Rationale of the study
Online newspapers have become essential sources of information, gaining popularity for their convenience and accessibility With the vast array of diverse content available online, readers often find themselves overwhelmed by the sheer volume of information Headlines play a crucial role in helping readers navigate this influx, allowing them to extract maximum meaning with minimal cognitive effort A well-crafted headline effectively conveys contextual information while requiring little processing from the reader To achieve this, writers must utilize various linguistic techniques, particularly implicature, which enhances the clarity and impact of news headlines This study aims to explore the use of implicature in English and Vietnamese newspaper headlines, as well as the communicative skills necessary for readers to grasp these subtleties.
Aims of the study
The study deals with the exploitation of conversational implicature in the Vietnamese and American political headlines Therefore, the study is aimed specifically:
- To investigate how conversational implicature is created in political English and Vietnamese Newspaper Headlines on the major events of the Iraq war
- To find out the communicative competences the readers need to comprehend conversational implicature.
Scope of the study
This study analyzes political headlines in print media, focusing specifically on the Iraq War from 2003 to 2011 It examines key events during the conflict, particularly in March 2003, December 2006, and August 2010 The research includes an analysis of two prominent newspapers: Quan Doi Nhan Dan (QDND), a Vietnamese daily, and the New York Times (NYT), a leading American publication.
Methods of the study
This study analyzes English and Vietnamese newspaper headlines related to key events of the Iraq War, specifically examining the use of implicature to convey information about the conflict By employing both qualitative and quantitative methods, the research aims to highlight the nuances of how implicature shapes the portrayal of the war in media.
The research establishes a theoretical framework centered on implicature and communicative competence, focusing on conversational implicature and its defining properties It also encompasses essential background knowledge, informal reasoning, and adherence to Grice's principles, which are crucial for understanding effective communication.
In this study, I analyze and synthesize data from both English and Vietnamese newspapers, focusing on the usage and interpretation of implicature The analysis is grounded in Grice's conversational implicature theory For a detailed explanation of the research methods, please refer to Chapter 3.
Design of the study
This study consists of three main parts: Introduction, Development and Conclusion
PART A: Introduction – presents the rationale, scope, aims, and methodology of the study
PART B: Development In this part, three chapters are presented
Chapter 1: Literature review deals with the theoretical framework relevant to the topic
Chapter 2: Methods and procedure gives detailed description of data collection method and analysis procedure
Chapter 3 focuses on presenting and discussing the study's key findings, specifically analyzing the use of conversational implicature in headlines from English and Vietnamese newspapers This section highlights the results of the analysis and examines the implications for communicative competence.
PART C: Conclusion summarizes the findings in comparison between English and
Vietnamese articles with regard to the results of conversational implicature investigated, some limitations and suggestions for further research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theories on conversational implicature
Implicature, a term first introduced by philosopher H.P Grice during his William James lectures in 1967, refers to meanings that are not explicitly stated but can be inferred from the conventional meanings of linguistic units within an utterance According to Grice, implicature is an essential aspect of communication, as it conveys additional meaning beyond the literal interpretation of words.
Grice's theory, introduced in 1995, aims to clarify how a listener interprets spoken words, moving from expressed meaning to implied meaning To enhance understanding of implicature, he provided three illustrative examples.
In a conversation, she reminded Louis about his telephone bill, suggesting he had been on the line for quite some time As he ended the call with a simple "Goodbye," she reflected on how only the wealthy seem to be concerned with such expenses.
In the example provided, the phrase "We must remember your telephone bill" indicates the speaker's desire to conclude the conversation It's essential to differentiate between implicature and inference; implicature is intentionally conveyed by the speaker and can be grasped by the listener, while inference arises when the listener deduces meaning from available evidence.
Levinson (1983) highlights that the concept of implicature has gained prominence in recent pragmatics due to several factors It serves as a key example of the effectiveness of pragmatic explanations in understanding linguistic phenomena Additionally, implicature illustrates how speakers can convey meanings that extend beyond the literal interpretations of their words, revealing the depth of communication beyond conventional expressions.
In conversations, speakers and listeners collaborate by adhering to Grice's cooperative principles, which are encapsulated in four categories known as "Maxims." These maxims guide effective communication and ensure mutual understanding.
1) Maxim of Quantity: Be brief Make your contribution as informative as is required and no more
2) Maxim of Quality: Be true Do not say what you believe to be false and do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
3) Maxim of Relation: Be relevant
4) Maxim of Manner: Be clear Avoid obscurity and ambiguity
Inferences can be drawn from the observation of four conversational maxims When speakers intentionally violate one of these maxims, the resulting implications are referred to as flouting implicatures.
According to Thomas (1995), Grice identified two types of implicature: Conventional implicature and Conversational implicature Both types convey an additional layer of meaning beyond the literal interpretation of words However, the key distinction lies in Conventional implicature, which consistently conveys the same meaning regardless of context, and is characterized by a limited number of examples.
Conversational implicature refers to the implied meanings that listeners must infer to uphold the cooperative principle in communication, as defined by Yule (1996) This concept suggests that speakers often intend to convey more than what is explicitly stated, requiring the hearer to read between the lines to grasp the full message.
A Con muốn bố mua quần bò và áo thun
B Bố đã mua cái quần bò này
In the conversation, Speaker B's omission of the term "áo thun" suggests that he has not purchased the shirt By not explicitly stating he bought it, B encourages Speaker A to infer that the item in question remains unbought This illustrates how B conveys additional meaning beyond his words through conversational implicature.
Generalized conversational implicature refers to the additional meaning conveyed in conversations when no special knowledge is needed to interpret it These implicatures are typically linked to linguistic expressions in everyday situations, allowing listeners to grasp the speaker's intent without requiring specific contextual background knowledge.
Doobie: Did you invite Bella and Cathy?
In this conversation, no background knowledge is required to know just Bella is invited while Cathy is not mentioned, that is, Mary did not invite Cathy
Generalized conversational implicature often relies on a scale of values such as all, most, many, some, few, always, often, and sometimes When making a statement, a speaker chooses the most informative and truthful words from this scale based on the context of the conversation.
I'm studying linguistics and I've completed some of the required courses
In this above example, „some‟ is used to create an implicature It means not all the courses have been completed
Particularized conversational implicature differs from generalized implicature by relying on specific contextual information It is context-bound and directly linked to the maxim of relevance, meaning that the implicatures generated are pertinent solely to the specific topic or issue being discussed.
In addition, the exploitation or flouting maxims can be categorized as particularized implicature (Levinson, 1992:126)
Ann: Where are you going with the dog?
In a specific conversational context, the speakers rely on locally recognized inference to derive meaning from their dialogue, which involves particular conversational implicatures Notably, the dog in this scenario is aware of the term "vet" and dislikes visits to the vet To prevent the dog from understanding the implications of the conversation, Sam articulates his message more clearly, indicating his desire to keep the dog's reaction in check.
According to P Grice (1965), conversational implicature must possess certain features: cancellability, non-detachability, calculability, non-conventionality, having different implicature drawn
Unlike conventional implicature, it is possible to cancel conversational implicature
A generalized conversational implicature can be canceled in specific instances, either explicitly or contextually Explicit cancellation occurs when a speaker adds a clause indicating they are opting out, while contextual cancellation happens when the usual form of utterance is employed in a way that clarifies the speaker's intention to opt out For example, this process of cancellation can be illustrated through various conversational scenarios.
A: What‟s happened to the shampoo?
B: I used most of it Actually, I used all of it
Communicative competence
The concept of „competence‟ was generally introduced in the book „Aspects of the
Noam Chomsky's "Theory of Syntax" introduces a fundamental distinction between competence, which refers to a monolingual speaker-listener's understanding of language, and performance, the practical application of language in real-life contexts.
Communicative competence, as defined by Hymes (1972), encompasses not only grammatical knowledge but also the ability to effectively apply this knowledge across diverse communicative contexts, integrating a sociolinguistic perspective into Chomsky's traditional linguistic competence framework Canale and Swain further elaborate on this concept.
(1980) and Canale (1983), communicative competence is understood as a synthesis of an underlying system of knowledge and skill needed for communication
This study emphasizes the importance of communicative competence for readers to grasp the implicature of headlines According to C.K Orencchioni, understanding implicature requires individuals to possess the necessary communicative skills to interpret speech behavior, including both its explicit meaning and underlying implications.
Readers must employ various competencies to grasp the author's intent conveyed through news headlines This section outlines the essential communicative competencies necessary for effective understanding.
General background knowledge encompasses the vast array of information beyond the immediate speech act, focusing on the contextual framework According to Dochy and Alexander (1995), background knowledge is defined as the entirety of an individual's knowledge, which includes both explicit and tacit knowledge, as well as meta-cognitive and conceptual understanding.
According to Kujawa and Huske (1995) in the Strategic Teaching and Reading Project Guidebook, background knowledge serves as a lens for interpreting and assimilating new information It is shaped by our personal experiences, both academic and everyday, and encompasses our beliefs, knowledge, mental imagery, and methods for understanding and assessing our environment This foundational knowledge plays a crucial role in our daily lives.
According to Nguyen Thien Giap (2000), background knowledge is essential for effective verbal communication, as it encompasses the understanding of cultural phenomena by both the speaker and listener For successful interactions, interlocutors must possess this shared knowledge to facilitate mutual understanding.
E.g - Anh C dạo này có khỏe không?
- Nó sắp đi Văn Điển rồi (Giap, N 2000, p.201)
In the above example, based on the background knowledge that Văn Điển is a cemetery where the dead are buried, the hearer understand that “anh C” is now very weak
In the news headlines, background knowledge is a crucial element readers need in order to understand what the writers imply For instance, in the headline on April 1 st
2003 „Bush renews vow to 'free' Iraqi people‟, if a reader did not have background knowledge on Bush, his vow and Iraq, he could not obtain fully the information
Informal reasoning, which evaluates the likelihood of the truth of premises and conclusions, is a prevalent aspect of everyday thought According to Đỗ Hữu Châu, this type of reasoning relies on logical processes that are not explicitly defined by formal logic.
(1996) provided an illustrative description in the following:
Informal reasoning becomes crucial in situations where information is limited or when dealing with complex, open-ended, or debatable problems It is particularly important when individuals need to construct arguments to support their claims.
This linguistic competence is really vital in the daily life to get the speaker‟s intention Consider the hereafter example:
The young man: Em giận anh phải không?
The girl: Chỉ khi nào anh lỡ hẹn với em thôi
The young man: Thế bây giờ em đang giận anh à?
Thanks to informal reasoning, the conclusion is implied that the young man missed the appointment This conclusion is an implicature
Linguistic competence encompasses the speaker's understanding of cooperative principles, which are essential for effective communication Participants in a conversation are expected to adhere to these principles, known as Grice's "cooperative principles." However, in practice, conversational maxims are not consistently followed Grice (1975) differentiated between "quietly" violating a maxim and other forms of non-compliance, highlighting the complexities of real-life communication.
Openly violating a conversational maxim involves a speaker intentionally disregarding the expected norms of communication Such violations may not be overtly deceptive, as they do not necessarily involve lying, providing insufficient information, or being ambiguous, irrelevant, or difficult to comprehend However, when a speaker chooses to violate a maxim, they risk misleading their audience (Grice 1975: 49).
Flouting a maxim occurs when a speaker intentionally and openly disregards one or more conversational maxims, aiming to create an implicature This deliberate failure to adhere to the expected norms of communication is a strategic choice that can lead to deeper meanings being conveyed beyond the literal interpretation of the words spoken.
This study examines newspaper headlines as examples of flouting conversational maxims Headlines are crafted with precision, serving to convey the author's implications and capture readers' attention The choice of words in these headlines is intentional, reflecting the author's careful consideration in engaging the audience.
Flouting the maxims can be categorized into four distinct sub-types: flouting the quantity maxim, flouting the quality maxim, flouting the relation maxim, and flouting the manner maxim Each of these sub-types demonstrates unique ways in which communication can be intentionally misleading or ambiguous.
Flouting the quantity maxim: War is war
Flouting the quality maxim: (Student) Tehran‟s in Turkey, isn‟t it, teacher? (Teacher) And London‟s in America, I suppose
Flouting the relation maxim: (A) Can you tell me the time?
(B) Well, the milkman has come (Levinson 1983: 107)
Flouting the manner maxim: (A) Let‟s get the kids something
Newspaper headlines serve as a unique form of text, playing a crucial role in conveying the essence of news events concisely (Reah, 1998) They are designed to guide readers in processing the information, effectively summarizing the main content (Teo, 2000) Headlines must provide key information while also enticing readers to engage with the full story, making them the most critical element of news articles (Nir, 1994) Typically, they feature bold expressions, polarization, and exaggeration, often presented in larger, colorful fonts to capture attention (Nir, 1994).
The conversational implicature in the newspaper headlines
Headlines play a crucial role in news discourse, serving not only to inform readers about events but also to convey the writer's opinions This interaction between writers and readers resembles a real conversation, where the "conversation" in newspapers reflects their dynamic engagement News headlines provide insight into the discourse, allowing readers to gain a comprehensive understanding of events Consequently, each headline acts as an implicature, conveying the author's intended message to the audience.
Discourse of the Iraq War
The Iraq War, lasting from 2003 to 2011, was initiated by the United States and the United Kingdom's invasion of Iraq, primarily justified by concerns over Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and Saddam Hussein's non-compliance with UN weapons inspectors However, the legitimacy of this justification and the legality of the invasion have been widely debated, especially after no substantial evidence of WMDs was found The military invasion commenced on March 20, 2003, leading to an occupation and the eventual capture of President Hussein, who was tried and executed by the new Iraqi government.
2011, the President of the United States, Barack Obama, declared that the military officially withdrew from Iraq and Iraq War ended
From the US perspective, the war aimed to remove Saddam Hussein and stabilize Iraq, while many Iraqis viewed it as an invasion Global protests against the war highlighted a stark ideological divide, with only US allies supporting the intervention This situation called for a serious and informed debate on the implications of the conflict The portrayal of the war in contemporary newspapers and the use of conversational implicature played a significant role in reinforcing the ideological messages within the discourse.
This study highlights the significant events of the Iraq War, acknowledging the impossibility of covering every detail By concentrating on key occurrences, it aims to provide a coherent overview of the conflict's major developments.
In the context of war, "major" refers to events that hold greater significance or impact compared to others of the same nature Over the course of eight years, numerous major events influenced the war's progression Key events include the United States' invasion in 2003, the capture of Saddam Hussein in 2006, and the withdrawal of U.S military forces in 2010.
In 2006, the Iraq War intensified, marked by significant events and rising casualties on both sides The year began with discussions on forming a government amid escalating sectarian violence and persistent anti-coalition attacks The U.S military's strategic outreach to Sunni Muslim factions led to the establishment of the Sunni Awakening Councils, a pivotal moment in the conflict A key event was the execution of Saddam Hussein, Iraq's fifth president, who was convicted for his role in the 1982 massacre of 148 Iraqi Shi'ites on November 5.
2006 Thus the headlines of the Vietnamese and English articles are chosen from December 1 st to December 31 st 2006
In 2010, Iraq experienced significant attacks on its Central Bank and the Bank of Trade building in June, coinciding with U.S plans to withdraw combat troops By late August, U.S combat brigades had departed, leaving 50,000 personnel to support the Iraqi military, who were required to leave by December 31, 2011, under a U.S.-Iraqi agreement This pivotal moment in August 2010 marks a crucial point in the timeline of the war.
METHODS AND PROCEDURE
Data collection method
This study focuses on analyzing news discourse, specifically excluding television and radio news The headlines are sourced from Quan Doi Nhan Dan online and the New York Times online, both of which are high-quality and globally accessible newspapers Quan Doi Nhan Dan serves as the official daily newspaper of the Vietnamese armed forces, while the New York Times is a prominent U.S newspaper with an international edition distributed in 180 countries.
This study analyzes the coverage of the Iraq War in the QDND and NYT, focusing on 30 headlines that convey conversational implicature related to three significant events These events include the US-led invasion of Iraq from March 20 to April 10, 2003, and the execution of Saddam Hussein in December 2006 The research aims to uncover the underlying meanings and implications within these headlines, highlighting their impact on public perception during critical moments of the war.
Between August 1 and August 31, 2010, the official end of combat in Iraq marked a significant shift in media coverage An analysis of articles from two newspapers reveals notable differences in their reporting frequencies during this period The New York Times (NYT) published a considerably higher number of articles on the Iraq War compared to Quân Đội Nhân Dân (QDND) To accurately compare the similarities and differences in their coverage, the study focuses on an equal number of headlines from both newspapers.
Data analysis procedure
This article examines the headlines of Iraq War reports, focusing on the linguistic strategies that create conversational implicature and reflect linguistic competence It analyzes how implicatures are conveyed through naming referents, lexicalization, and syntactic features, including sentence structure and voice Additionally, the study explores how readers utilize their communicative competence to interpret these implicatures The findings will enable a comparative evaluation of how different newspapers employ conversational implicature in their headlines.
The analysis
This section analyzes headlines from two newspapers regarding significant events, focusing on how implicature is conveyed The selected English and Vietnamese headlines are organized chronologically for a comprehensive examination.
This section presents illustrated examples derived from a selection of 30 news headlines used in the study The researcher outlines the analytical process applied uniformly across all headlines prior to data synthesis.
Trew (1979) asserts that all perception reflected in lexicalization is influenced by ideology, with variations in wording often indicating distinct and well-defined systems of thought To understand the perspectives of different newspapers, it is essential to analyze their lexical choices This involves two key components: the naming of referents, which includes references to the war, and lexicalization, which encompasses the selection of words used to describe the progression of the Iraqi War.
Headlines utilize syntactic features to convey implicature, with complete sentences presenting factual information and noun phrases designed to pique reader curiosity This combination gives headlines an objective appearance while subtly masking deeper meanings Additionally, the use of passive or active voice and varying agents further enhances the creation of implicature within the headlines.
To effectively identify conversational implicature, readers must develop key competencies, including background knowledge, informal reasoning, and adherence to Grice's cooperative principles These skills significantly influence the dynamics of information exchange, facilitating the generation and understanding of inferences.
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
Lexical devices
Two newspapers report on the same events but utilize different nouns and noun phrases, leading to varied interpretations The headlines reference the war in distinct ways, which can create subtle implications and influence readers' perceptions.
The Vietnamese news headline on March 20, "Giờ 'G' tai họa," signifies the onset of the Iraq War, using the phrase "Giờ 'G'" to denote a critical moment The strong connotation of the word "tai họa," meaning disaster, suggests that the war is expected to inflict severe damage on both people and property This headline serves as a warning about the impending seriousness of the conflict and its potential consequences.
Take the second example The Vietnamese news headline includes the reference
The "bloody battle" known as the "final showdown at Bát-đa" took place on April 5th and 8th This phrase combines a noun with an adjective that emphasizes the severity of the conflict, highlighting its intense and violent nature.
The term "trận quyết tử" highlights the inevitable loss of soldiers in war, emphasizing the profound suffering experienced by both sides Through its use of noun phrases, QDND underscores the harsh realities of conflict, reflecting a negative perception of war among the Vietnamese This evaluative language indicates a clear disapproval of the Iraq war, revealing that the Vietnamese media does not support such military actions.
The English headline "Bush speech ends tense countdown to action" (21/3/2003) highlights the critical moments leading up to a significant event, with "countdown" signifying the final period before action The adjective "tense" underscores the urgency and anxiety surrounding the situation, emphasizing the event's importance.
The phrase "tense countdown to action" suggests anticipation for a significant event, specifically the Iraq War In this context, the headline implies that the U.S declaration of war is a crucial and necessary step to end the ongoing suspense, while subtly omitting the potential consequences of loss associated with the conflict.
The choice of words in newspaper headlines plays a crucial role in conveying implicature, utilizing a variety of linguistic elements such as adjectives, verbs, and noun phrases Currently, the focus is on analyzing the specific terminology used to depict the circumstances surrounding the war.
In the New York Times, terms like "convert strike," "raids," "warn," and "attacks" effectively depict the war's early developments A "strike" refers to a targeted attack aimed at seizing or damaging a specific objective, whereas a "raid" denotes a brief, sudden assault These definitions highlight the aggressive nature of military operations during this period.
The choice of language in media coverage reflects the U.S.'s confidence in its military strength, suggesting a powerful and dominant force Headlines emphasize the superiority of U.S forces, implying an inevitable victory over Iraq in the conflict.
As far as the expressions of situations of Iraq are concerned, the headlines of NYT have a diversity of the words as followings:
A Broken Iraq: Who Owns It Now? (01/12/2006)
In the Iraq Maze, Seeking an Exit (11/12/2006) What Surrounds the Iraqi Tinderbox (24/12/ 2006)
On the first of December 2006 the country Iraq is called „a broken Iraq‟ It infers that the Iraq is separated and invaded Moreover, the other ones „the Iraq Maze‟,
In December 2006, Iraq was described as "The Iraq Maze," highlighting the chaotic and jumbled conditions that made it challenging to find solutions to its problems Additionally, the metaphor "Iraqi tinderbox" illustrated the dangerous and volatile environment, where violence was likely to erupt Together, these metaphors emphasized the dire circumstances facing Iraq at that time, suggesting that U.S forces were positioned to prevail in the ongoing conflict.
Having a look at the words of QDND, there is a difference in choosing the words to demonstrate how Iraq was For example,
In December 2006, the headline "Kết cục bi thảm" suggests significant losses for both Iraq and U.S forces, yet it specifically refers to the tragic fate of Saddam Hussein, who was sentenced to death at that time This phrase evokes sympathy for the former Iraqi president, while simultaneously indicating an escalation of violence in the Gulf region.
Hậu họa của một chủ thuyết sai lầm (30/08/2010)
In 2010, President Barack Obama's announcement of U.S troop withdrawal from Iraq evoked a mix of hope and skepticism about the country's future The headline "Hậu họa của một chủ thuyết sai lầm," which translates to "The Aftermath of a Wrong Doctrine," highlights the painful repercussions of the misguided unilateral preemption doctrine introduced by President George W Bush during the Iraq War The terms "Hậu họa" and "chủ thuyết sai lầm" underscore the significant damage inflicted on both Iraqi and U.S forces Consequently, the headline implicitly condemns the United States for its role in the ongoing violence and turmoil in Iraq.
Hỗn loạn và bất lực ( 30/08/2010) Bình minh chưa ló rạng (31/08/2010)
As the last days of August approached, marking the official withdrawal of U.S forces from Iraq, the headlines reflected a nation in chaos and despair The end of American military presence did not signal a new era of hope, often referred to as "bình minh," for Iraq After over seven years of conflict, both countries faced significant economic and social repercussions, indicating that recovery would be a long and arduous process The anticipated "dawn" for Iraq remained elusive, with both nations grappling with the adverse effects of war The QDND newspaper conveyed a pessimistic outlook on Iraq's future post-withdrawal, suggesting that the mission to "free the Iraqi people," championed by former President George Bush, had ultimately failed.
Syntactic features
Headlines often carry implicit meanings conveyed through various syntactic structures, leading to distinct features across different languages In Vietnamese newspapers, 8 headlines are full sentences while 7 are noun phrases; in English, 9 headlines are sentences and 6 are noun phrases Many English headlines utilize phrases instead of complete sentences to maintain brevity without losing the core message This approach not only conserves space but also enhances visual appeal and engages readers more effectively Analyzing Vietnamese headlines reveals the diversity in sentence types used to convey information succinctly.
Mở chiến dịch “Cú sốc kinh hoàng” Mỹ ném 1.500 quả bom, tên lửa xuống I- rắc (23/3/2003)
Trong một trận chiến đẫm máu, liên quân Mỹ-Anh chiếm sân bay quốc tế thủ đô Bát-đa (5/4/2003)
The headlines highlight the active role of U.S and British forces in Iraq, evidenced by their actions of dropping 1,500 bombs and missiles and seizing Baghdad's international airport This use of active voice underscores the aggressive military stance taken by the U.S., suggesting that their involvement has led to violence rather than the promised stability, peace, and freedom Consequently, the implication is clear: the U.S bears responsibility for the suffering endured by the Iraqi people due to its violent policies of invasion.
Rô-bớt Ghết, người vừa được bổ nhiệm làm Bộ trưởng Quốc phòng Mỹ: Mỹ không thể thắng trong cuộc chiến I-rắc (06/12/2006)
Lính Mỹ ở I-rắc và Cô-oét tự sát ngày càng tăng (20/12/2006)
The U.S Secretary of Defense's statement highlights the inability of the U.S to achieve victory in the Iraq War, while reports of rising American soldier suicides raise questions about the underlying causes Both headlines convey a critical perspective on the U.S military intervention in Iraq, suggesting a consensus that the decision to attack was misguided This shared implication reflects a strong disapproval of the war, as presented by QDND, emphasizing the negative consequences faced by American forces.
In the case of New York Times, only three headlines are complete sentences with animate subjects as follow:
An early, convert strike Special forces led raids on Iraq outposts (24/3/ 2003) U.S defense officials warn of dangerous days in Baghdad (4/4/2003)
The headlines prominently feature active sentences where "special forces" and "U.S defense officials" highlight the dominant role of the U.S military Verbs such as "led raids" and "warn" emphasize the power and authority of these forces, while simultaneously signaling a threat to opposing factions This clearly indicates that from the onset of the war, the U.S military has maintained an active and assertive stance.
Concerning another example, the headline is complete sentences with the subject:
Bush renews vow to 'free' Iraqi people (1/4/ 2003)
In the early days of the Iraq War, the American military launched an invasion aimed at establishing justifications for their actions in Iraq.
President of the U.S –George Bush said: "I give this pledge to the Iraqi people,"
"We are coming with a mighty force to end the regime of terror and oppression."
The U.S justifies its actions in Iraq with a commitment to liberate the Iraqi people, stating, "We are coming, and we will not stop We will not relent until your country is free." This underscores a determined stance towards achieving freedom for Iraq, despite the complexities surrounding the intervention.
Dictator Who Ruled Iraq With Violence Is Hanged for Crimes Against Humanity (30/12/ 2006)
The headline employs a relative clause and passive voice to convey the message that a dictator, implicitly referring to Saddam Hussein, ruled Iraq with violence By framing the statement this way, the New York Times effectively condemns Hussein's brutal governance The passive construction also obscures the role of the U.S in this narrative, suggesting that American forces played a pivotal role in liberating Iraq from Hussein's oppressive regime.
Communicative competence
This section deals with how implicature can be inferred Among the factors involved, it is possible to discuss the following items
This analysis explores how readers utilize their background knowledge to interpret the implicature of news headlines For instance, the QDND newspaper's headline "Giờ 'G' tai họa đã đến" suggests the onset of a significant event, typically a military attack, with "Giờ 'G'" indicating the crucial moment The term "tai họa," which conveys a sense of disaster and suffering, carries a distinctly negative connotation This contextual understanding leads readers to grasp that the U.S forces' invasion of Iraq marked a disastrous G-hour, resulting in severe consequences for the country.
Rô-bớt Ghết, người vừa được bổ nhiệm làm Bộ trưởng Quốc phòng Mỹ: Mỹ không thể thắng trong cuộc chiến I-rắc (06/12/2006)
The general background knowledge on the war, the U.S and Iraq is required to comprehend the implicature of the headline The name “Rô-bớt Ghết‟ or Robert
Robert Gates, recently appointed as the U.S Secretary of Defense, has a distinguished background that enhances the significance of this announcement With 26 years of experience at the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Security Council, Gates previously served as the Director of Central Intelligence under President George H W Bush Additionally, he was a member of the bipartisan Iraq Study Group, which evaluated the Iraq War and provided policy recommendations This extensive experience positions him as a key figure in shaping U.S defense and foreign policy.
On December 8, 2006, Robert Gates was confirmed as Secretary of Defense with bipartisan support, succeeding Donald Rumsfeld The QDND newspaper suggests that Gates, in his new role, possesses a deep understanding of the situations in Iraq and the United States, making his statements a significant affirmation of U.S military strategy and policy.
„America cannot win in the Iraq War‟
The August 12, 2010 headline, "Chiến lược An ninh quốc gia mới của Mỹ- có gì mới?" highlights the U.S military's new mission, Operation New Dawn, which focuses on training Iraqi soldiers and supporting anti-terrorism efforts as American troops withdraw While the military's mission has shifted, there remains skepticism about whether the U.S has truly changed its approach or if it continues to pursue hegemonic ambitions Understanding the context of Iraq and U.S actions before and during Operation New Dawn is essential for readers to grasp the implications of this strategy shift.
To fully grasp the implicit meanings behind English newspaper headlines, readers must possess background knowledge about President George Bush and his commitment to liberating the Iraqi people Understanding this context is crucial for interpreting the nuances of the articles effectively.
Bush speech ends tense countdown to action (21/3/2003) Bush renews vow to 'free' Iraqi people (1/4/ 2003) Obama to Speak of Kept Promises in Address on Ending Combat Mission in Iraq (31/08/2010)
In the above headlines, the readers should know that George Walker Bush is the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 In the speech on March 20 th
In 2003, President George Bush outlined the rationale for U.S and coalition military forces entering Iraq, stating their mission was to disarm Iraq, liberate its people, and protect the world from significant threats while striving to minimize harm to innocent civilians This perspective suggests that the American military aimed to assist Iraq in addressing its challenges rather than pursuing an invasion.
Barack Obama, the 44th President of the United States, announced the drawdown of U.S troops, fulfilling a key promise from his 2008 presidential campaign Understanding the commitments made by U.S Presidents is crucial for grasping the broader implications of current events and headlines.
Informal reasoning competence is defined by the ability to reason, where readers interpret the information presented in headlines as premises to understand the underlying conversational implications For instance, the headline "Mở chiến dịch 'Cú sốc kinh hoàng': Mỹ ném 1.500 quả bom, tên lửa xuống I-rắc" (translated: "Launch of the 'Shock and Awe' campaign: The U.S drops 1,500 bombs and missiles on Iraq") exemplifies this process, prompting readers to analyze the significant impact and context of such military actions.
The article provides detailed information regarding the U.S bombing campaign, highlighting the extensive use of bombs and missiles This data suggests that the actions taken by the U.S forces were notably violent.
As for English headlines, „the U.S defense officials warn of dangerous days in
On April 4, 2003, a warning emerged regarding the impending dangers in Baghdad, highlighting the formidable presence of U.S military forces This message served as a clear threat to Iraqi forces, indicating that significant turmoil was on the horizon In a related context, the New York Times headline from December 1 reflects the ongoing challenges faced in the region, underscoring the complexities of the situation in Iraq.
The phrase "A broken Iraq" suggests a nation that is fragmented and in ruins, prompting the question of ownership While it is evident that the Iraqi people are the rightful owners of their country, the question "Who owns it now?" implies a lack of complete sovereignty This indicates that external forces still influence the governance and stability of Iraq, raising concerns about the true autonomy of its citizens.
The analysis focuses on headlines regarding the execution of Saddam Hussein, particularly from QDND newspapers, which reported, "Many countries oppose the execution of Saddam Hussein" (31/12/2006) This headline effectively conveys the sentiment of opposition without specifying the countries involved, allowing readers to infer that Vietnam may be included Thus, the newspaper presents a neutral stance while subtly expressing dissent against the execution In contrast, the New York Times highlighted the authoritarian nature of Hussein's regime with its headline, "Dictator Who Ruled."
The article discusses the execution of a dictator in Iraq, emphasizing the crimes against humanity for which he was held accountable By utilizing a relative clause, the writer effectively describes the dictator's actions, allowing readers to infer his identity while also understanding the author's critical perspective on the inhumane acts committed This approach not only informs the audience about the dictator's fate but also highlights the moral stance of the author regarding the violence in Iraq.
The headline "For Obama, Steep Learning Curve as Chief in War" utilizes the metaphor "steep learning curve," which may initially confuse readers but also piques their curiosity According to the Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's Dictionary, a learning curve refers to the process of skill development through learning from mistakes, with a steep learning curve indicating rapid learning This suggests that learning from mistakes is a crucial aspect of wartime leadership.
Grice's cooperative principle outlines four maxims that speakers should adhere to during conversations In the context of headlines, writers aim to effectively convey information to readers This article analyzes various English and Vietnamese news headlines to determine their adherence to these maxims and identify any instances where the maxims may be flouted.
Recapitulation
The research findings indicate both similarities and differences in the use of conversational implicature between Vietnamese and English newspaper headlines This section provides a concise summary of the key results discussed earlier.
QDND employs a variety of impactful nouns such as "decisive battle" and "bloody conflict," alongside evaluative terms like "disaster" following the phrase "Hour G." This choice of language suggests a foreseen significant loss in the war Furthermore, the negative terminology associated with the conflict clearly indicates QDND's condemnation of war.
The New York Times employs the term "tense countdown" to indicate the impending launch of the war, reflecting a somewhat biased perspective that frames the conflict as a significant and essential occurrence, potentially viewed as a means to alleviate societal stress.
The New York Times employs carefully chosen language to portray the sudden attacks in Iraq as significant threats to the nation The use of metaphors such as "Iraq Maze" and "Iraq Tinderbox" illustrates the complex and volatile situation in the country Through their word selection, the NYT aims to assert its influence while diminishing Iraq's standing This linguistic strategy implies that U.S forces possess overwhelming power, with headlines designed to convey their dominance and the inevitability of defeating Iraqi forces in the conflict.
The QDND headlines use phrases like "tragic outcome" and "flawed ideology" to criticize the U.S invasion and its policies in Iraq Furthermore, the language chosen reflects a lack of optimism regarding Iraq's future following the withdrawal of American forces.
Both Vietnamese and English headlines share the characteristic of utilizing complete sentences and numerous noun phrases This commonality serves to conserve space on the page while simultaneously piquing the curiosity of readers.
Vietnamese headlines utilize active voice to highlight the aggressive actions of the U.S military, with subjects like "Mỹ" and "liên quân Mỹ-Anh," reinforcing the notion that the U.S is unlikely to achieve victory in the war In contrast, the New York Times employs active sentences to assert its dominant perspective on the situation.
Both newspapers share similarities in communicative competence, particularly in their reliance on background knowledge about Iraqi and U.S forces and relevant campaigns Informal reasoning plays a crucial role in aiding readers to identify and interpret implicature Additionally, most headlines adhere to Grice's cooperative principles; however, a notable difference arises as Vietnamese newspapers often flout the Quantity and Manner maxims, whereas English newspapers maintain clearer adherence to these principles in their headlines.
“In Iraq, Western Clocks, but Middle Eastern Time‟ that flouts the maxim of Quantity and Relation.
Conclusion
This thesis explores the use of conversational implicature in Vietnamese and English political headlines related to three significant events of the Iraq War Grounded in Paul Grice's implicature theory, the study analyzes 30 headlines from March 20 to April 10, 2003, December 1 to 31, 2006, and the official end of combat from August 1 to 31, 2010.
Research reveals that both English and Vietnamese writers exhibit high levels of creativity by effectively using lexical devices and syntactic features to convey conversational implicature in newspaper headlines Implicature is crucial, particularly in political headlines, as it unveils the underlying ideologies of different newspapers Analysis shows that the Vietnamese newspaper maintains a critical stance on the Iraq war, while its English counterpart seeks to justify violent actions and threaten opposing forces.
Our analysis of communicative competence reveals that readers utilize these skills to interpret implicature effectively As they process information, they rely on their general background knowledge, reasoning, and adherence to cooperative principles To grasp the writer's intention fully, readers must consistently apply linguistic competencies before reaching a final conclusion.
Limitations and suggestions for further study
The research conducted provides valuable insights into the role of implicature in headlines, highlighting its significance in effective communication However, several important considerations should be addressed.
The study's analysis is limited by a small sample size, as it examines headlines from only one Vietnamese and one English newspaper, focusing specifically on three key events of the Iraq War Additionally, it prioritizes certain syntactic features while neglecting others, which may affect the comprehensiveness of the findings.
While acknowledging its limitations, this small-scale study underscores the significance of conversational implicature in effectively communicating a writer's message To enhance understanding, I recommend conducting larger-scale research that includes a more comprehensive analysis Future studies should utilize a diverse database from various newspapers and examine a broader range of syntactic features across multiple events.
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Bush speech ends tense countdown to action(21/3/2003)
An early, convert strike Special forces led raids on Iraq outposts (24/3/2003) Bush renews vow to 'free' Iraqi people (1/4/2003)
War on the cheap? Tensions mount over U.S troop levels (3/4/2003) U.S defense officials warn of dangerous days in Baghdad (4/4/2003)
In Iraq's version, war has only one outcome U.S attacks provoke defiant optimism (7/4/2003)
Cheers in Baghdad as regime crumbles (10/4/2003)
A Broken Iraq: Who Owns It Now? (01/12/ 2006)
In the Iraq Maze, Seeking an Exit (11/12/ 2006) What Surrounds the Iraqi Tinderbox (24/12/ 2006) Dictator Who Ruled Iraq With Violence Is Hanged for Crimes Against Humanity (30/12/ 2006)
In Iraq, Western Clocks, but Middle Eastern Time (14/08/2010)
As the mission in Iraq evolves, President Obama faces ongoing challenges and risks associated with his leadership role in the war With a steep learning curve, he prepares to address the nation, emphasizing his commitment to fulfilling promises regarding the conclusion of combat operations in Iraq.