify, pass, elect, appeal

11 Annihilation devastate, destroy, dismantle, damage, hamper, decimate, wreak, jeopardize, break, deactivate, end, eliminate, crumble, remove, perish, suspend,

21 3.2% bomb, unleash, cease, abolish, disappear

12 Representation/Self- identification feature, present, emerge, mention, identify, display, determine, unveil, locate, narrow, define, displace, show, designate, mean, pose, characterize, represent, embody

13 Provision grant, give, secure, safeguard, guide, shelve, spare, feed, resuscitate, receive, accord, teach, gift, honor, cover, shelter, protect, facilitate, provide

14 Emphasis outline, indicate, reiterate, reaffirm, mark, emphasize, state, reverberate, proclaim, advocate, highlight, signify, illustrate, stress, prioritize, target, heed, underscore

15 Reversion/Repetition redefine, renew, return, reverse, restart, repeat, revise, reclaim, redirect, regain, reorient, redesign, rebuild, recede, undo, revisit, reconstruct, rethink

16 Assimilation/Dependency combine, bind, add, depend, rely, include, involve, absorb, gather, inherit, incorporate, embrace, comprise, attach, consolidate, embed, overshadow, entail

17 Vitality preserve, flower, prevent, forge, revive, foster, heal, restore, sustain, rehabilitate, recover, save, exist, plant, die, relieve, live, languish

18 Approval encourage, accept, prove, decline, reject, favor, prefer, allow, refuse, approve, uphold, let

19 Forceful acts hit, choke, slash, inflict, bruise, tear, cut, stave, impact, leverage, ramp, wind 12 1.8%

20 Invert perception listen, observe, feel, watch, see, hear, aim, look, view, witness, stare, sound 12 1.8%

21 Struggle grapple, struggle, survive, cope, bear, endure, brave, drown, curb, undergo, cling, suffer

23 Emotional expression cry, regret, enjoy, appreciate, guarantee, demonstrate, conclude, deserve, express, convey

24 Degradation quilt, suffocate, wither, couple, weaken, dwindle, deplete, erode, plague, deteriorate

25 Movement/position flow, slow, speed, pump, position, careen, remain, center, propel, boost 10 1.5%

26 Downgrade derail, undermine, lessen, fall, compromise, halve, downgrade, worsen, abate

22 Fluctuation teeter, change, maintain, sink, shift, veer, alter, divert, steer 9 1.4%

27 Relation derive, result, relate, cause, base, contradict, stem, affect 8 1.2%

28 Superiority prevail, rise, surge, exceed, obey, lose, win 7 1.1%

29 Intensification intensify, enhance, promote, exacerbate, leapfrog, deepen 6 0.9%

30 Disruption hinder, interrupt, block, disrupt, inhibit, burden 6 0.9%

31 Sense of time postpone, tick, await, synchronize, wait 5 0.8%

32 Limitation cap, contain, lock, unlock, access 5 0.8%

33 Multiplicative growth double, redouble, triple, quadruple 4 0.6%

34 Avoidance ignore, avoid, compel, avert 4 0.6%

Parameters to classify a token as an action verb using spaCy

To determine if a token is an action verb, check if its lemma is in the list of adjective verbs; if so, return False Additionally, if the token is "go" followed by "to" and is followed by either a verb or the lemma "be," it should also return False Lastly, if the token is an auxiliary or passive auxiliary and its head is a verb, further evaluation is needed.

In the evaluation of token dependencies, specific conditions determine the return value If the token's dependency is neither "prep" nor "mark," it returns False For tokens classified as "attr," if the head is a verb or adjective, it also returns False Tokens with dependencies "ccomp" or "xcomp" are similarly treated When the token's lemma is "let," it checks if the dependency is "ROOT" with a verb head, returning True, or if it is an auxiliary verb that is not "be," also returning True If the token is not a verb or is tagged as "MD" or "prep," it returns False Finally, dependencies such as "nsubj" or "nsubjpass" will also lead to a False return.

“amod”: return False if token.is_stop or token.is_punct or token.is_space or len(token.text)