Nouvelle et roman
In his book "The Novel and the Short Story" (2001), Pierre-Louis Rey defines the short story as a brief or very brief prose work that stems from imagination and narrates a story featuring characters Thus, the only distinguishing factor between a short story and a novel is its length.
Jusqu’au XVIIe siècle des nouvelles en vers de la Fontaine ont été publiés
La prose s’est donc imposée plus tard dans la nouvelle que dans le roman, mais elle est devenue constitutive du genre
The length of short stories became a defining criterion primarily in the 18th and 19th centuries Generally, short stories are much shorter than novels, which are typically published as standalone works, while short stories are often collected in anthologies These collections may bear the title of one of the included stories, such as "The Garden Party" (1992) by Katherine Mansfield, or feature a different title that reflects a common theme, like "Oriental Tales" (1938) by Marguerite Yourcenar or "Exile and Return."
The author argues that the criterion of length is not absolute, a viewpoint we support In fact, short stories can be very brief, as seen in Maupassant's works, which can be just four to five pages long Conversely, they can also be relatively lengthy, such as Mérimée's "Colomba" (1840), which exceeds one hundred and fifty pages, while Camus' "L'Étranger" (1942), classified as a novel, contains slightly fewer pages.
La nouvelle est aussi une œuvre d’imagination Selon Segrais, la nouvelle doit un peu plus tenir de l’histoire que le roman C’est au nom de ce principe que La
Princesse de Clốves est parfois qualifiộe de ô nouvelle ằ
A short story is a literary work that narrates a single story, often more effectively than a novel due to its brevity This conciseness forces the writer to forgo secondary plots, focusing solely on the main narrative While a short story centers around a singular episode, a novel consists of a series of episodes This distinction is clear when an author extracts a segment from one of their novels to create a short story, as seen in Guy de Maupassant's "Le Saut du berger" (1882), which is derived from his novel "Une vie" (1883).
"Colomba" and "Le Saut du berger" depict extraordinary events, while many short stories, like Guy de Maupassant's "La Ficelle" (1883), focus on seemingly trivial daily occurrences In "La Ficelle," a man named maître Hauchecorne bends down to pick up a piece of string, only to be suspected of having picked up a wallet instead This incident, reflective of a specific regional character, highlights how Hauchecorne's frugality as a true Norman leads him into a misadventure Although the event appears insignificant, it dramatically impacts Hauchecorne's reputation and life within moments.
Il arrive enfin que rien ne se produise Dans Moloch (La Ronde, de J.M.G
In Le Clézio's 1982 narrative, a young woman lives in a mobile home with her baby and a wolfdog, raising the question of whether the dog protects or threatens the child The story is permeated by a haunting sense of anticipation over an event that ultimately never occurs This absence of action allows for the emergence of primal urges, nightmares, and a pervasive feeling of emptiness.
In modern short stories, character traits are typically distilled to their essence, reflecting a decline in the traditional concept of character In the works of Maupassant, characters often appear more as pawns of circumstance rather than as active participants in their narratives.
In discussing the distinctions between the novel and the short story, it is essential to reference Boll-Johansen's table, which contrasts characters, action, space, and time in both forms Each observed level highlights the unique characteristics of the short story: the singularity of the event, the swift pace of action, the fixed nature of characters, and a concise referential economy However, it would be an oversimplification to assert that the space in a short story is limited to a single location or that it features only one pair of opposing forces Therefore, we present our own synoptic table, inspired by Boll-Johansen's framework.
Plusieurs forces, mais moins de celles du roman
In conclusion, the short story is characterized by its written, contemporary, and realistic nature, distinguishing it from fairy tales It differs from novels mainly in its brevity, although some short stories can exceed the length of certain novels The plot is typically more concise, often focusing on a single episode, and the characters are usually more defined and archetypal.
Evolution de la nouvelle
Nouvelle traditionnelle franỗaise au XIXe siốcle
Au XIXe siècle, la nouvelle se divise en grands courants : nouvelle fantastique romantique, nouvelle fantastique naturaliste
Romantic writers, drawn to dreams and the irrational, found a unique expression in the genre of fantastic literature Charles Nodier embodies a serious form of the fantastic, favoring the plausible over the purely real He perceives sleep as the most powerful and lucid state of thought In his 1832 work, "La Fée aux miettes," the protagonist Michel, who is married to a fairy by day, endures the enchantments of another fairy each night Ultimately, the two fairies merge into one, symbolizing the reunification of the self, torn between wakefulness and sleep, duty and pleasure In this narrative, life intertwines with dreams, and the fantastic beautifully transforms into the marvelous.
La filiation du romantisme franỗais avec Hoffman est plus nette chez Théophile Gautier, dans La Cafetière (1831) Théodore croit avoir valsé avec
In "La Morte amoureuse" (1836), Angéla's friends find only a broken coffee pot in her embrace, unaware that she has been dead for two years The story follows a young priest who, after aiding a dying woman, becomes haunted by her extraordinary beauty in his dreams until her corpse is unearthed It is revealed that her nocturnal existence is sustained by drops of blood taken from the priest's throat While vampires primarily serve to instill fear, they also embody a deeper anxiety within our collective imagination: the notion of survival that comes at the cost of a loved one.
L’amour lie avec la mort Dans Le Rideau carmoisi , première nouvelle des
In Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly's 1874 work "Diaboliques," the character Alberte, a seemingly impassive young girl by day, secretly indulges in passionate encounters with her parents' guest each night Tragically, she dies in his arms one fateful night, embodying the mysteries of evil as she takes the essence of her dark allure to the grave Through this narrative, Alberte simultaneously unveils the inner devil that resides within the narrator—and, by extension, within all of us.
Exploring fundamental human anxieties, the genre of the fantastic endures beyond romanticism One of the most renowned fantastic tales, "The Horla," written by the naturalist author Guy de Maupassant in 1886 and revised in 1887, features a terrifying invisible being that haunts the protagonist, ultimately stealing his reflection in the mirror.
In the initial version, Maupassant employs a traditional narrative style featuring the renowned doctor Marrande, who frames the story by both beginning and concluding it This approach aligns with the conventions of the fantastic genre, which suggests that one must first exhaust scientific explanations before delving into the mysterious Additionally, it underscores the naturalists' fascination with science and medical experimentation.
Dans la seconde version, Maupassant adopte la forme d’un journal intime tenu par le héros ; le lecteur se posera lui-même la question que posait le docteur
In this version, we move away from medical diagnosis to confront a troubling question: could the hero's madness actually be a form of heightened awareness? If we label it as madness, isn't it also a reflection of our own?
The poetic quest for self is prominently featured in Gérard de Nerval's short story "Sylvie" (1853) A pivotal moment occurs when the narrator, often referred to as Gérard by critics, discovers a journal that transports him back to his adolescent years, a time when he grappled with the virtues of both the heart and imagination Gérard has forgotten the affection of Sylvie, a humble peasant girl, in his pursuit of the elusive beauty Adrienne, who has retreated to a convent and whom he later believes he sees reincarnated as an actress Now in maturity, Gérard reflects on the squandered opportunities and lost illusions of his past As the narrative unfolds, the boundaries of time blur, driven more by the forces of dreams than by reason.
In certain fantastic tales, the hero-narrator seeks to reunify his identity, emphasizing that the self is shaped by lived experiences Gérard's personality is intricately connected to the landscapes of Valois, which have profoundly influenced his dreams.
Prosper Mérimée et Stendhal sont les écrivains représentatifs de ce courant
Il porte un regard aigu sur la passion, cache toujours ses sentiments et se méfie de l’imagination Ainsi, les passions qui guident les hérọnes de ses nouvelles Carmen
In both "Carmen" (1847) and "Colomba" (1840), the characters are driven to death by their passions Carmen chooses to be stabbed rather than give up her freedom, while Colomba will not find peace until her father's killers are dead These intense emotions are depicted from an external perspective, utilizing a precise and cold style Similar to Mérimée, Stendhal rejects lyrical excess, favoring a narrative that avoids unnecessary overflow and maintains the mystery of the protagonists The novella format enhances this aesthetic of coldness.
In "On the Birth of Love," Stendhal explores the story of a young girl living in an isolated castle who experiences the stages of romantic "crystallization" upon seeing a young hunter This narrative serves as a demonstration to illustrate the theoretical concepts presented in his essay "On Love."
Dans ce type de nouvelle, l’intrigue se limite l’évolution du sentiment amoureux La description du cadre et le portrait des personnages secondaires sont subordonnés à la conduite de l’expérience.
Nouvelle moderne franỗaise au XXe siốcle
The short story of the early 20th century adheres to the major trends of the genre, but by the century's end, it experiences a significant shift Similar to the novel, the short story trends of this period blur in favor of innovative characteristics and the stylistic freedom of writers.
1.2.2.1 Nouvelle de la première moitié du XXe siècle
During this period, there remains a certain fantastical element Up until the time of Jules Verne, extraterrestrial adventures had a predominantly wondrous quality The fantastical emerges when our beliefs about human nature, life, and death are challenged.
Howard Phillips Lovecraft (1890 – 1937) is a quintessential figure in modern fantasy literature His works evoke unease not through futuristic visions but by reflecting on humanity's past The pacts made by our distant ancestors with extraterrestrial and temporal intelligences continue to impact our lives today.
Quant à la nouvelle pyschologique, les nouvelles de Katherine Mansfield
Between 1888 and 1923, notable writers often exemplified the genre by selecting significant moments that reveal the mysteries of human existence This psychological depth is evident in the works of Marcel Arland and Jean-Paul Sartre, particularly in Sartre's "The Childhood of a Leader."
In 1938, the narrative focuses on the evolution of Lucien, a representation of the weak-minded individuals who, during the rise of fascism and Nazism, asserted their identity by embracing dictatorship.
1.2.2.2 Nouvelle de la deuxième moitié du XXe siècle
This period marks a significant shift in literature, characterized by a growing interest in capturing moments of everyday life among certain writers who reject traditional historical narratives By the mid-20th century, many contemporary authors began to focus on conveying emotions, nature imagery, dreams, or reflections on human nature, often minimizing the importance of plot During the two World Wars, the works of Sartre and Mauriac exemplified this departure from anecdotal content and conventional storytelling techniques, such as plot twists and resolutions.
Authors often move away from extraordinary subjects in their imagination, opting instead to explore the simplicity of everyday life As Maupassant famously stated, it is the simplest and most humble things that touch our hearts the most.
The subjects of short stories are often vague, focusing primarily on the craft of writing Colette's works are discreet, delicate, and detail-oriented, typically concise (never exceeding four or five pages), capturing intimate scenes and subtle upheavals that reveal an entire life (as seen in "La femme cachée," "Le bracelet," and "Secrets") Few contemporary short story writers adhere to the genre's conventions established by 19th-century masters; instead, many deviate from the traditional model, inventing new forms and emphasizing creativity in their work In this evolution, the act of writing itself becomes a central theme of the narrative.
In recent decades, the short story has evolved into a writing laboratory that encourages experimentation with condensation, fragmentation, and discontinuity While some emphasize the importance of intensity, depth, and expressiveness in short stories, others focus on innovative narrative techniques.
Aesthetic research deepens with Marcel Arland, who aims to shorten the narrative time and emphasize the psychological treatment of the story This exploration is echoed in the works of Paul Morand, who has published nearly 90 short stories, often characterized by minimal narrative Morand skillfully presents distant characters, often female and foreign to our world, as if viewed through a glass, moving alongside objects in a poetic ensemble His elliptical style transforms anecdotes into a series of moments Following this, Robbe-Grillet further develops these themes in his works.
Instantanés publié en 1969, a continué cette tendance John Taylor pratique une forme de prose qui s’écarte de la nouvelle classique
Annie Saumont consistently seeks a unique writing technique for each of her short stories, skillfully juxtaposing words and phrases to convey simultaneous thoughts and emotions Influenced by the American writers she has translated, she profoundly revolutionizes the aesthetics of the short story The titles of her collections, often unfinished phrases or questions, serve as programmatic indicators of her writing style, reflecting a spoken, familial language and an inherent uncertainty Drawing inspiration from daily conversations, she crafts a language that captures both the sublime and the struggles of life The appeal of Saumont's stories lies in her adept manipulation of oral language; beneath a seemingly relaxed style, an extreme rigor creates a strong structure that suggests a multitude of meanings.
(1996), sans un mot de psychologie, pose en profondeur le problème de l’inceste;
L’interrogatoire (1987), celui de la justice Partout, détresses et tragiques, des êtres dépassés dans un monde impitoyable
J.M.G Le Clézio, alongside Vian and Supervielle, seeks to subvert literary conventions by regressing to the fairy tale genre Early in his career, he embraces experimental writing, as seen in his collection "La Fièvre" (1965), which defies traditional narrative labels and presents micro-dramas exploring the disintegration of the self through nine stories of minor madness triggered by physical ailments like sunburn and toothaches Subsequently, Le Clézio shifts his focus to writing for children with "Mondo and Other Stories," where his prose becomes simpler yet more expansive He produces longer, less eventful short stories that often resemble initiatory tales However, his quest for innovative styles continues beyond this phase.
In 1982, the author released "La Ronde and Other Short Stories," which departs from fairy tales and the marvelous, focusing instead on dark anecdotes reflecting the grim realities of contemporary life The characters portrayed are society's outcasts and marginalized individuals, presenting eleven poignant dramas of misery reminiscent of those brief news items that quickly fade from memory The author elevates these forgotten stories into powerful cries for attention, reviving a significant tradition of short fiction: to witness and amplify solitary voices His writing is characterized by a stark simplicity, enriched with mythological allusions that invite multiple layers of interpretation.
In summary, 20th-century short stories encompass a diverse range of themes, often prioritizing thematic recurrence over event-driven narratives These stories can transition from everyday life to surreal tales, blending the ordinary with the strange Influenced by foreign writers who introduced immediacy, instantaneity, and subjectivity at the expense of traditional narrative structure, French short story writers focus on establishing a distinct tone in their works while also diversifying their stylistic techniques Notably, this includes innovative methods of spatial description, which will be explored in the following section.
Espace de la nouvelle
Notion de l’espace de la nouvelle
Since the works of Iouri Lotman, Gaston Bachelard, and Jean Weisgerber, the representation of space in literary texts has engaged numerous researchers These studies often focus on themes and symbolism, as well as the dichotomy between narration and description, or the structuralist models that govern textual spatialization Literary critics have predominantly emphasized the novel genre, suggesting that it uniquely allows for a spatial deployment that captures interest, overshadowing the narrative potential of the short story.
What is space? According to the National Center for Textual and Lexical Resources (CNRTL), space is defined as an indefinite ideal environment that encompasses all our perceptions and contains every existing or conceivable object.
Literary works, including short stories, often contain a second layer of meaning where variable symbolic values are embodied in their settings The author highlights that in the brief narrative genre, the importance of place tends to diminish as action takes precedence Consequently, the narrative space becomes a temporary and fragile reality, governed by its own distinct rules Descriptions of space can serve various purposes, and literary scholars agree on three main functions of space: its evocation of reality, its utility for action, and the meanings it suggests Daniel Grojnowski categorizes these into three types of space: referential space, functional space, and significant space.
Fonctions de l’espace
Le cadre spatial des nouvelles reprend en quelques sortes des sites, des paysages réels Il existe souvent un espace réel dont le décor de l’intrigue serait inspiré
The documentary value in literature, which refers to a specific place in reality, enhances the illusion of the real This is evident not only in French short stories but also in the global trend of the genre For instance, E Poe introduced strange settings in the 1830s, while Alphonse Allais depicted the local milieu at the turn of the century Katherine Mansfield portrayed English society in the 1920s with works like "The Garden Party" (1922), and Grace Paley addressed the concerns of New York intellectuals in the 1960s in "The Little Things in Life." Notably, the masters of the genre, P Morimée and G de Maupassant, provide exemplary passages that encapsulate these themes.
The opening sentence of Mateo Falcone introduces a different world: as one leaves Porto-Vecchio and heads northwest into the island's interior, the terrain rises quickly After three hours of walking along winding paths, occasionally interrupted by ravines and large rock formations, one arrives at the edge of an expansive maquis This maquis is the homeland of Corsican shepherds and those who have had conflicts with the law.
The opening passage sets the stage for the adventure in the arid maquis surrounding Porto-Vecchio, creating an atmosphere conducive to escape Mérimée demonstrates meticulous attention to detail in his depiction of Corsica, referencing specific names and providing vivid descriptions of the region's landscape, mountain life, and the coexistence of shepherds and bandits in the maquis This introduction invites the reader into a landscape that is both exotic and authentic.
Guy de Maupassant, a writer attentive to real settings, frequently features Normandy in his works, drawing from his personal experiences In his short story "Boule de Suif" (1880), he vividly describes the town of Dieppe, highlighting its significance in the narrative Additionally, in "Les Contes de la Bécasse" (1883), Maupassant again references the city, showcasing his deep connection to the region.
In "L'Odysée d'une fille" (1883), Maupassant vividly describes his journey to Rouen, expressing a desire to find refuge there The excitement surrounding his adventures attracted attention from the gentlemen of Goderville Throughout his life, Maupassant explored various locations in Normandy, drawing inspiration from his experiences His keen observations of maritime life are reflected in his works, showcasing his meticulous attention to detail.
In "Garçon, un bock !", the author reflects on his decision to enter a brasserie one evening, seeking a comfortable spot to sit He notices an older man beside him, smoking a cheap, black clay pipe The numerous saucers stacked on the table indicate that the man has already consumed several bocks, highlighting the lively atmosphere of the establishment.
The number of mugs already consumed and the affordable price of the clay pipe highlight authentic details This depiction of the setting aims to replicate the real world, creating the illusion that the brewery described truly exists in reality.
Every writer has a unique approach to space, but their techniques for representing a location and its arrangement within the story highlight the role of space in the unfolding action Space plays a crucial role in the progression of the plot, facilitating separations and encounters that provide clues for the narrative's development A setting can frame an episode, while different locations signal the transition between multiple episodes.
Au service du récit, la description de l’espace met en place le dispositif de l’action qui comprend un ensemble de lieux Par exemple, tout au long de Mateo
In the story, Mateo Falcone leaves his home to visit his flocks with his wife, while a bandit from the plains seeks refuge in their house Fortunato, Mateo's only son, conceals the bandit nearby However, when Mateo discovers his son's betrayal, he decides to sacrifice Fortunato, distancing himself from the house and walking about two hundred paces to a ravine.
In "Une partie de campagne" by Maupassant, the narrative follows the Dufour family as they transition from an urban landscape to the rural setting of the Bezons inn The city of Paris, dismissed by its inhabitants, is only referenced through two landmarks: Porte Maillot and the Champs Elysées As they cross the Seine, the true countryside gradually unfolds, beginning with a view of the river and then focusing on the inn Each moment in the story corresponds to a specific location that serves as a crucial backdrop for the unfolding narrative.
The functional value of the short story reveals a preference for public spaces such as trains, train stations, ships, hotel rooms, cafés, and restaurants These stereotypical settings serve predetermined functions and do not require detailed descriptions for the readers Additionally, they create a communicative situation that initiates the narrative act at the heart of the embedded story Ultimately, these common locales facilitate encounters between characters on psychological, moral, or sociological levels.
The description of the setting plays a crucial role in defining the social environment of the characters It is important to recognize that the backdrop reflects the essence of a character and significantly influences their development The protagonist's personality is conveyed through the material details that shape their daily life.
Space serves a symbolic function in the narrative The role assigned to space in the story is not always clearly defined A thorough analysis aims to uncover, beyond the reported anecdote, the potential symbolic meanings of the setting.
The setting, decor, and locations in a text provide significant meanings that aid in its interpretation and understanding For instance, the upper regions are symbolically linked to goodness and the celestial, while the lower regions are associated with evil A symbolic connection can be established between a character and their environment, which can reflect the social context in which the characters operate and offer insights into their personalities Numerous clues and signs within the setting guide the reader toward a specific type of interpretation.
Mérimée's descriptive passage establishes a stark, rustic setting that elucidates the behavior of an extraordinary character, a father who murders his son The contrasting elements of high and low, the maquis and the city, reflect two divergent economic systems (gift vs market), conflicting value systems (honor vs moral depravity), and distinct cultures Similarly, the depiction of the atmosphere in the brewery from Garçon's excerpt symbolically represents the social degradation of the character.
Organisation de la description de l’espace
The presentation of space in narrative techniques is crucial in short stories, as it often reflects the perspective of a character Descriptions of settings can be organized through the viewpoint of a character, shaping the text according to their perception The narrator's depiction of the environment aligns with the character's knowledge and observations Some spatial descriptions emerge from a narrator who is actively involved in the action, creating a viewpoint that is inherently limited to what they can see, hear, or learn In this context, as noted by G Genette, internal focalization plays a key role in guiding both narration and description within the story.
In fiction, the narrator often serves as the hero, sharing the story from a personal perspective, either in the first or third person This narrative approach limits the scope of the story to the experiences of the protagonist, enhancing the power and credibility of the narration Readers become connected to the character's journey, exploring the universe of the narrative alongside them For instance, the tranquil river setting evokes a profound silence, interrupted only by the sudden croak of a frog, illustrating the immersive experience of the protagonist as they seek distraction in the stillness.
Sur l’eau, Guy de Maupassant
In the third person, the narrator-protagonist conveys a sense of grandeur and beauty regarding Mount Reydarbarmur, which stood prominently to the right of the dirt path On June 21, it appeared tall and wide, dominating the steppe landscape and the cold lake, capturing Jon's full attention While other mountains, such as the Kalfstindar massif and the dark mass of glacier guardians to the north, existed nearby, Reydarbarmur outshone them all with its striking beauty and purity Its gentle line extended uninterrupted from base to summit, reaching towards the sky, while clouds swirled around it like volcanic smoke.
La montagne du dieu vivant, J.M.G Le Clézio b Narrateur – témoin
There is another form of first-person narrative where the character expresses their thoughts, but this time the narrator is not the hero of the story Instead, it is a secondary character, an observer who is somewhat involved, recounting the protagonist's journey.
In the context of spatial description, the narrator merges with the observer, becoming a descriptor of the environment The space unfolds within the consciousness of a character, experienced through sensory perception and imaginative interpretation.
In Guy de Maupassant's short story "Le Testament," a secondary character reflects on his mother's life in a house filled with noise and fear, overshadowed by the disdain of her in-laws He describes her as silent and almost invisible, akin to the small mice scurrying beneath the furniture Her anxious, bright eyes reveal a constant state of alertness, embodying the essence of a being tormented by fear that never truly departs.
Le Testament, Guy de Maupassant
The description of space in a narrative can be significantly influenced by an omniscient narrator who is not represented within the fiction This narrator holds dominion over the story and its characters, possessing limitless knowledge about both They can introduce readers to various locations, environments, and worlds, allowing for a unique perspective that transcends singular settings This boundless vision enables the narrator to simultaneously witness events occurring in multiple places, enhancing the richness of the narrative experience.
The ability to observe everything and express it allows for insightful commentary on both the characters' traits and the story's context, as well as a detailed description of the setting.
We align with literary researcher Daniel Grojnowski's views on the narrator's role in third-person narratives, which G Genette defines as zero focalization Even in ideal cases of historical or objective storytelling, the narrator inevitably leaves their mark, as no statement exists without an enunciator The manifestations of the narrative voice vary according to the authors' strategies; some prioritize events and minimize the narrator's presence (as seen in Flaubert's "A Simple Heart"), while others reveal and exploit the narrator's presence for various purposes Regardless of its visibility, the narrator is an integral part of the story, imparting its tone.
Moins discret, le narrateur de Boule de suif (Maupassant), bien qu’il ne se manifeste pas de manière explicite, ne cesse de commenter l’espace de cette nouvelle
The atmosphere in the city occupied by the Prussians was marked by a subtle and unknown quality, creating an intolerable foreign ambiance reminiscent of the scent of invasion This pervasive feeling filled homes and public spaces, altering the taste of food and evoking the sensation of being far away among barbaric and dangerous tribes.
Boule de suif, Guy de Maupassant
Ordre descriptif
The text is structured based on the observer's perspective However, since we perceive multiple elements simultaneously, while the description of reality is linear, we must create a descriptive order Here are some possible approaches.
Reality is perceived from a fixed viewpoint, allowing us to describe it from the foreground to the background or vice versa Elements in the foreground are more prominent and should be given greater significance in our analysis.
- Le réel est en panoramique :
A panoramic view of a landscape or scene occurs when the narrator rotates around themselves, similar to a camera spinning on its axis This type of description can be executed from near to far, from bottom to top, or from right to left and vice versa.
- Le réel est en travelling (to travel : voyager) C’est le cas ó l’observateur bouge, avance, prend du recul Le réel peut être décrit en travelling avant, arrière, latéral.
Procédés de la description de l’espace
Dans une description, les procédés suivants sont utilisés pour mettre en place la qualification du sujet décrit :
La qualification permet de transmettre une impression au lecteur La qualification peut être donnée par un adjectif, un complément de nom, une proposition relative, une figure de style…
L’établissement d’un champ lexical (un ensemble de mots qui appartiennent à un même domaine) contribue à créer une certaine atmosphère et assure une cohérence à l’ensemble de la description de l’espace
Les verbes de perception, d’état permet au texte descriptif de faire appel aux quatre sens suivants : la vue, l’ouùe, l’odorat et le toucher
Various senses can be engaged in describing space through rhetorical figures such as simile, metaphor, personification, allegory, anaphora, and gradation These figures are prevalent in the poetic works of the 19th century, particularly in the poetic spaces created by Nerval and Le Clézio They are employed to create unique effects of meaning and sound, profoundly impacting the audience.
Spatial markers (such as in, above, below, to the side, around, near, on ) organize descriptive text by helping to locate described elements in space and positioning these elements in relation to one another.
The narrative of the short story combines both storytelling and description, utilizing a shift in tense when written in the past The simple past tense, which conveys action and movement, is the preferred tense for the narrative In contrast, the imperfect tense serves as the dominant tense for describing characters and settings within the story.
In the spring, around ten in the morning, the rejuvenated sun casts a gentle mist over the tranquil river, bringing warmth to the backs of two eager fishermen Morissot often remarks to his neighbor, "Ah! What a sweetness!"
In autumn, as the day wanes, the sunset bathes the sky in crimson hues, casting vibrant reflections on the river and igniting the horizon The fiery colors illuminate the already rustling trees, hinting at the approaching winter M Sauvage gazes at Morissot with a smile, exclaiming, "Oh, what a spectacle!"
In these passages, the narrative perspective is internal, allowing readers to experience the spring and autumn landscapes through the character-narrator's eyes Their expressions of surprise and admiration for the natural beauty are evident, as they exclaim, "Oh, what sweetness!" and "Oh, what a spectacle!"
Maupassant employs an impressionistic description of the river, utilizing a lexical field related to the water's color that reflects the nuances of the time of day and the season In spring, he evokes a sense of tranquility with phrases like "oh tranquil river" and "oh this little stream flowing with the water." In contrast, during autumn, he captures the end of the day as the sun casts "figures of scarlet clouds," turning the entire river crimson The use of simile is also prominent, as seen in "red as fire."
The stark contrast between the opening sentence and the description of the pre-war landscape highlights the sadness and nostalgia experienced by the two protagonist-narrators Their emotions reflect a deep sense of rebellion as they confront the absurdity of war.
TYPES D'ESPACE DANS LA NOUVELLE MONDO ET AUTRES
Comment classer les espaces ?
The 1978 collection "Mondo and Other Stories" marks a significant shift in J.M.G Le Clézio's literary production, moving away from his earlier view of death as a return to the infinite In this work, the themes of childhood and adolescence are portrayed with a fresh perspective, signaling a philosophical and poetic renewal in the author's worldview Le Clézio intertwines the roles of narrator and thinker, rejecting the notion of art for art's sake; his narratives are deeply rooted in expressing a coherent vision of humanity's place in the world His writings reflect a traditional philosophy that seeks to preserve the values of humanist civilization amidst its distortions, championing individualism, freedom, dignity, and authentic thought as foundational to true humanity.
In light of this vision, Le Clézio crafted the collection "Mondo and Other Stories" following the traditional structure of initiation tales The protagonist can be seen as the participant in a ritual initiation, navigating through various stages such as the challenging transition from one world to another, purification, crossing a threshold, and ritual death Mircea Eliade noted that traditional initiations have long vanished in Europe; however, the symbols and scenarios of initiation persist in the unconscious, particularly within dreams and imaginative realms These initiations are reflected in several aspects of the narratives, particularly through the structure of the eight stories: "Mondo," "Lullaby," "The Mountain of the Living God," "The Water Wheel," "The One Who Had Never Seen the Sea," "Hazaran," "People of the Sky," and "The Shepherds."
In Le Clézio's collection, the narrative "Mondo" opens the work while "Les bergers" concludes it "Mondo" tells the story of a mysterious little man who appears in a city, seeking acceptance in a world governed by laws and authority, a civilized realm that overlooks the essence of true freedom Conversely, in "Les bergers," a young man accustomed to modern life ventures into the free existence of pastoral nomadism Both protagonists face the necessity of renunciation, revealing the incompatibility between the realities of modernity and the dream of a simpler life.
Between these two narratives, other stories unfold in pairs: "Lullaby" and "The Mountain of the Living God" depict a pivotal moment in the adolescence of a young girl or boy, marking their initiation into cosmic life and communion with the universe's rhythm These two experiences are chosen and concluded in freedom, illustrating profound personal journeys.
In the stories "The Water Wheel" and "He Who Had Never Seen the Sea," the essence of happiness is found through escape, particularly through dreams that alleviate the sorrow of routine Juba transcends his shepherd background, connecting with the historical and legendary figure of Juba, King of Yol, and husband of Cleopatra Selene Similarly, Daniel leaves his high school for an extended adventure, akin to Lullaby, yet never returns to his former classmates, ultimately offering them a vicarious initiation into his experiences.
Hazaran et Peuple du ciel annoncent une nouvelle progression Le vieux
Martin has the ability to see beyond the physical realm and connect with God, while Petite Croix, who is blind, embraces her sensations and uncovers the beauty of the natural world, which she once felt irrevocably distanced from.
The organic coherence of this collection is rooted in the exploration of poetic geography, as well as the unity of experiences that shape the lives of the characters within Le Clézio's universe.
The eight narratives depict the real or imagined journeys of protagonists seeking happiness, freedom, and a sense of belonging These characters embody the essence of a quest To analyze the structure of their journeys, we can utilize Greimas's actantial schema, which highlights the dynamics of characters as active forces within a narrative The concept of the actant encompasses both concrete and abstract entities, distinguishing it from the traditional notion of a character According to Greimas, there are six fundamental actants that shape the narrative's meaning and progression.
- Le sujet (S) ou héros, qui cherche à conquérir un objet de valeur ;
- L’adjuvant (A), terme qui recouvre l’ensemble des personnages ou des concepts qui aident le sujet dans sa quête ;
- L’opposant (Op), terme qui recouvre l’ensemble des personnages ou des concepts qui font obstacle au sujet dans sa quête ;
- La destinateur (D 1 ), qui attribue le bien visé par le sujet ;
- L’objet (O), poursuivi par le sujet dans sa quête, sa valeur peut-être sociale, culturelle ou mythique ;
- Le destinataire (D2), recouvrant l’ensemble des personnages à qui l’objet de la quête est destiné [21 : 77]
Le destinateur pousse le sujet à accomplir l’action
Le destinataire est le bénéficiaire de l’action du sujet Pour qui?
Le sujet est le héros, celui qui veut accomplir une action
Les adjuvants aident le sujet
Les opposants contrarient l’action du sujet
L’objet est le but de l’action Que veut le sujet?
Schéma actantiel de l’ensemble des huit récits initiatiques dans Mondo et autres histoires
This diagram clearly illustrates the heroes' desire for freedom and salvation, driven by a monotonous life, chance, instinct, and hope Their experiences in the natural, primitive world allow them to feel fulfilled and connected to the universal life, free from the solitude of urban, hyper-commercialized society The interplay of time, place, and action aligns with a unique character conception, while the characteristics of initiatory tales necessitate a classification of spatial types In these eight narratives, space holds not only referential and functional value but also symbolic significance The living spaces starkly contrast with dream spaces, and these two realms are explored in depth in the following sections.
Adjuvant: Monde naturel (Désert, mer, montagne)
Monde civilisé, hostile avec des contraintes, l’impossibilité de communication avec les autres (ville, bidonville)
Espaces de vivre
In the context of Le Clézio's reference space, the geography depicted in his eight initiatory tales presents a blend of Mediterranean influences, particularly reminiscent of a city near the Italian border, akin to Nice, yet applicable to any Western cultural port In contrast, Daniel represents a grounded character, a farmer's son buried in a rural French school, far from the sea The narrative of Hazaran unfolds along the marshy banks of an estuary, dominated by a slum populated by immigrants, suggesting a southern French setting while evoking thoughts of larger slums in the Americas, reflecting Le Clézio's admiration for impoverished communities The ascent of Jon on Mount Reydarbarmur in Iceland connects to Le Clézio's passion for original literature Juba's irrigation work in arid Mauritania, Algeria, and the landscape descriptions by Marotin hint at a New Mexican desert, while Gaspar and his companions traverse Latin American mesas where sea and desert coexist Overall, the geography in Mondo and other stories presents a paradoxical unity, appearing disparate and uncertain.
2.2.1 Villes pour les personnages-enfants
In the realm of storytelling, space plays a crucial role, serving as a fundamental element in short stories and a favored topic among writers Authors recognize its functional importance, particularly in depicting the living environments of child characters These spaces not only serve as a backdrop but also reflect the worldview of Le Clézio, highlighting the intrinsic connection between setting and character development.
Le Clézio's anxiety regarding modern urbanism is evident from the very first reading of his works He perceives the city as a place fraught with threats, expressing a fascination with its aggressive nature He describes the city as a chaotic gathering of individuals who constantly vie for power over one another, capturing his attention to the intricate details of this struggle Such observations evoke feelings of disturbance and exasperation in him.
This city embodies a fundamentally threatening character, where Mondo and the lost dogs live in constant fear of the mysterious Ciapacan, reminiscent of a Mexican demon Children without collars symbolize the oppressive presence of police and educational institutions Freedom in this city is only accepted under strict regulations, with representatives of social order reigning supreme: the commissioner and his officers, public assistance, schools, and figures such as the principal, teachers, and supervisors.
The urban environment, a tangible representation of contemporary civilization and modernism, is perceived by the characters in the stories as a corrupted space Its regulations strip individuals of their freedom, depicting the city as a labyrinthine prison that dehumanizes and ensnares its inhabitants, ultimately transforming them into true slaves of the system.
The city may serve as a prison for those seeking emancipation, with schools functioning as similar environments despite promoting the idea of freedom The school setting, characterized by its restrictive nature, does not facilitate children's liberation or holistic development Instead, the established rules and authorities create a stifling atmosphere from which minors feel the need to escape Konatọ argues that individuals are convinced that the prevailing values and ideas in society are false and ineffective, preventing them from living happily and in harmony with the universe Notably, upon his return to the modern world, Gaspar's first act is to report to the police station, highlighting the constraints he faces In a heartfelt message, he expresses a desire for his father to reclaim a beautiful alarm clock given to him before leaving Tehran, indicating a longing for connection and utility in a world that now feels distant.
Lullaby's letter to her father is deeply evocative, highlighting her rejection of a system that confines the individual Her decision to return the alarm clock symbolizes her refusal to be subjected to the rigid constraints of time, which contrasts with the freedom embodied by sleep In our civilization, sleep represents physical liberation from the relentless pace of life, where individuals become enslaved by the very rhythms they create, leading to a suffocating existence The chaos of honking cars, hurried people, and slamming doors illustrates the overwhelming pressure of modern life.
In urban life, children often find themselves marginalized, even within their own families The city, characterized by its buildings and bustling streets, embodies the relentless passage of time and urgency Despite Mondo's desire to assist an elderly woman burdened by her shopping, he feels out of place in such an environment, where the coldness of the city weighs heavily on him as an orphan His repeated plea, "Do you want to adopt me?" goes unheard, highlighting society's struggle to embrace dreams essential for happiness People are so consumed by their daily concerns that they overlook the intimate details of everyday life As the sun rises higher, the city begins to awaken, marked by distant sounds resonating through the streets and the rumble of scooters carrying individuals clad in winter gear, all contributing to the vibrant yet indifferent urban tapestry.
The city embodies cruelty and insensitivity, leaving the soul feeling lost Mondo finds himself isolated amidst a crowd that overwhelms him He struggles to endure the crowded sidewalks and congested streets, where the gazes of those around him seem empty The people appear towering, resembling distant faces on building balconies, as Mondo navigates through these giants who take long strides He carefully avoids women who loom like church towers in their oversized polka-dotted dresses and men as broad as cliffs in their blue suits and white shirts.
The overwhelming presence of so many people, with their bustling energy and purpose, can be terrifying, especially for someone who feels lost and disconnected like Mondo Standing still with his arms crossed, he observes the frantic activity around him Despite his polite demeanor towards the city's residents, they remain indifferent, viewing him as little more than a beggar.
In the coastal area, urban dwellers, both adults and children, tend to be superficial in their discussions about the sea, focusing solely on aspects like swimming, underwater fishing, beaches, and sunburns Meanwhile, the villagers of Jon harbor fears of Reydarbarmur, while the residents of Juba are hesitant to approach the ancient city due to the lingering spirits of the deceased.
The proper use of the city involves establishing a fleeting yet meaningful communication with its inhabitants, acknowledging their humanity It also requires an appreciation for the unusual, such as the quirky displays in shop windows, like a cardboard rotisserie chicken or a large red wooden bed adorned with floral sheets and pillows, suggesting the presence of someone ready to rest there.
The characters experience profound isolation within the urban environment, facing both indifference and cruelty from the city They exist outside the familial context, exemplified by Mondo, a boy without a family or home, who seeks freedom In his quest for connection, he attempts to forge friendships with anyone in the bustling city.
Even their families show little attachment to these minors Jon lives with his parents, yet they neglect him, leaving him to spend his days alone outside From glimpses of Juba's family, it is evident that the familial bond is weak; the child feels like a stranger even within his own home It is described as a dark house with only one room where everyone sleeps, and there are other forms wrapped in sheets, other bodies slumbering Juba recognizes his father on the other side of the door, his brother, and at the far end, his mother and two sisters huddled under the same blanket.
Daniel must stay at the boarding school because his home is too far from the high school Living far from their son, Daniel's parents have no influence over his life, to the extent that, due to financial constraints, they are unable to locate family members after his disappearance.
Espaces de rêves
In the eight initiatory tales, characters leave modern cities to embark on journeys into the natural world, highlighting the significance of travel Le Clézio illustrates the attempts to escape the confines of Western urban life in search of a better existence, which is found in primitive natural settings such as deserts, mountains, and seas.
Le désert se présente dans Mondo et autres histoires sous des formes variées
At first glance, the land appears barren, requiring irrigation and threatened by drought and sandstorms The narrator frequently refers to the "hardened earth," dominated by dust and sand The ground where Petite Croix spends her days is characterized by this hardened soil, depicting a desolate landscape devoid of human presence—a "land of sand and dust" where the sandy dust resembles a soft powder like talc The desert lies beyond the village, so arid that it has been abandoned by people: "The people of the valley are far away now They have left [ ] into the heart of the desert [ ] They head straight down the black road, through the parched fields and mirage lakes "
In "La roue d’eau," the desert is depicted as a dry, dusty region of land, characterized by its red soil and ravines etched with deep grooves Even in proximity to a river, this landscape reveals its cracked clay blocks and sharp stones that glisten, forming barren fields devoid of vegetation.
The desert is not merely a landscape of shimmering sand akin to copper dust In the final tale of the collection, it is depicted as a vast expanse of stones and sand, characterized by a plain scattered with gleaming rocks and thorny bushes The archetype of the desert plain appears to be this extensive rocky terrain, with grass growing at its center.
The desert landscape can be both menacing and dangerous Young Khaf struggles to navigate the sharp blades of grass, crying out in distress as she cautiously runs, shielding her face with her forearms She likely falls multiple times, as her shirt and legs are covered in dirt This harsh environment is shared by children and wild dogs that roam between the dunes in search of food; these are small, skinny dogs with arched backs and long legs Often, a violent and threatening wind howls through the caves, signaling an impending and frightening sandstorm.
The desert is more than just arid land and heat; it presents diverse aspects that bring pure happiness to our protagonists In "Les bergers," the children rely on the land, where flocks of sheep and goats sustain them Here, they play together, support one another, and share moments of admiration for nature It appears that the children are one with the earth, needing nothing more to survive The narrative immerses us in the joyful world of children experiencing simple happiness.
The desert, to those who truly observe it, reveals an exceptional beauty that captivates the soul It invites admiration, transforming the perception of space into something extraordinary, where conventional boundaries fade away In "Les bergers," the narrative begins with an extensive description of the desert and its diverse fauna, including beetles, jerboas, sand hares, desert foxes, and snakes, as well as scorpions and other small, unfamiliar creatures hidden in the sand.
The desert presents a unique blend of the sea and the mountain, primarily characterized by its dunes, which resemble ocean waves The wind shapes the dunes, causing them to shift slowly and imperceptibly, much like the long swells of the sea In discussions with P Lhoste, Le Clézio describes sand as "the desert, the mineral sea, stone transformed into ocean," highlighting its captivating nature This landscape evokes memories for Gaspar, reminding him of the cliffs above the sea and the mountains, the rolling hills of Mondo, the winding rivers, and the endless horizon that mirrors the vastness of the ocean.
In this depiction, the desert is portrayed as equally perilous as the sea or mountains, yet the narrative unfolds to evoke a relentless struggle for survival In contrast, Jon's Iceland represents a paradise, while the valley of Genna invites readers to envision it as an image of the Promised Land and earthly paradise.
In "Mondo and Other Stories," the desert is portrayed as both arid and alluring, dangerous yet tranquil, blending the real with the surreal This literary space serves a symbolic purpose, representing absence and emptiness, yet it is not void; rather, it is where characters, stripped of the superfluous, can discover essential truths and authenticity The desert embodies silence, introspection, and freedom, allowing individuals to retreat within themselves and connect with nature Gaspar's abandonment underscores the notion that life in the modern city is untenable, revealing that the true world lies within the desert.
In "Les bergers," the character Gaspar embodies the nurturing and renewing role of nature He exists in a dreamlike state, detached from the passage of time, as he perceives that in A Genna, time does not flow like elsewhere Days seem to blend into one another, with the sun slowly rising in the blue sky, casting shadows that shift yet hold no significance for him Gaspar feels as if he is trapped in an endlessly repeating day, a long, unending cycle that he no longer concerns himself with.
The desert serves as a narrative space that challenges the main character in their quest for happiness, leading to personal fulfillment and profound revelations about life and death It reveals the character's true self and emotions often obscured by modernity Functioning as both a realistic setting and a narrative element, the desert plays a crucial role in the characters' lives, facilitating their initiation and growth This harsh yet dreamlike universe offers a duality that encourages liberation from societal constraints, prompting a search for genuine existence and symbolizing the spiritual journey of self-discovery amid their trials and wanderings.
The sea is a central theme in the collection, symbolizing freedom and wonder for Mondo, who spends his days by its shores He finds joy in the sight of sailing boats and dreams of distant lands, considering the sea both his home and provider as he unloads boats for a few coins For Lullaby, the sea represents happiness, a refuge from urban life where she discovers joy, imagining herself on a boat amidst dolphins and tuna She yearns for independence and adventure Meanwhile, Daniel dedicates his life to seeking the sea, longing to leave everything behind to embrace its vastness.
The marine influence is paramount, even in places seemingly opposite to the sea, like the desert In the Shepherds' desert, the distant sound of the ocean waves crashing on the shore can occasionally be heard, carried by the wind in bursts The roar of the sea penetrates like a fog, rising along the dry riverbeds Jon's movements during his ascent of the Living God's Mountain become deliberate, akin to those of a swimmer, as he climbs like a great lava vessel In his cosmic communion on the mountain, he perceives another sound—the deep noise of the sea In his dream of Yol, Juba listens to the muffled murmur of the ocean, blending with the rhythms of the drum Even from his high vantage point, Petite Croix attempts to envision the sea, where everything is perpetually blue, with various shades of blue.
Without ever having seen it, unlike Jon who gazed at Mount Reydarbarmur daily, Daniel became captivated by a vast landscape depicted in a large red-bound book Consequently, the mundane aspects of life—stores, cars, music, movies, and even high school classes—began to bore him.
ART DU LANGAGE DANS LA DESCRIPTION DE L'ESPACE
Point de vue narratif et description de l’espace
The fundamental aspect that transforms the narrative and description of a short story is the narrative point of view, or focalization, as defined by G Genette He identifies three logical possibilities of focalization in third-person narratives: zero focalization, internal focalization, and external focalization Among these, internal focalization grants the narrative a unique, almost magical power inherent to literary works It allows readers to delve into the character's inner world, experiencing the story's elements through one or multiple subjective perspectives Internal focalization is easily identifiable through the use of subjective verbs (feelings, emotions, thoughts, etc.) in the third person, as Genette notes that the narrative is focused on the subject of the perception verb.
In "Mondo and Other Stories," Le Clézio effectively utilizes internal focalization to depict contrasting spaces Our analysis reveals that this narrative technique is consistently applied across the eight tales in the collection The diverse settings are presented through the perspective of the narrator-character, who narrates the story while observing and perceiving the surrounding universe.
Mondo, a child, perceives the natural world through a unique lens, finding solace in the invigorating light of the early morning twilight As the sun rises higher, he stands up, shedding his clothes to embrace the warmth of the sea, which feels gentler and warmer than the air Submerging himself, he peers into the water, captivated by the underwater scenery, while the delicate sound of the waves creates an enchanting melody unknown on land.
In "The Mountain of the Living God," the reader is intricately connected to Jon's fate as he explores a mesmerizing world filled with the enchanting nature of poverty-stricken monkeys Jon encounters a breathtaking scene, unlike anything he has ever seen before—a crystal-clear stream, reminiscent of the sky, winding gracefully through lush green moss Cautiously, he approaches, testing the ground with his foot to avoid sinking into a puddle, before kneeling at the water's edge.
In "La roue d'eau," the description of space gains strength and credibility as the reader is immersed in Juba's dream, the legendary king of Yol, which he builds in ascending light and dissolves in the white circles of music as evening shadows rise Amidst the slow music of the wheels and dazzling light, with the sun at its peak, Yol reappears, growing before Juba's eyes, its grand structures swaying in the warm air The city floats above the desert fields, as light as the sun's reflections on vast salt lakes.
Internal focalization is crafted by the protagonist-narrator, who possesses the subtle gift of deciphering reality through direct experience rather than imagination Lullaby finds ecstasy in light, creating a curious transposition where instead of sunlight falling on her, she emanates rays of light These rays radiate from her fingers, eyes, mouth, and hair, merging with the glimmers of rocks and the sea.
The desert, often seen as an inhospitable land, transforms into a vision of earthly paradise through the eyes of the narrator-character The subjective description of this space gains symbolic significance, highlighting the vastness of the sky and the beauty of the pure light In this serene environment, devoid of dust, Gaspar and the children remain motionless, feeling a profound sense of happiness within their bodies as they gaze upon the distant plain.
The technique of mise en abyme frequently involves a shift in the narrator within the Hazaran narrative The author weaves a brief story told by the secondary character, Martin, into the main narrative narrated by Alia Martin, as a secondary narrator, describes the Hazaran region as a land of wonders.
Le Clézio allows minor protagonists to contemplate their universe rather than using his own voice or a neutral narrative perspective because he values the unique insights of children Unlike many writers of his time, he believes that children possess deeper reflections than adults He sees the vulnerability of minors in the face of social changes as comparable, if not greater, than that of adults By choosing eight children as protagonists in his stories, Le Clézio grants them a distinct cosmic perspective, characterized by their innocence and subjectivity, free from the constraints of civilized society These children, disenchanted with modern life, venture into nature in search of answers to their pressing questions.
The adult world is a corrupt realm focused on appearances, having lost its purity and freedom In contrast, children are closer to the truth as they do not manipulate their dreams They reflect the innocence of life, embodying the complexity of a pure being in the face of corrupt adults Children express their sensations in their natural state, allowing them to perceive their environment more authentically and liberate themselves from the constraints of civilized society in their unique way.
In "Mondo and Other Stories," the atmosphere transforms, allowing a temporary escape from the mundane and the grotesque This work embodies a unique essence and rhythm, celebrating the beauty of the world and the joy experienced in harmony with the universe and its movements.
Ce choix du type de focalisation exerce une influence capitale sur les procédés descriptifs tels que les verbes, les indices spatiaux et les champs lexicaux.
Verbes
As we delve into the news, we easily recognize the multisensory nature of the landscape For characters to fully immerse themselves in their environment, they must engage all their bodily sensations, highlighting the importance of perception verbs Notably, each story is rich with such verbs, illustrating their significance in conveying a vivid experience.
Nouvelle regarder voir entendre écouter sentir
Le grand nombre des verbes de perception traduit la perception du monde naturel par les narrateurs-personnages et suggère directement leurs sentiments, leurs émotions
The writer employs the perspective of child protagonists to interpret his vision of the encounter between humanity and the cosmos, as these characters possess a constant awareness that allows them to listen to the world's whispers He highlights children's perception of space through their sensory experiences In contrast to the adult worldview, which is often shaped by reason and societal influences, young children seek pure happiness in nature by immersing themselves in their environment and engaging all their senses.
The sensory experiences serve as the foundation of Leclézian poetry, where a rich abundance of sensory evocations underscores a key concept in his writing For Lecléz, it is only through the senses that one can achieve an authentic expression of existence.
Internal focalization allows us to experience the world through the sensory perceptions of minor narrators, highlighting their vision, smell, hearing, and touch In Le Clézio's work, the approach to the world is rooted in sensory experiences and a physical connection to it The author emphasizes that magic exists in everything we see, touch, and feel, suggesting that life itself is inherently magical This abundance of sensory evocations is a central theme in Le Clézio's writing, where the senses are essential for authentic expression of existence They also facilitate a communion between humanity and the universe, forming the basis of a narrative rich in sensory detail For instance, the mingling of scents with visual landscapes illustrates this connection, as seen when a character envisions burning hills and smells the resin and white smoke rising into the sky.
In his writing, Le Clézio intricately weaves together scents, sounds, touches, and visions to express the profound connection between humanity and the material world He blurs the lines between sensory experiences, merging smell with emotion, sounds with colors, and touch with light, creating a dual expression that amplifies sensations This technique highlights objects in their immediate presence while imbuing them with symbolic meaning Rather than discussing the world abstractly, Le Clézio presents it in a physical, tangible manner through meticulous detail The true essence of reality lies in the minute details that encompass a wealth of meanings His originality stems from eschewing grand narratives and instead focusing on the subtle, miniature events that illustrate his reflections on existence.
Nature showcases its diverse aspects through its fragrances, creating a harmonious impression between the environment and humanity For Mondo, the strong scent of trees and the aroma of shrubs at night evoke a sense of beauty, leading him to believe that "at night, everything smells good."
In "Lullaby," the scent of honeyed grass becomes overwhelming, while Gaspar perceives the smell of wet earth on the walls of the house This wet earth, in a desert-like setting, symbolizes life, creating a profound sensory connection between humanity and nature Aside from the single instance of the resin and white smoke from a potentially devastating fire on the hills, which evokes a sense of anxiety, the natural environment is portrayed with kindness and gentleness.
In Le Clézio's works, the verbs "to look" and "to see" are notably overused compared to other perception verbs, emphasizing the importance of vision in experiencing a tangible reality This perspective captures the essence of a cosmos that communicates through its elements, reflecting a deep desire for unity with cosmic forces The prevalence of observer characters in Le Clézio's stories highlights an openness to a world that speaks to us Each scene observed by these characters exemplifies a unique way of seeing that mirrors their worldview It is this loving contemplation that leads them to ecstatic states, where physical impulses intertwine with spiritual quests.
The use of verb tenses is a striking aspect of an author's style and a key compositional element of their work Upon examining the descriptive passages within the collection, we find that the imperfect and present tenses are predominant After noting their frequency, we will explore their values and clarify the factors influencing the author's choice of these tenses, demonstrating the extent to which the author utilizes the possibilities of tense usage.
The vivid depiction of descriptive scenes in Le Clézio's collection is highlighted by the prominent use of the imperfect tense compared to other tenses The following table illustrates the statistical representation of imperfect tense forms across the eight narratives.
The frequent use of the imperfect tense in "Mondo and Other Stories" serves descriptive scenes, aligning with the traditional semiological value of the imperfect/simple past alternation in literature While the closed temporality of the simple past conveys action and its sequence in the narrative progression, the open temporality of the imperfect provides the aspectuality necessary for describing the physical and psychological backdrop This descriptive tense enhances understanding but does not advance the story, nor does it limit the process indicated by the verb.
In his book "Textual Grammar of French," Harald Weinrich emphasizes the significance of the temporal relief provided by the imperfect tense, which serves as a backdrop in storytelling The imperfect is a fundamental tense for description, effectively slowing down the narrative pace Throughout the narrative, there are numerous opportunities to recap the situation descriptively, illustrating how it evolves step by step, or to insert additional useful information with varying levels of detail These techniques contribute to a deliberately slowed narrative tempo, enhancing the overall storytelling experience.
In Le Clézio's narrative, the protagonist Lullaby experiences a profound renewal of sensory perception as she immerses herself in her surroundings She recognizes the familiar sounds of water splashing and breaking, yet today feels as if she is hearing them for the first time The scene is dominated by white rocks, the sea, the wind, and the sun, evoking the sensation of being on a boat far at sea, where tunas and dolphins reside.
Il ne se passe rien dans ce monde naturel merveilleux : voilà le sens de la description C’est donc le tempo narratif ralenti
In the collection "Mondo and Other Stories," the lengthy descriptions of the characters' wanderings dominate the text, while the protagonists' backstories are merely summarized The past experiences of the eight main characters are briefly mentioned, contrasting with the detailed depictions of their nature walks "Lullaby" tells the simplistic tale of an adolescent, with the author's narrative pacing carefully measured across lines, pages, and paragraphs.
- 3 pages : présentation brève sur la situation familiale du personnage Lullaby
- 29 pages : Voyage à la mer de Lullaby
In the narrative "Montagne du dieu vivant," the focus is predominantly on the journey and the natural landscape, starting with a vivid description of Mount Reydarbarmur The protagonist, Jon, embarks on a trek toward this mountain, where he takes time to observe and appreciate the surrounding beauty Encounters are sparse, with the notable exception of a supernatural child, with whom Jon shares a profound joy in experiencing nature's splendor Overall, this 23-page story is largely dedicated to the detailed depiction of the natural environment.
Champ lexical
The author skillfully manipulates lexical capital to convey the protagonists' escape, highlighting the contrast between the natural world and civilized society Le Clézio constructs distinct lexical fields for each realm, with the opposition between these two worlds influencing his choice of imagery By drawing from modern urban society, he enhances the value of natural imagery, emphasizing the allure of the natural environment over the constraints of civilization.
Pour sculpter cet espace, des champs lexicaux se rapportant à l’école, la maison, la périphérie, les infrastructures urbaines ont une présence insistante :
- L’école : cours du Lycée, dortoir, cour, professeurs, surveillants, inspecteurs, convoquer, rộciter la leỗon, bureau du Proviseur, bõtiment…
The city is a bustling hub filled with unique streets, odd-named avenues, and a variety of vehicles including American cars, scooters, and delivery trucks It features essential infrastructures like sidewalks, gardens, and supermarkets, alongside cultural elements such as music and films The presence of churches and public spaces, including markets and parks, adds to its vibrancy Daily life is marked by the sounds of horns and the sight of busy crowds navigating through the urban landscape, where elements like mailboxes, escalators, and public sprinklers coexist The cityscape is dotted with villas, warehouses, and newsstands, creating a dynamic environment that reflects the pulse of urban living.
The outskirts feature makeshift huts constructed from wooden planks, tar paper, and packed earth, surrounded by marshlands and the river estuary The landscape includes corrugated metal structures, barbed wire, scraps of fabric, and embankments, alongside simple cabins and a freshwater pump.
- La maison : portes, fenêtres, lit, draps, oreillers à fleurs, chambre, lames des stores, table, feuille de papie, réveille-matin, enveloppe, livres, armoire, tiroir, chaise…
The detailed description of this enclosed space throughout the news creates an impression of a suffocating world where life is absent The inhabitants lead a life devoid of creativity in an environment that is entirely artificial, regulated, and non-organic.
Fortunately, this city offers unique spaces Through the eyes of children, areas of joy punctuate this seemingly hostile urban environment With a childlike spirit, Mondo marvels at the building's halls, finding fascination in the mailboxes, the timer button, the stairs, and the polished wooden railing A brief elevator ride ignites his imagination, allowing him to envision himself on a boat or even in an airplane; this little excursion becomes a grand adventure.
Despite the city's oppressive atmosphere, our young protagonist finds joy in his favorite spots: public gardens where retirees read illustrated magazines to him, the marketplace where he earns his keep and enjoys fresh fruits from Rosa, and the vibrant scene of blue trucks and the impressive red fire truck He loves the building courtyard where Pipo repairs chairs, the café terraces with the Cossack playing the accordion, and the church steps where he assists old Dadi in begging The esplanade is particularly special, as Mondo participates in public performances with Dadi and the Cossack Here, the old Hotchkiss car stands out, valued more than any new vehicle, transforming the city into a place where the sound of cars resembles the gentle flow of water.
At the city's borders lies a marginal space: the beach and the hills In Mondo's story, the beach is particularly alluring as it signals the sea, while the hills represent the mountains The beach serves a social function for entertainment, hosting kite battles and lively Sunday displays The hills, visible from the beach, create a spontaneous connection between the margins, inviting an open gaze These landscapes become breathtaking in the morning light, drawing Mondo closer, and under the evening rays, they inspire a desire for exploration From above, the city transforms into a dreamlike vision, dazzling and magical Mondo can admire the city lights, witnessing a grand pink glow resembling a mushroom While the urban press may diminish Mondo's perspective, from the hill, the city takes on a different scale, making life feel less daunting and more like a serene dance This is the enchantment of a passionate gaze, a perspective unique to the young.
While the character of the city is subtly perceived through the pure and optimistic eyes of children, it remains a confined space that contrasts with the open realm of escape A rich vocabulary of the natural world is employed, encompassing elements such as animals, light, silence, and voice.
Animals play a significant role in the literary world of Le Clézio, where both collective and individual narratives emphasize their importance in the cycle of life The literary space shared by humans and animals reflects a deep interconnection, with at least 50 different animal species mentioned, including snakes, seagulls, marine birds, mollusks, and various mammals This rich tapestry of wildlife enhances the themes of coexistence and the intricate relationships between human and animal life in Le Clézio's works.
Le Clézio emphasizes insects with notable insistence, presenting them in an almost obsessive manner He references a wide variety of insects, including wasps, crickets, salamanders, flies, mosquitoes, pilot insects, butterflies, worms, gnats, wild bees, spiders, grasshoppers, ants, dragonflies, beetles, scorpions, leaf insects, and stick insects The sheer quantity of these species underscores their temporal and spatial omnipresence.
The continuous revelation of a hidden presence can signify for humans a taming of unfamiliar places, as the familiar chirp of a cricket imbues any location with a sense of comfort and companionship This sound evokes a nostalgic feeling of peace and warmth, reminiscent of resting beneath a fragrant tree Additionally, the insect's call may be perceived as a form of communication, reflecting an indescribable harmony between the sky, the earth, and all living beings that inhabit it.
As young Mondo wanders through the garden of an elderly Vietnamese woman who has taken him in, he experiences the beauty of the night sky alongside her The haunting song of the cricket accompanies their shared contemplation, evoking the very essence of the stars.
In Mondo, the essential component of familiar spectacles reveals the miracles we often overlook The wasps at the market animate the scene, evoking ripe fruits, diverse scents, and the hidden world they inhabited before us The insect, much like the young protagonist of the story, embodies a profound joy for life through a deep connection to reality.
Le recueil montre le caractère impérieux et universel de la présence des lumiốres Le seul mot ô lumiốre ằ est ộvoquộ 501 fois dans l’ensemble du recueil
Un lexique abondant est utilisé pour décrire avec précision toutes sortes de lumière
The article explores various forms of light, including the sun's reflections, small flames, ephemeral sunlight, streetlamp illumination, and the warm glow of homes It highlights the golden light, flashes of lightning, daylight, and the shimmering radiance of celestial bodies, as well as the intense brightness of fires This rich tapestry of light sources captures the essence of illumination in our surroundings.
- Verbes : étinceler, éblouir, s’allumer, éclairer, briller, rayonner, scintiller, réverbérer, envoyer, (le soleil) frapper fort (sur la mer), tourbillonner, jaillir, vibrer, apparaợtre, allumer, brỷler et faire mal,…
The article describes a range of adjectives that evoke vivid imagery and emotions These include "pale" and "tired," "new," "beautiful," "soft," "yellow," "warm," and "golden," highlighting the qualities of light and color The "straight rays" of light are depicted as "heavy" and "deep," while the "new" and "gray" elements contrast with the "broken" and "exceptional" aspects of the scene The "terrible shimmer" and the "fixed brilliance" of the sun contribute to a "clear," "pure," and "blue" atmosphere, creating a coherent and striking visual narrative.
Langage enfantin
The unique aspect of the collection's works lies in their use of simple vocabulary, regardless of the worlds depicted Despite conveying profound messages, the familiar language makes for an accessible reading experience Le Clézio even suggests that the stories could be suitable for children While young readers may not grasp all the literary intentions, they can certainly follow the adventures of the protagonists This collection offers children the sensation of listening to a tale directly from the author, immersing them in a world of wonder and magic guided by the characters This characteristic is a hallmark of children's literature.
The collection is viewed as a pivotal moment in the author's writing style, marking a shift from the early stages of their literary career during the Nouveau Roman period, characterized by an abundant vocabulary The author's experimental writing from the 1960s showcases a rich use of language, reflecting a clear intention to break away from conventional literary forms.
In the mid-1970s, J.M.G Le Clézio's writing underwent a significant transformation with the publication of "Mondo and Other Stories," marking a thematic departure from his earlier works This book introduces readers to a new, enchanting world, shifting focus from urban life with its cars and shopping centers to a more luminous and beautiful universe seen through the eyes of children This childlike perspective influences Le Clézio's lexical and syntactical choices, leading to a style that mirrors the simplicity of a child's language He moves away from his previous linguistic experimentation and eccentricities, adopting a much more understated and refined writing style characterized by a minimal vocabulary that emphasizes clarity and simplicity.
Adults, with their developed systematic thinking, articulate their thoughts in a structured language As the inventors of technology, humans often perceive themselves as intelligent and driven by a desire for dominance, yet they remain enslaved by their own creations The simplicity of writing reflects the lack of innovation in the writer's language "Mondo and Other Stories" serves as a pivotal point in the evolution of thought and writing The author emphasizes the need to leave behind the established, complex, and serious world of adults, as noted in the preface of "The Unknown on Earth." The words used by the child-like characters in "Mondo and Other Stories" possess a magical quality, effortlessly granting access to a universe that is no longer hostile but truly wondrous.
In a state of grace, the wild child employs simple words reminiscent of a primitive world, allowing them to delve into the extraordinary aspects of everyday life and intimate gestures To truly appreciate this wonder, one must observe the world with a child's pure perspective While previous characters seemed to flee or chase after something, the children in this collection of short stories find contentment and connection with the universe, remaining still and happy in their surroundings The protagonists are thus inactive yet fulfilled, content to be in the presence of open spaces like the sea, plateau, mountains, and sky.
Figures de style
Ces quelques 335 syntagmes comparatifs qu’un examen de textes permet de repérer immédiatement donne une idée de l’importance de la présence de cette figure dans l’écriture de Le Clézio
In the analysis of these eight texts spanning 310 pages, a notable 415 instances express similarity, highlighting a significant proportion Each comparative phrase establishes an analogical relationship between its two components For example, the imagery of children appearing as tiny black insects on a rocky plain evokes a sense of distance and perspective Similarly, the description of walking in space, seemingly suspended amidst clusters of stars, emphasizes a feeling of weightlessness and vastness.
In the semantic nature of comparative tools lies a value that serves as a marker of modality within statements This means that the discursive realization of the narrator or hero in an analogy reflects a linguistic formulation of analyzed perception Terms such as "like," "as if," "similar to," and many others that connect the compared (Cé) to the comparator (Ca) consistently indicate a perceptual interpretation of sensation, signaling the narrator's reflective activity.
In the present corpus, the majority of comparative tools are "like" and "as." These comparative words establish the mutual relationship between co-present entities, serving as the fundamental basis for all comparisons Commonly used in narratives, these simple tools reflect the language level of minor characters Comparisons reveal a subjective understanding and a witness-like perspective The narrator or hero embodies the imaginative representation generated by relating two disparate realities, as illustrated by examples such as "There was a strange light in his eyes, like a smile that didn't want to show itself" and "He liked the drawings they left in the dust, small winding paths as fine as the barbs of bird feathers."
Comparisons play a crucial role in creating fresh imagery without the fear of excess The essence of writing lies in conveying extraordinary sensations and experiences Light can transform into sound, as Daniel perceives the dry creaks, snaps, and hisses around him, alongside a high-pitched whisper reminiscent of bees In contrast, Petite Croix experiences a much more soothing interpretation: the sound is gentle, akin to the rustling of leaves or a curtain of raindrops Comparisons aim to eliminate the limiting perceptions of the universe, weaving dreams into reality.
The persistent use of modal comparisons by the author emphasizes the narrator's perspective through the eyes of child characters This invites us to explore the underlying themes and analyze the elements that reveal the world as perceived by these young protagonists.
When considering the presence or absence of a motif, it is essential to recognize that the motif serves as the common quality linking Cé and Ca The presence of a motif typically indicates a desire for clarity Conversely, when the comparison lacks motivation, all the elements of Ca are implicitly invoked, leading to a less clear comparison that resembles a weakened identification This association between Cé and Ca can even become enigmatic.
When a motif is articulated, analyzing it becomes crucial for understanding the figure's function If perceived solely in a denotative sense and relevant to the context (Cé and Ca), the comparison lacks surprise This classical comparison enhances and clarifies the connections between Cé and Ca It is common for the motif to be metaphorical, with the comparison serving as an explanatory element.
Dans cette partie, nous choisissons de réaliser la statistique sur le corpus de
Les bergers – le récit contenant le plus grand nombre de comparaison
Most expressions of resemblance pivot around a verbal or adjectival morpheme, while constructions featuring a nominal morpheme are less common For example, the sound of hooves pounding the hard ground produced a noise that rolled and rumbled like the sea Additionally, his eyes sparkled like small mirrors as he watched the children He ran through the grass, with the dog bounding behind him, barking as swiftly as an arrow.
Le Clézio tends to favor traditional comparisons that objectively enhance the connection between the subject and the object This straightforward approach mirrors the innocence of childhood, as the author does not aim for an aesthetic of surprise or strangeness; for children, life is not a labyrinth Consequently, these comparisons remain clear and unambiguous.
In the previous section, we noted that the author's classic style in this collection features imagery where "Cé" and "Ca" are closely intertwined The boys stealthily moved through the tall grasses like snakes, silent and unseen Later, they ascended together into the sky, feeling as light as feathers.
In these examples, comparison serves as a hyperbolic marker, yet it is not based on the pursuit of a gap The author does not seek unexpected and striking relationships in the comparison.
One of the key journeys in the Leclézian comparison is from the human realm to the natural world, particularly highlighting the presence of animals The table below illustrates how these creatures are represented in the collection.
M L MDV RE CQ H PC B Elements naturels 28 24 26 14 16 14 25 51
The increasing use of natural comparisons reflects a nostalgia for an original universe, evident in the prevalence of natural imagery that evokes an urban landscape This represents a form of embellishment of urban references, transformed through the protagonist's perspective For instance, Lullaby observes pale flashes alongside neon bars, the crowd resembles drifting dead leaves, and people are likened to cloaked insects.
Emphasizing this factor highlights that space is perceived through the innocent eyes of children Only a pure soul can view their environment as tangible, vibrant, and joyful Modern and natural images intertwine, reflecting a metaphorical system that seeks to elevate the elemental and the original through the frequent use of animal, plant, and mineral imagery.
Pour acquérir à un monde idéal, l’auteur doir recourir à l’imaginaire des mineurs sans lequel il est difficile de s’échapper de la réalité cruelle
The comparison is also utilized in the depiction of the interior-exterior space in the story "Lullaby." The girl's state of daydreaming is captured in the line, "She was only looking at the white of the paper, and she thought that perhaps something would appear, like birds in the sky, or a small white boat passing slowly." This reflects a hopeful anticipation of a joyful appearance.
Lullaby, probablement le retour de son cher père L’espace intérieur de la salle s’ouvre vers l’espace extérieur, abstrait dans la pensée de la fille
Phrases
The eight new stories exhibit a predominance of short, simple sentences and monemes, characterized by a frequent use of the structure: subject + predicate, either without subordination or with primary subordination, alongside nominal phrases For instance, the phrase "there are many trees, calm rivers, very green fields, and a gentle sky" illustrates the exclusive use of "there is" to enumerate subjects in space The structure "Noun + as + Noun" is employed extensively (216 instances), typically associated with oral syntax and a simple style, yet here it serves to evoke thematic abundance, grouping diverse words around a common idea of space Authentic city names and products are juxtaposed to create a sense of nominal saturation Critics have noted that the short sentences in Mondo's stories may resemble the writing of children.
This shift in writing style, particularly in the narrative rhythm, is not coincidental but rather the result of a deep reflection by Le Clézio aimed at achieving a pure and simple truth Readers familiar with Le Clézio's early works, which belong to the nouveau roman genre, will notice the prevalence of long sentences and frequent use of question marks The syntactic and narrative rhythm is characterized by a pounding cadence and nominal saturation, highlighting the suffocating nature of contemporary human existence.
In this collection, which marks a departure in the author's writing style, children take on the role of narrators, allowing for a focus on musicality rather than drama The author's reduced use of commas reflects this shift, as Le Clézio moves away from complex sentences to embrace a simple and pure language that resonates well with young narrators The narrative rhythm effectively conveys often sensory and subjective impressions, while dramatic plots are replaced by contemplative reflections The writing aims to ideally and magically create a world that aligns with the desires and heart of the writer, who reveals himself primarily as a poet, employing an incantatory structure.
The pursuit of a simple, stripped-down, and pure language embodies a genuine philosophy of life Le Clézio's syntactic and narrative rhythm highlights a sense of suffocation, contrasted with an original elsewhere where humanity exists in harmony with nature and cosmic forces, creating an incantatory cadence.
The study of descriptive processes highlights the art of spatial representation in Le Clézio's collection "Mondo and Other Stories." The author employs internal focalization, focusing on the role of child and adolescent narrators who observe, describe, and perceive their living and dream spaces in their unique ways The frequent use of the imperfect and present tenses characterizes the description of these spaces and delineates their various functions within the stories Through these verbal tools, Le Clézio emphasizes the powerful and subjective perception of childhood, reflecting the writer's worldview, as evidenced by the subjective gaze of the narrator, which is often marked by connotations.
Le monde civilisé considéré comme espace fermé et hostile, le monde naturel comme espace ouvert devenant espace idéal, terre promise pour l’homme
The vocabulary related to urban spaces is less rich than that of natural environments, conveying a sense of hope when describing areas dominated by natural elements Some original locations possess a mythical quality, aiding in the reconstruction of a world where purity reigns, untouched by the erosion of time or human destruction Even the image of the city, despite its darker aspects, embodies the notion of pleasure and happiness.
In Le Clézio's imagery, there is a profound nostalgia for an original universe, where the frequency of elemental images is enhanced by a rich vocabulary His writing is infused with lexicons from the mineral, plant, and animal kingdoms, employing comparisons and metaphors that elevate the physical over the intellectual The references to humanity are overshadowed by a focus on elemental evocations.
Un renversement de la hiérarchie métaphorique s’opère ainsi dans une écriture qui fait subordonner l’homme, ses pensées et ses expressions aux règnes des éléments naturels de l’univers
French literature is deeply rooted in the expressive potential of the French language Every aspect of verbal communication, whether lexical, morphological, or syntactical, serves a purpose of expression The renowned 20th-century French writer, Le Clézio, embodies this potential in his linguistic artistry, exploring philosophical inquiries about human existence in the world.
To explore literary texts, we have chosen "Mondo and Other Stories," a collection of short stories by Le Clézio published in 1978, as our corpus for analyzing spatial description techniques Le Clézio, an author perpetually eager to renew his writing, is captivated by this concept In this collection, the treatment of space is crucial for conveying the author's ongoing humanist inquiry into humanity's position in contemporary society Thus, the distinctive characteristics of different types of spaces and the art of representing these spaces in the narratives form the focus of our study.
First, we established a solid theoretical foundation regarding the short story and the description of space within this genre The functions of space and various processes used in spatial description were clarified and emphasized in the first chapter These theoretical tools enable a thorough exploration of the spaces within short stories and help determine their significance.
In the poetic vision of the author, original values are emphasized through the analysis of actantial structures in the narratives Le Clézio's short stories are crafted as initiation tales where the protagonist engages in a ritualistic journey This study highlights the significance of space in interpreting the narrative's message, categorizing the settings into two contrasting types: spaces of living and spaces of dreams Beyond their referential and functional values, the symbolic significance of these spaces plays a crucial role in conveying the work's message The modern individual continually seeks freedom and happiness, and the protagonist's experiences in the natural, primitive world allow for a sense of fulfillment and connection to universal life, contrasting sharply with the solitude found in urbanized, hyper-commercialized society.
In the final section, we examined linguistic tools that enhance the depiction of spaces, emphasizing the use of internal focalization through child and adolescent narrators, which strengthens the perception of these environments The prevalence of imperfect and present tenses slows the narrative pace and evokes imaginary scenes, leading to a dominance of description over narration.
The writing is enriched by lexicons from the mineral, plant, and animal kingdoms, employing comparisons and metaphors that emphasize the physical and poetic aspects over intellectual considerations This pursuit of a simple and pure language aligns with the syntactic and narrative rhythm, highlighting a sense of suffocation contrasted with an original elsewhere, where humanity exists in harmony with nature and cosmic forces.
In conclusion, our work focuses on identifying the techniques used to describe the space within a literary work, leveraging cultural, linguistic, and textual competencies This approach serves as a tangible demonstration of effective literary text analysis strategies It is particularly suitable for pedagogical engagement in teaching French literature within the Department of French Language and Culture The goal is to achieve enrichment in both linguistic and sociocultural aspects through this mastery of the language Additionally, this study can be expanded to explore other elements of texts to better decode the messages conveyed in literary works.
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