An investigation into factors influencing vietnamese students willingness to communicate orally in efl classrooms

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

In the 21st century, globalization has established English as a crucial lingua franca, significantly increasing the Vietnamese population's awareness of the importance of learning the language This shift has led to English becoming a mandatory subject in the National Entrance Examination for university admission (Do & Do, 2014) With the rise of global economic integration, there is an increasing demand for English-proficient employees who can communicate effectively in their professional fields (Namaziandost, Homayouni & Rahmani, 2020) Consequently, the development of learners' communicative competence has emerged as a primary objective in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Vietnam, where effective communication is actively encouraged in classrooms (Ho, 2020).

Communicative competence is widely recognized as a complex concept that encompasses the ability to effectively and appropriately use a foreign language in diverse social contexts (Hymes, 1992; Canale, 2014; Greene, 2016; Savignon, 2018) The primary goal of teaching communicative competence is to inspire language learners to actively engage with the target language and participate in communicative tasks This approach particularly emphasizes the importance of learners asking questions and seeking clarification on assigned tasks to enhance their language skills.

Access to authentic resources is essential for fostering meaningful conversations and reducing errors in communication (Savignon, 2001) Swain (1995) emphasizes that successful second language acquisition hinges on interactive and purposeful communication Learners with high communicative competence can significantly improve their fluency, comprehension, and overall language skills This underscores the importance of incorporating communicative competence teaching in integrated English classrooms at universities (Dos Santos, 2020; Mustapha & Yahaya, 2013; Liu, 2005; Le, 2021).

In recent decades, educators and scholars have increasingly recognized the importance of enhancing oral communication skills, particularly speaking abilities, as essential life skills This growing focus stems from the successful implementation of the communicative approach in language teaching (Ho, 2020; Le).

In 2021, the Vietnamese university curriculum has increasingly emphasized oral skills to align with labor market demands This shift is evident in the incorporation of international English certificate results as a key criterion for graduation requirements at many universities.

To enhance English speaking opportunities and student engagement in language classrooms, a variety of speaking activities, including interactive games, role-play, presentations, and group work, are implemented (Richards & Rodgers, 2014).

In language classrooms, providing opportunities for oral communication through speaking activities is crucial for enhancing learners' readiness to speak, significantly impacting the effectiveness of the communicative language teaching approach (Ellis, 2014) Despite well-planned teaching materials that offer meaningful spoken practice, many teachers encounter challenges, as students often show a lack of enthusiasm for using the target language in class According to Levelt (2013), although this modern approach is widely accepted in EFL classrooms to improve speaking skills, its effectiveness remains limited due to individual factors.

Research indicates that learners with high linguistic competence often remain silent in class due to nervousness, while those with lower competence may speak more confidently (Baghaei, Dourakhshan, & Salavati, 2012) Csizér and Dornyei (2005) further emphasize that individuals can avoid second language communication situations despite having strong communicative skills Therefore, a high level of communicative competence does not guarantee frequent or effective communication in the target language for L2 learners.

Speaking proficiency in a foreign language not only relies on linguistic competence but also on learners' willingness to communicate (WTC), which is defined as their desire to engage in the language when opportunities arise (Levelt, 2013; MacIntyre et al., 1998) Learners with high WTC actively seek opportunities to practice speaking, leading to more confident use of new grammatical structures and improved public speaking skills, thereby increasing their frequency of L2 use (Menezes & Juan-Garau, 2015) Those ready to communicate orally tend to achieve better speaking performance, as they engage more in classroom activities and practice L2 autonomously (ệz et al., 2015) Frequent use of English enhances fluency, and higher WTC is linked to greater exposure to L2 input and improved language competency (Lockley, 2013) Moreover, language proficiency development encompasses speaking skills, grammar, and vocabulary choices The success of English programs can be gauged by the growth of students' WTC, making it a critical focus for researchers and educators aiming to boost language learners' oral proficiency (Mehrgan, 2013).

Rationale of the study

Since the 1990s, research on Willingness to Communicate (WTC) in second language acquisition has gained significant attention (Macintyre, 2007; Peng, 2012; Khany & Nejad, 2016; Kamdideh & Barjesteh, 2019) Studies have explored the reasons behind learners' reluctance to use the target language in classrooms Pawlak and Mystkowska-Wiertelak (2015) suggest that students' engagement in speaking activities is influenced not only by their language proficiency but also by communication contexts, interlocutors, topics, and their motivation Additionally, Menezes and Juan-Garau (2015) emphasize that the instructional context, including teaching approaches and task instructions, can significantly affect learners' willingness to communicate.

Despite the emphasis on oral communication in language teaching, many English language students remain silent during classroom activities (Jule, 2016) EFL educators face challenges in promoting learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) in English classes (Peng, 2019) In Vietnam, a study by Tran and Le (2019) revealed that freshmen students, unfamiliar with communicative strategies, exhibited low self-confidence in speaking English Additionally, Phuong (2020) noted that speaking often falls outside students' focus, leading to a low awareness of the importance of participating in speaking activities within Vietnamese EFL classrooms.

As an English teacher with over five years of experience in a Vietnamese EFL context, the researcher observed a notable reluctance among students to engage in speaking activities Many students only responded when directly asked, rather than participating actively with their peers Even with support from the researcher, some students remained hesitant during tasks, highlighting that even those with high English proficiency sometimes struggled to communicate effectively in speaking classes.

In a recent study, a researcher engaged with students to discuss their challenges in speaking skills, revealing that many lacked confidence without prior topic knowledge Additionally, some students expressed a preference for speaking in small groups or with friends To explore these observations further, the researcher reviewed relevant literature and decided to investigate the underlying factors influencing students' willingness to participate in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes.

It is necessary to investigate whether students would be willing to speak English when given the opportunity and what factors influence their readiness to communicate

Various personal factors, such as personality traits, communication apprehension, self-confidence, motivation, and attitudes, significantly influence oral production in foreign language classes (Henter, 2014) Additionally, situational factors like interlocutors, group size, topics, and task types serve as strong predictors of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) (Mystkowska-Wiertelak, 2016) Identifying these factors is crucial for educators to develop effective pedagogical interventions aimed at enhancing learners' WTC (Riasati & Rahimi, 2018).

In their analytic review, Zhang et al (2018) highlighted that numerous studies focus on trait willingness to communicate (WTC), emphasizing that personal factors remain consistent despite varying circumstances (Ito, 2022; Pawlak & Mystkowska-Wiertelak, 2015; Teven et al., 2010) Key enduring factors influencing WTC include a language learner's personality traits, communicative apprehension, motivation, self-confidence, willingness to take risks in language classes, and grit.

According to a 2007 study, traits are expected to evolve gradually rather than in a chaotic manner, indicating that they should remain stable characteristics of an individual Historically, numerous scholars have viewed willingness to communicate (WTC) as a lasting, trait-like quality that contributes to individual differences in a person's first language (L1).

2005) However, WTC has recently been regarded as dynamic with both transitory and abiding characteristics in L2 (MacIntyre et al., 1998; Kang, 2005; Cao & Philp,

2006) Dornyei (2010a, p 252) supports L2 WTC having "a considerable amount

Since the 1970s, scholars and researchers have increasingly focused on the exploration of personal factors that influence second language willingness to communicate (L2 WTC), recognizing that this willingness can vary based on time and situational context (Dornyei, 2005).

Zhang et al (2018) highlighted the ambiguous differentiation between trait and state willingness to communicate (WTC) in existing research This underscores the need for a comprehensive study to examine how both personal factors associated with trait WTC and situational factors related to state WTC influence in-class WTC For instance, the research conducted by Cao also supports this necessity.

Research has highlighted the influence of situational factors, such as class atmosphere and task perceptions, on students' willingness to speak (Kang, 2005; Eddy-U, 2015) However, personal factors like personality traits, motivation, confidence, and foreign language anxiety have been less explored in relation to communication readiness (Wu & Lin, 2014; Bashosh et al., 2013; Lee & Hsieh, 2019) Therefore, a comprehensive study is essential to concurrently examine both personal and situational factors to better understand their effects on EFL learners' willingness to communicate.

The limited number of large-sample cross-sectional survey studies has hindered the ability to generalize the influence of various factors on willingness to communicate (WTC) (Zarrinabadi & Tanbakooei, 2016; Zhang et al., 2018) This study seeks to explore discrepancies in findings regarding the relationships between these underlying factors and WTC Most existing research on WTC has been conducted in Western countries such as Germany, Poland, and Canada, as well as East Asian nations like New Zealand, China, Korea, and Japan, with notable studies from Iran as well (Bernales, 2016; Mystkowska-Wiertelak, 2016; MacIntyre & Legatto, 2011; Riasati, 2012) However, there is a significant gap in WTC research within the Southeast Asian EFL context, particularly regarding personal and situational factors affecting learners' WTC in EFL classrooms, which has received limited attention from Vietnamese scholars, aside from a few studies (Bui & Duong, 2018; Nguyen, 2011, 2016, 2022).

Research aims and research questions

This study aims to investigate the relationships between personal and situational factors and students' willingness to communicate in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Specifically, it seeks to determine how personal factors such as communication apprehension, learning motivation, language class risk-taking, and self-confidence influence oral communication willingness Additionally, the research will explore the impact of situational factors, including topic interest and classroom atmosphere, on students' willingness to communicate Lastly, the study will analyze whether there are differences in willingness to communicate based on students' gender and academic departments.

To achieve the three mentioned aims, this study will have three research questions:

1 To what extent do personal factors influence non-English major tertiary students’ willingness to communicate orally in Vietnamese EFL classrooms? a Do self-confidence, learning motivation, and language class risk-taking have positive relationships with the students’ willingness to communicate orally? b Does communication apprehension have a negative relationship with the students’ willingness to communicate orally?

2 To what extent do situational factors influence non-English major tertiary students’ willingness to communicate orally in Vietnamese EFL classrooms?

3 Are there any significant differences in students’ willingness to communicate orally regarding demographic variables (i.e., genders, departments)?

Significance of the study

Research has shown that both personal and situational factors significantly influence students' willingness to communicate (WTC) orally However, there has been limited exploration of these factors specifically among Vietnamese learners This study aims to fill this gap by examining the effects of personal and situational variables on oral WTC through a cross-sectional survey involving 306 tertiary students from a public university.

The present study offers significant theoretical and practical contributions to the understanding of willingness to communicate (WTC) It enhances existing research by exploring both personal and situational factors affecting learners' WTC, addressing a gap in previous studies that often focused solely on one aspect Additionally, the findings indicate no gender or departmental differences in the impact of these factors on WTC, reinforcing the generalizability of the results across diverse groups.

This study aims to enhance the awareness of EFL teachers facing challenges in preparing students for speaking activities in the classroom The findings identify factors that contribute to students' lack of readiness to speak and offer effective solutions for educators Additionally, the paper provides a comprehensive analysis of elements influencing learners' willingness to communicate (WTC), serving as a valuable reference for teachers to devise strategies that boost student participation in speaking activities.

This thesis significantly enhances our understanding of how personal and situational factors affect non-English major students' willingness to communicate orally in Vietnamese EFL classrooms Additionally, it paves the way for further research in this area within Vietnam, offering valuable pedagogical insights for educators By developing and implementing effective L2 speaking activities and oral projects, teachers can foster an environment that encourages students to improve their communication skills in English classes.

The current study offers valuable insights for university administrators in Vietnam, highlighting the need to support EFL teachers through training programs and improved classroom facilities By implementing relevant workshops, teachers can adopt updated teaching methods and effective strategies that enhance students' willingness to communicate orally This increased awareness of the importance of communication skills, fostered by both school leaders and EFL educators, will motivate students and boost their confidence in speaking classes, ultimately leading to improved academic performance in English speaking.

Scope of the study

This study investigates the willingness to communicate (WTC) in spoken English among 306 first-year non-English major students at a national university specializing in social sciences It highlights the variability of WTC across different communicative skills and contexts, both within and outside the EFL classroom The research emphasizes oral communication, as the impact of various factors is often more pronounced in speaking tasks, revealing participants' communication behaviors and peer interactions (Lahuerta, 2014) By focusing on first-year students, the study aims to address the challenges posed by their limited exposure to communicative language teaching methods.

This study focused on a specific university and utilized a quantitative approach to assess multidimensional data concerning factors influencing non-English major students' willingness to communicate Through statistical analyses, the research aimed to validate the relationships between these factors and to explore the role of affective elements in enhancing students' eagerness for oral communication.

Organization of the thesis

The present thesis consists of five chapters:

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to learners’ willingness to communicate in L2 acquisition In this part, the theoretical background and study rationale are supplied to address the research gap through three research questions in relation to determinants impacting willingness to communicate orally

Chapter 2 gives a deep insight into the related theory, including the variation of willingness to communicate in different contexts, its heuristic model, and the effects of factors on willingness to communicate Based on the presented theory, the study’s conceptual framework and hypotheses are conceptualized to fulfill the research objectives

Chapter 3 outlines the study's methodology, detailing the research design, site, participant selection, instruments used, and the processes for data collection and analysis It explains how participants are chosen and describes the statistical quantitative techniques employed to analyze the data collected from respondents.

In the upcoming chapter, the researcher presents the quantitative research findings, starting with the reliability and validity tests using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, factor analyses, and the structural equation model The hypotheses of the study are then examined through regression and correlation findings Ultimately, the discussion highlights the impact of various factors on language learners' willingness to communicate.

The final chapter summarizes the thesis's findings, highlighting their implications for effective communication practices It also addresses the study's limitations and emphasizes the necessity for further research on willingness to communicate.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Willingness to communicate (WTC)

The concept of Willingness to Communicate (WTC) emerged in North America during the late 1950s and early 1960s, emphasizing the importance of interpersonal communication (McCroskey, 1997) It is based on three foundational works: unwillingness to communicate (Burgoon, 1976), predispositions toward verbal behaviors (Mortesen, Arntson, & Lustig, 1977), and shyness (McCroskey & Richmond, 1982) By 1985, McCroskey and Baer developed a measurement for WTC, defining it as "a personality-based, trait-like predisposition" that remains consistent across various communication contexts and audiences This indicates that an individual's inclination to engage in communication is a stable characteristic, irrespective of the situation or the people involved (MacIntyre et al., 2019).

In L1, willingness to communicate (WTC) is viewed as a stable personal trait that varies across different communication contexts and audiences McCroskey and Baer (1985) highlight that an individual's cognitive processes influence their WTC, with factors such as self-esteem, extraversion, communication apprehension, alienation, and communicative competence playing significant roles For instance, individuals eager to form new social connections typically find it easier to initiate conversations, while others may remain silent This trait-like aspect of WTC reflects a person's consistent tendency to engage openly in dialogue across various situations.

2021) This trait predisposition entailing a person’s intention to speak is examined as a predictive behavior

Although WTC in L1 is considered a personality trait in several previous studies (McCroskey & Baer, 1985; McCroskey, 1992; McCroskey & Richmond,

Research by Dửrnyei (2005) indicates that willingness to communicate (WTC) diminishes significantly when transitioning from acquaintances to strangers, highlighting that a speaker's communication intentions and behaviors fluctuate based on context This suggests that WTC is a stable personality trait Similarly, McCroskey et al (1987) propose a correlation between WTC and factors such as communication frequency, amount, and duration, all influenced by an individual's readiness to engage Specifically, individuals with high WTC tend to engage in more frequent, longer, and more substantial conversations, while low WTC correlates with reduced communication frequency and quantity, adversely affecting conversation outcomes Furthermore, WTC is particularly dynamic in second language contexts, as noted by MacIntyre, Babin, and Clement (1999).

Willingness to communicate in a second language (L2) is defined by MacIntyre et al (1998) as "a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2." This concept differs significantly from the willingness to communicate in a first language (L1) as introduced by McCroskey and his associates MacIntyre et al argue that L2 WTC is influenced by various factors, including developmental growth, instructional, social, cognitive, and affective elements, while L1 WTC is primarily a result of natural childhood development Additionally, political, cultural, and social factors play a crucial role in L2 communication, which do not affect L1 in the same way Furthermore, the purposes behind acquiring L1 and L2 are distinct; L1 is typically learned for communication and relationship building, whereas L2 acquisition motivations vary widely among learners and contexts.

In second language acquisition (SLA), an individual's motivation to speak varies based on their learning objectives, leading to differences in the frequency of second language (L2) usage (Dürnyei, 2005) L2 is often employed for specific goals such as academic success, job requirements, and immigration, while the first language (L1) serves daily communication and relationship building The extent of L2 usage in everyday conversations significantly influences learners' willingness to communicate in L2, driven by particular communicative purposes (MacIntyre et al., 1998).

According to Chen Hsieh (2019), learners are more likely to engage in communication in their target language when presented with opportunities to do so This motivation to use their second language (L2) arises particularly in situations where speaking becomes essential.

The distinction between willingness to communicate (WTC) in first language (L1) and second language (L2) is influenced by personality traits and situational factors In L1 acquisition, WTC is seen as a stable personality trait, where extraverts typically exhibit higher willingness to engage in conversations compared to introverts In contrast, WTC in L2 is regarded as a situation-dependent variable, shaped by the complexities and uncertainties of communication contexts Research by Oz (2014) suggests that language learners' willingness to use the target language varies significantly depending on the specific situation MacIntyre et al (1998) argue against viewing WTC as a fixed trait, emphasizing that it is affected by competence and intergroup dynamics Thus, while L1 WTC is personality-based, L2 WTC is dynamic and subject to change over time and across different settings The study primarily focuses on oral communication, highlighting that speaking skills often receive less attention in traditional English classrooms compared to other language skills.

Speaking is considered the most crucial skill in language learning, as it significantly enhances effective communication (Harwood, 2010) This paper explores the factors influencing learners' motivation to speak in English classes, providing a foundation for improving their speaking proficiency throughout the learning process.

Previous research indicates that willingness to communicate (WTC) in a second language (L2) is a dynamic construct influenced by various contextual factors (MacIntyre et al., 2001) Social contexts, including classroom settings, group interactions, and the formality of meetings, significantly impact individuals' communication intentions and their readiness to engage Additionally, both the frequency and quality of L2 interactions play a crucial role in shaping WTC.

The willingness to communicate (WTC) in a second language (L2) is significantly influenced by various factors For example, individuals are more inclined to engage in conversation with someone they feel comfortable and confident around However, the differences between English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts can lead to notable variations in learners' WTC.

In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, English is primarily used for instruction rather than in everyday community interactions, unlike in English as a Second Language (ESL) contexts (Sato & Storch, 2022) This difference results in varying opportunities for language learners to enhance their willingness to communicate across these educational settings (Brown, 1993) Riasati (2018) notes that both first language (L1) and second language (L2) learning environments share similarities, making them potentially easier for learners due to immersion in a rich English-language context Furthermore, Peng (2014) emphasizes that the context of language acquisition significantly influences learners' communication opportunities and their readiness to engage with the target language.

Peng also claims that the heuristic model developed by MacIntyre et al

Research from 2003 primarily focused on Western contexts, which may not adequately reflect factors influencing learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) settings Farhady et al (2010) emphasize that applying a single theory across different contexts can yield varying results and procedures Consequently, examining WTC outside of EFL classrooms poses challenges, as accurately measuring related variables is difficult to manage reliably.

In 2010, Peng and Woodrow adapted MacIntyre's L2 willingness to communicate (WTC) model from 1998 to better fit the Chinese EFL context, taking into account the influence of Confucianism on educational practices, learning styles, and cultural distinctions in China.

Recent studies on learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) in EFL contexts have shown significantly lower levels compared to those observed in ESL contexts, as evidenced by research from Bukhari and Cheng (2017) and Wang and Liu (2017).

Research indicates that enhancing the willingness to communicate (WTC) among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in Asian contexts poses greater challenges than in Europe, primarily due to limited opportunities for English communication outside the classroom (Lamb et al., 2019) In Vietnam, oral English production predominantly occurs within classroom settings, making it difficult to study WTC beyond these environments (Le & Tran, 2019) Despite a growing body of research on WTC in both first and second language contexts, its impact within EFL settings remains underexplored (Zhang, Beckmann, & Beckmann, 2020) Consequently, this study aims to investigate the various factors that influence learners' WTC in EFL classrooms.

2.1.5 The importance of WTC orally in language classrooms

Factors influencing WTC

According to the heuristic model by MacIntyre et al (1998), learners' self-confidence in a second language (L2) is a strong predictor of their willingness to communicate (WTC) and significantly influences their communication behaviors MacIntyre et al (2007) define this self-confidence as a mix of low language-specific anxiety, belief in one's language abilities, and self-assessment of proficiency, which correlates with both the quantity and quality of interactions with L2 speakers Similarly, Clément, Dörnyei, and Noels (1994) identify self-confidence as comprising self-perceived communicative competence and foreign language anxiety These psychological factors are crucial determinants of L2 success, particularly in contexts where learners have limited opportunities to engage with L2 speakers.

A study by MacIntyre et al (1999) revealed a negative correlation between foreign language anxiety and self-perceived communication competence This suggests that individuals experiencing high levels of anxiety tend to perceive themselves as less proficient in their communication abilities.

Research indicates that a learner's confidence enhances their desire to engage with others in a target language Studies across various cultural contexts have explored the connections between self-perceived communication, foreign language anxiety, and willingness to communicate (WTC), yielding consistent findings (Burroughs, Marie, & McC, 2003; Shao & Gao, 2016; Cameron, 2015; Pawlak & Mystkowska-Wiertelak, 2015) Notably, McCroskey and colleagues investigated the WTC differences between American and Micronesian students, involving 131 participants from the Community College of Micronesia Their research revealed no significant differences in the relationship between self-perceived communication and WTC in both first and second languages Additionally, both student groups exhibited similar levels of language anxiety and classroom communication readiness These affective variables were identified as predictors of the students' intention to speak and their overall communication behaviors.

Numerous studies, including those by McCroskey et al (1963), have explored the link between self-perceived communication competence and actual competence, revealing a positive correlation with factors such as self-esteem, willingness to communicate in English, attitudes towards communication activities, evaluation, and sociability McCroskey and McCroskey (1986) further assert that many decision-makers communicating in a second language (L2) prioritize their self-perceived communication competence over their actual proficiency Consequently, some learners with low L2 competence may exhibit a high willingness to communicate in the L2 community, while those with high proficiency may not demonstrate the same level of willingness.

Many learners hesitate to communicate due to low self-confidence Baker and MacIntyre (2000) emphasize that it is crucial for learners to recognize their perceived competence, as this perception is more important than merely knowing their actual level of communicative competence.

The importance of self-confidence in the development of WTC has been given great attention in many previous studies, such as Yashima (2002), Fallah

Research by Clément (1980) indicates that individuals with high self-confidence in their communicative abilities are more likely to engage actively in the target language across various communication activities Clément's studies revealed a strong positive correlation between learners' self-confidence and their speaking performance, particularly among Francophone students Furthermore, MacIntyre et al (1998) identified self-confidence as the most significant predictor of learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) in both ESL and EFL contexts Their findings suggest that awareness of one's communication competence directly influences L2 learners' WTC, although variations in actual language skills also play a crucial role.

Communication apprehension (CA), as defined by Horwitz et al (1986), is a key component of language anxiety, specifically relating to the fear and nervousness associated with communicating in a foreign language This apprehension arises from concerns about one's ability to effectively express themselves in the target language MacIntyre and Gardner (1989) describe CA as the fear of interpersonal contact or oral expression when using a second language (L2) Furthermore, Hassall et al (2000) suggest that CA is a widespread phenomenon observed across various cultures and contexts.

According to McCroskey (1997), CA is described as a multidimensional construct that consists of trait-like CA and context CA On the one hand, trait-like

CA refers to an individual’s fear of interpersonal communication across context

Communicative anxiety varies significantly based on context, with factors such as interpersonal communication, public meetings, and social events influencing an individual's experience (Keaten et al., 2009) This anxiety is interconnected with stage fright and silence, reflecting the challenges people face when engaging in communication with others (Russ, 2013).

Numerous studies have identified key factors contributing to learners' anxiety during in-class speaking activities, including personality traits, fear of making mistakes, low foreign language proficiency, and the classroom environment (Cheng, Horwitz, & Schallert, 1999; Maclntyre & Gardner, 1989; Crouncher et al., 2019; Mulyono, Sari, & Ningsih, 2019) Individuals with inadequate communication skills often experience a heightened fear of making mistakes, leading to concerns about negative evaluations in L2 communication As noted by Horwitz et al (1986), anxious learners may set unrealistic expectations for their oral performance, exacerbating their fear of errors Additionally, classroom culture plays a significant role in shaping communication apprehension, as evidenced by Zhang’s (2005) research, which highlighted the detrimental effects of power distance between instructors and Chinese EFL students on speaking anxiety Furthermore, Fatima et al (2020) emphasize that the behaviors of educators and the support from peers are crucial in influencing students' language anxiety.

Foreign language anxiety significantly undermines learners' self-confidence and willingness to communicate (WTC) in a second language (L2), as highlighted by MacIntyre et al (1998) Numerous language researchers have extensively documented the detrimental relationship between anxiety and WTC, identifying anxiety as a primary barrier that many English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners encounter during L2 acquisition (Riasati).

2012; Elaldi, 2016; Horwitz, Tallon, & Luo, 2010; Zhang, 2019; Takkaỗ Tulgar,

In 2018, it was observed that heightened anxiety among learners regarding communication in a target language negatively impacts their confidence in using that language during intergroup interactions This rise in communication apprehension (CA) appears to diminish both self-assessed communication skills and the motivation to engage in conversations within the L2 community.

Numerous studies have established a clear link between communication apprehension (CA) and willingness to communicate among L2 learners (Donovan & MacIntyre, 2004; Croucher, 2013; Shirvan et al., 2019) Learners with high anxiety often misjudge their language abilities, leading to a negative self-assessment of their English proficiency compared to neutral observers This self-doubt results in reduced engagement with the language, as anxious individuals tend to avoid communication opportunities, feeling less confident and competent than their peers (MacIntyre et al., 1997; McCroskey, 1977) Such avoidance not only fosters negative perceptions of language learning but also contributes to reticence in classroom settings Furthermore, CA adversely affects academic performance, as students with high anxiety struggle to communicate and may become disengaged, ultimately leading to poor results or failure in foreign language courses (Zheng & Cheng, 2018) Additionally, MacIntyre et al (1997) highlight that language anxiety can diminish the quality of communication, causing frustration for learners unable to express themselves effectively in various contexts.

38 which creates a vicious circle of CA In general, CA is seen as a barrier to learners' ability to communicate fluently and as a deterrent to their desire to learn

Communication apprehension (CA) significantly impacts social relationships, as individuals with high CA struggle to manage their emotions and assert themselves (Daly et al., 1989) In the context of L2 oral performance, Keaten et al (2009) highlight that high CA correlates with negative communication behaviors, leading to physical symptoms like increased heart rate and sweating during interactions (Sửyler et al., 2017) This anxiety often results in poor public speaking and communication, adversely affecting educational, social, and career outcomes (Stein et al., 2000) Additionally, Bernalese (2016) notes that L2 anxiety stems from various contextual factors, including teaching methods and cultural influences, making CA a barrier to effective language learning (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989).

In second language acquisition (SLA), learning motivation is characterized as a strong personal commitment to mastering a language associated with a respected community, aimed at enhancing communication and connection (Gardner et al., 1976) Gardner (2007) describes a motivated learner as persistent, attentive, and self-confident, with clear desires and positive emotions His socio-educational model highlights a significant correlation between motivation and achievement in language learning (Gardner, 1985), identifying motivation as a key factor in attaining L2 proficiency Dürnyei (1994) emphasizes that motivation is essential for beginners to initiate language learning and serves as the driving force for sustained engagement.

Motivation plays a crucial role in the self-regulated learning and academic success of L2 individuals Even those with exceptional abilities cannot achieve long-term goals without adequate motivation, highlighting the importance of fostering a strong drive to learn despite the challenges of the learning process.

Previous studies

Willingness to Communicate (WTC) has garnered considerable attention from researchers over the years, highlighting its crucial role in enhancing communicative competence Studies have shown that WTC significantly contributes to learners' overall language proficiency, making it a vital area of focus in language education.

Research indicates that students with a high willingness to communicate (WTC) in English exhibit less hesitation and improved academic performance (Buckingham & Alpaslan, 2017; Fernández-García & Fonseca-Mora, 2022; Valadi, Rezaee, & Baharvand, 2015) Given these advantages, scholars have sought to enhance classroom participation by exploring the factors influencing students' eagerness to engage in tasks Numerous studies, including those by Khajavy et al (2016), Lee and Hsieh (2019), and Chen et al (2021), have examined how personal and situational factors, such as personality traits, self-confidence, motivation, language anxiety, attitudes towards English, and topic relevance, affect WTC in language learning environments The findings highlight the importance of these variables in shaping an individual's willingness to speak, leading to recommendations for fostering greater social interaction and enhancing language acquisition.

The current study presents a comprehensive table summarizing previous research designs, participants, instruments, and results related to factors influencing learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) It encompasses studies from both ESL and EFL contexts, including those conducted in Vietnam, to offer valuable insights into the diverse methodologies used in WTC investigations.

Table 2.1 Review of previous studies

Studies Research issues Methodology Participants Results ệz et al

- Examined Turkish learners’ perception towards WTC and the variance of L2 WTC

- Measured the variance of L2 WTC and affective factors in relation of gender difference

• WTC scale adapted from McCroskey (1992)

• The self-perceived competence scale adapted from McCroskey and McCroskey (1988)

• Perceived communication apprehension created by McCroskey (2005)

• Integrative scale adapted from MacIntyre and Charos (1996)

• Attitudes towards learning situation adapted from MacIntyre (1996)

• Motivation scale adapted from MacIntyre (1996)

• Instrumental orientation adapted from Hashimoto (2002) and Yu

134 Turkish students voluntarily participated in the survey

- The difference in perceived communication apprehension between genders was significant

- Self-perceived communication competence strongly predicted students’ WTC

- There was an indirect effect of motivation on L2 WTC through mediator variables namely communication apprehension and self-perceived communication competence

- There was no substantial direct effect of integrativeness and the L2 language ideal on students’ learning motivation and WTC

Ideal L2 itself scale designed by Dửrnyei and Taguchi (2010) Lao (2020) Investigated the associations between learning motivation and L2 learners’

WTC; their motivation and the frequency of L2 use; as well as the correlation of the perceived competence with learners’ frequency of L2 use

• Measures of motivation adapted from Papi et al (2018)

• Perceived competence adapted from McCroskey and McCroskey

• Frequency of communication designed by Lao (2020)

59 ESL participants learning in Teachers College, Columbia

- Perceived competence was strongest positively associated with WTC

- Motivation was found to have the weakest positive relationship with perceived competence

- Motivation was a predictor of learners’ WTC and frequency of L2 use

Scrutinized the association among WTC and confidence, language learning motivation, class environment, attitudes towards learning English

• Scale of WTC adapted from Weaver (2005)

• Scale of communication anxiety adapted Horwitz (1986)

• Scale of autonomous motivation adapted from Noels et al (2000)

- Motivated students were found to be less anxious and more confident in the English classroom

- Communication confidence was weakly predicted by autonomous motivation

• Classroom environment adapted from Fraser, Fisher, and McRobbie

(1996) Attitudes towards learning English adapted from Ryan (2008)

- Classroom atmosphere affected the students’ confidence and WTC

- WTC was lowly impacted by attitudes towards learning English

Examined the determinants impacting ESL tertiary students’

• Focus group interviews with students and educators

14 intermediate- level students in California university

- Regarding students’ perception, topic interest, conversation interlocutors, English proficiency, students-educator rapport, physical and psychological issues were main factors affecting their willingness to speak

- In teachers’ perceptions, cultural background, activity interest, attitudes towards the educators’ nationality, and fatigue significantly impacted the students’ WTC orally

Lao (2020) Investigated the associations between learning motivation and L2 learners’

• Measures of motivation adapted from Papi et al (2018)

59 ESL participants learning in Teachers College,

- Perceived competence was strongest positively associated with WTC

WTC; their motivation and the frequency of L2 use; as well as the correlation of the perceived competence with learners’ frequency of L2 use

• Perceived competence adapted from McCroskey and McCroskey

• Frequency of communication designed by Lao (2020)

Columbia University - Motivation was found to have the weakest positive relationship with perceived competence

- Motivation was a predictor of learners’ WTC and frequency of L2 use

- Investigated to what extent WTC impacted by factors which were perceived by EFL teachers

- Discovered strategies employed in promote students’

Qualitative research through an in- depth interview

30 EFL teachers from three Vietnamese universities in Ho Chi Minh city

- The Vietnamese EFL teachers were aware of the vital role of WTC in the classroom context

- They agreed that their students’ WTC was driven by different factors (e.g., tasks, emotions, self-confidence, classroom environment, teachers)

- Because of Asian culture, female students were found to less willing to have public speaking

Determined Vietnamese students’ perceptions towards

The most considerable contributors to the fluctuation of students’ WTC are the interaction

Identified determinants affecting their WTC

• 10 items of WTC, including 6 items adapted from Peng and Woodrow (2010), Cao and Philp

• A self-perceived competence scale adapted from Peng and Woodrow

• A self-designed scale of personality with 1 item

• A self-designed scale of motivation

• A self-designed scale of anxiety

• A scale of task adapted from Peng and Woodrow (2010)

• A scale of topic adapted from Cao

• A one-item scale of interaction mode adapted from Cao (2011)

• A self-designed scale of timing with 1 item

• A self-designed scale of interactions with teachers

• A self-designed scale of interactions with peers university in Ho Chi Minh city with teachers and language anxiety

Discovered to what extent students’ WTC change after the course

Identified factors hindering their enhancement of WTC

• Questionnaires in relation to confidence and WTC

30 English-major freshmen - Students were hesitated to use

English in speaking activities in both contexts, namely inside and outside classroom

- Their WTC was impacted by classroom settings, interlocutors, and learning forums

Conceptual framework of the thesis

High language proficiency is increasingly important in today's globalized world, significantly influenced by learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) in oral settings This study investigates how personal and situational factors—such as self-confidence, learning motivation, risk-taking in language classes, topic interest, and classroom atmosphere—affect students' readiness to speak Based on existing literature on WTC, six hypotheses were formulated: (H1) Self-confidence is positively correlated with WTC among non-English major tertiary students; (H2) Communication apprehension negatively impacts WTC; (H3) Learning motivation enhances WTC; (H4) Risk-taking in language classes promotes WTC; (H5) Interest in topics boosts WTC; and (H6) A positive classroom atmosphere fosters WTC among these students.

Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework of the present thesis

METHODOLOGY

Research design

This study utilized a quantitative approach to examine the relationship between independent variables, such as personal and situational factors, and the dependent variable, which is students' willingness to communicate (WTC) in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom.

Quantitative research, as defined by 1994, is a method for explaining phenomena through the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical techniques This approach seeks to identify patterns in human behavior by dividing the social world into measurable components known as variables These variables can be quantified as frequencies or rates, allowing researchers to explore their interrelationships through systematic measurement and researcher-created stimuli (Stockemer, 2019).

Lazaraton (2005) emphasizes the effectiveness of quantitative research in analyzing large populations and generalizing findings from samples to broader groups This approach allows researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of a sample's characteristics Supporting this view, Dornyei (2003) highlights that the core of quantitative research lies in identifying relationships between variables through measurement and manipulation, in contrast to the focus on single variables in qualitative research Additionally, quantitative methods facilitate the comparison of response means between groups using statistical tools like the T-test and ANOVA.

According to Pallant (2020), the quantitative approach yields outcomes that are both exhaustive and concise, making it a preferred method in previous studies exploring learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) in ESL and EFL contexts (Bukhari, Cheng, & Khan, 2015; Cetinkaya, 2005; Lee et al., 2022; Munchen, Razali, & Arsad, 2021).

This study utilized a survey as a quantitative research instrument to generate meaningful statistics, aligning with established methodologies that enable researchers to estimate the characteristics of a target population by analyzing sample data (Nardi, 2018; Visser, 2000; Ponto, 2015; Cao & Philp, 2006; Peng & Woodrow, 2010) By analyzing the collected responses, researchers can effectively describe key participant characteristics while also minimizing errors within the data set (Fowler Jr, 2013).

In the current study, the quantitative approach was implemented by first assessing the reliability and validity of subscales through a pilot questionnaire This involved measuring internal consistency using Cronbach’s Alpha, examining the study's normality, analyzing the correlation matrix, and checking for multicollinearity prior to conducting factor analyses Subsequently, the model fit was evaluated using structural equation modeling After confirming the construct validity of the survey, regression analysis was performed to explore the relationship between various factors and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' willingness to communicate (WTC).

An ANOVA analysis using SPSS version 20.0 was conducted to explore the differences in WTC among participants with varying demographic characteristics Prior to this inferential statistical analysis, a descriptive analysis was performed to present general information about the respondents' demographic variables, offering valuable context for the research sample.

Research site

3.2.1 Rationale of choosing a context in Vietnam

This study focuses on the Vietnamese EFL context to explore factors influencing students' willingness to participate in in-class speaking activities Despite the implementation of a communicative approach in Vietnamese university curricula aimed at promoting learner-centeredness, its effectiveness remains limited due to the high levels of anxiety experienced by students when learning English (Nguyen & Hamid, 2021; Mai, 2017; Nguyen, Warren, & Fehring).

In many English classes, students often exhibit inactivity and reluctance to engage, which negatively impacts their language proficiency and affects teachers' morale.

The limited number of studies on students' readiness to speak in Vietnam hinders the ability to generalize findings on common determinants in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, as evidenced by research conducted by Le and Tran (2019) and Nguyen.

In their 2019 study, Le and Tran explored the factors affecting Vietnamese tertiary students' willingness to communicate (WTC) However, their research primarily focused on measuring WTC and analyzing these factors using basic descriptive statistics within a quantitative framework.

The study by Nguyen and Long (2021) identified a single association between an individual factor and willingness to communicate (WTC) Nguyen (2016) utilized a mixed-method approach to explore the relationships between WTC and personal factors such as self-perceived communication competence, communication apprehension, motivation, attitudes, and personality, but did not account for situational influences In contrast, Bui, Hoang, and Nguyen (2022) conducted qualitative research involving interviews with 30 EFL teachers to gather insights on WTC perceptions in Vietnamese classrooms and proposed various strategies to enhance students' WTC Overall, there is a notable scarcity of quantitative research with large samples on WTC, which limits the ability to generalize findings from existing studies (Nguyet & Long, 2021; Bui et al., 2022; Tran, 2016).

Previous studies have not clearly established the relationship between determinants and Vietnamese students' willingness to communicate (WTC), primarily relying on descriptive statistics rather than regression analysis and effect sizes Most research has concentrated on personal determinants affecting EFL learners' WTC in classroom settings Consequently, the researcher opted to conduct quantitative research to explore the impact of various factors on the WTC of tertiary students in Vietnamese classrooms.

3.2.2 The overview of research site

The research was conducted at a prominent university within the Vietnam National University system in Ho Chi Minh City, which was ranked 158th among top Asian universities in 2021 Recognized as the leading institution for social sciences in the city, this university boasts a rich history and offers a diverse array of educational programs and training courses across various levels Each year, thousands of students from diverse backgrounds enroll in its undergraduate and graduate programs The university features two expansive campuses located in District 1 and Thu Duc City.

The study was conducted at the Thu Duc campus in Linh Trung ward, Thu Duc city, where the university offers foreign language classes for non-English major students The program aims to enhance language learning by administering examinations and providing language-related certificates Since its establishment, the university has focused on improving its teaching methods and modernizing classroom facilities to elevate the quality of language education Each spacious classroom accommodates 25–35 students and is equipped with essential teaching tools, including blackboards, computers, projectors, and Bluetooth speakers With a variety of English classes available in the morning, afternoon, and evening, students can easily select a timetable that suits their needs The mandatory English program consists of six courses designed for students at the Thu Duc Campus.

The English language program consists of six courses, designated as TO1, TO2, TO3, TO4, TO5, and TO6, which cater to three proficiency levels: elementary (A1), pre-intermediate (A2), and intermediate (B1) Specifically, TO1 and TO2 are tailored for elementary learners, TO3 and TO4 serve pre-intermediate students, while TO5 and TO6 are designed for those at the intermediate level Each course comprises 60 school periods, with each period lasting 50 minutes Throughout the academic year, students can take two courses, and those required to take a replacement test will be placed in English classes according to their test results.

The university's program offers three distinct learning shifts: morning, afternoon, and evening Students in the morning and afternoon shifts attend two lessons per week, each consisting of four periods Evening classes require students to participate in enough lessons, each with three periods In addition to 60 periods of direct classroom instruction in English, students must engage in the university's e-learning program, which encourages self-study and requires the completion of all assignments within the system.

Non-English major students are assessed through two main types of evaluations: formative assessments, which account for 30% of their grade, and summative assessments, which make up 70% The formative assessment includes participation, e-learning, and a midterm test, typically conducted by the English teachers during weeks 5–6 of the course The summative assessment is based solely on the final test, organized by the university's academic staff to evaluate students' proficiency in four language skills All students enrolled in the English program are required to take the final exam on the same day, as scheduled by the university's system.

The university's English program aims for students to achieve a B1 level of proficiency (TO6), enabling them to express their opinions, understand key information in conversations, and discuss familiar topics Students will also be capable of recognizing and comprehending clear reading texts on common subjects, as well as producing, organizing, and writing about their experiences and daily events.

The university's English curriculum utilizes the New Headway series from Oxford University Press, spanning beginner to advanced levels, making it one of the most widely adopted general English textbooks in various educational institutions (Dao & Newton, 2021; Le, 2014; Huan & Ngan, 2017) For non-English major students, the program incorporates three New Headway coursebooks: Elementary, Pre-Intermediate, and Intermediate These textbooks are designed to equip learners with essential knowledge and grammar through integrated lessons and engaging conversations, featuring 12 modules each that encompass language input and skill development With visually appealing layouts and up-to-date content, the coursebooks aim to captivate learners' interest in English while providing clear organization and a diverse range of exercises to enhance their four language skills, alongside comprehensive grammar explanations.

Participants

3.3.1 Rationale of choosing non-English major students as the sample

The university currently hosts over 14,000 students, including 12,000 undergraduates and 1,700 postgraduates, with a diverse range of backgrounds Annually, more than 3,500 students enroll in 34 majors primarily focused on social sciences, such as Linguistics, Journalism, Psychology, Literature, History, Geography, and Education Management These educational programs typically span 4 to 4.5 years, with two main terms each academic year For the 2022-2023 school year, approximately 3,100 freshmen are enrolled in non-English majors, alongside 350 students from the English faculty.

In this study, the researcher decided to do a survey on non-English major students as the study’s population The reason is that those students lack

Many non-English major undergraduates prioritize passing exams over achieving communicative competence in English, leading to feelings of shyness and anxiety, especially when they lack exposure to communicative activities in their university programs (Zhou, 2012; Ke, 2010; Hong & Peng, 2008; Mai, 2017; Hanh & Quan, 2021) In contrast, English major students focus on enhancing their language skills, resulting in better communication abilities (Ngo, 2015) Despite the promotion of communicative language teaching (CLT) in high schools, its effectiveness is hindered by time constraints, limiting non-English students' opportunities to practice speaking in EFL classrooms (Hong & Peng, 2008; Nguyen).

A study conducted in 2017 highlights that high school students often lack opportunities to develop their communicative skills, which may reduce their willingness to engage in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms in higher education Consequently, the researcher opted to focus on non-English major students to gain a deeper insight into the factors influencing their willingness to speak in a tertiary setting.

All non-English students at the university must complete the English program, except for those majoring in English, who have a different curriculum To graduate, students are required to not only complete the English program but also obtain an international English proficiency certificate equivalent to a B1 level Acceptable scores include an IELTS band of 4.5, a TOEFL iBT score of 45, or a TOEIC score of 450 in reading and listening, and 181 in speaking and writing.

The English program emphasizes a communicative approach to enhance students' language skills It provides an overview of the syllabus, outlines learning outcomes, and explains the assessment methods involved in the course.

64 typical communicative activities occurring in most sessions They are encouraged to participate in speaking activities in English classes, which helps improve their speaking skills

Each student receives an e-learning account that grants access to authentic English resources, including audio, video, online exercises, and lesson slides The integration of e-learning assignments and interactive games enhances student engagement and interest in learning English This system also automatically grades assignments and provides correct answers shortly after submission, allowing students to quickly assess their progress This approach marks a significant shift from the traditional English programs experienced in high school.

The researcher highlighted that despite students having access to authentic materials, modern classroom facilities, and a comprehensive English program, their willingness to communicate (WTC) remains low This observation allows the researcher to rule out the English curriculum and classroom resources as factors affecting non-English major students' readiness to engage in speaking activities.

This study employed convenience sampling for data collection due to its accessibility to a large number of participants, allowing for quicker data gathering and monitoring (Kivunja, 2015) This non-probability sampling method is particularly beneficial for researchers with limited budgets (Jager, Putnick, & Bornstein, 2017) and can enhance the identification of sample characteristics (Howitt & Crammer, 2005) Additionally, convenience sampling facilitates easy access to participants who meet specific research criteria (Dürnyei, 2007) Given these advantages, it has been effectively utilized to investigate psychological theories in various prior studies (Stratton, 2021; Schreier, 2018; Bornstein, Jager, & Putnick, 2013; Emerson, 2015).

In quantitative research, a larger sample size is crucial for factor analyses, as it reduces the risk of high variability in factor loadings and results in smaller standard errors (MacCallum et al., 1999) Church and Waclawski (2017) highlight that increased respondent numbers enhance the reliability of survey results, leading to lower standard errors in correlations and statistical indices Numerous studies underscore the significance of sample size in assessing the reliability of measurement scales, directly impacting the intercorrelation among variables (Kline, 2000; Bonett & Wright, 2014; Adeniran, 2019; Mellinger & Hanson, 2020) A modest sample size often yields unstable results for coefficient alpha, with a recommendation for at least 200 participants to ensure a more accurate representation of population characteristics (Hoe, 2008; Singh et al., 2016; Burmeister & Aitken, 2012; Cohen & Morrison, 2017).

In this study, the minimum participant count was determined using the N:q rule for factor analyses, with a calculated sample size ratio of 5:1, as recommended by Bentler & Chou (1987) and Bollen.

The sample-to-item ratio technique for determining sample size indicates that, for this study with 55 questionnaire items, a minimum of 275 participants (N = 275) is required To ensure robust results and account for potential incomplete responses, the researcher opted to distribute the questionnaire to more than 275 estimated participants.

The study focused on first-year non-English major students to assess their readiness for speaking, as they often struggle with communication and hesitate to participate in class discussions (Melouah, 2013; Karpovich et al., 2021) Previous research has highlighted that freshmen face challenges adapting to their university's English program, which encourages active participation in communicative tasks (Tinto, 1999; Nazara, 2011; Juhana, 2012).

First-year students tend to be more hesitant during speaking tasks due to their fear of making mistakes and lower motivation levels (Bariza, 2021; Afshar & Asakereh, 2018; Rooij, Jansen, & Van de Grift).

A questionnaire was distributed across 11 English classes, initially targeting 327 registered students from the university’s education administration On the data collection day, 315 students participated in the survey, resulting in 12 absentees.

After data cleaning, 306 valid responses were retained for the study, reflecting a high response rate of nearly 97% Table 3.1 presents a detailed description of the sample's background, categorized by departments and genders.

Table 3.1 Participants’ demographic information in the main study

Research instrument

3.4.1 Description of the research instrument

This thesis utilized a questionnaire to gather data on factors affecting Vietnamese EFL students' willingness to communicate (WTC) in oral classroom settings According to Dürnyei (2007), questionnaires offer significant advantages, allowing researchers to efficiently collect extensive information from a large sample in a short timeframe Additionally, Mathers, Fox, and Hunn (1998) emphasized that a well-structured questionnaire serves as an effective research tool, providing reliable data with high internal and external validity.

The self-report questionnaire utilized a closed-end format with a five-point Likert scale, where responses ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) According to Sadan (2017), self-report measurements are the most prevalent method for assessing participants' opinions or perceptions, as they are directly linked to their cognitive processes, potentially reducing the likelihood of inaccurate responses.

The original questionnaire comprised 55 items organized into three sections The first section gathered participants' demographic information, including gender and department, with two items The second section assessed willingness to communicate (WTC) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, featuring 10 items adapted from Weaver (2005) This scale emphasized the exchange of information during communicative tasks and included items related to requesting assistance and addressing challenges in the classroom The final section explored personal and situational factors influencing WTC among non-English major tertiary students, consisting of 43 items categorized into six subscales: self-confidence (6 items), communication apprehension (6 items), motivation (8 items), and language-related factors.

The questionnaire assessed three key areas: class risk-taking with six items, topic interest with four items, and classroom atmosphere featuring thirteen items A summary of the findings is detailed in Table 3.2, while the complete questionnaire can be found in Appendices 1a and 1b.

Table 3.2 General information of the questionnaire

Scales Items in the questionnaire The scales adapted from Sample items from the questionnaire

The scale of L2 WTC in speaking developed by Weaver (2005) to measure learners’ willingness to speak English in the EFL classroom context

- Item 3: I am willing to give a short speech in English to the class about my hometown with notes

- Item 4: I am willing to translate a spoken utterance from Vietnamese into English in my group

Linguistic self-confidence designed by Pyun et al (2014) for measuring self-confidence in using L2 in the classroom context (with α=0.85)

- Item 11: I am confident I can use English vocabulary and expressions that I learned to interact with my teacher or friends

- Item 12: I am confident I can talk about myself in English using sentences

L2 speaking anxiety designed Horwitz et al

(1986) and Pyun et al (2014) for measuring L2 learners’ nervousness about speaking with partners in English (with α = 0.94)

- Item 17: I feel nervous when I speak in English in front of other students

- Item 18: I feel anxious if I am asked a question by my teacher

The mini -Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) designed by Gardner and MacIntyre

(1993) and Bernaus and Gardner (2008) to measure:

- Item 24: I actively think about what I have learned in my English class

- Item 27: During English class, I would like to have as much English as possible spoken

+ Desire to learn English + Attitude toward learning English (with α = 0.86)

Language Class Risk-taking designed by Ely

+ A lack of hesitancy about employing a new linguistic feature

+ Readiness to utilize complicated linguistic features

+ A tolerance of using L2 language incorrectly (with α = 0.79)

- Item 31: At this point, I don’t like trying to express complicated ideas in English in class

- Item 33: I like to wait until I know exactly how to use an English word before using it

The Topical Interest scale designed by Khatiba and Nourzadeha (2015) for measuring:

- Item 37: I like to talk my classmates in English about movies and series

- Item 39: I like to talk to my classmates in English about computer games

What Is Happening In This Classroom scale (WIHIC) designed by Fraser et al (1996) for measuring:

+ Student cohesiveness (with α = 0.82) + Teacher support (with α = 0.87) + Involvement

- Item 44: Activities in English class are clearly and carefully planned

- Item 48: Class assignments are clear, so everyone knows what to do

- Item 52: The teacher smiles at the class while talking

In the questionnaire, there were two reserve code items, consisting of items

To minimize response bias from participants who may not accurately represent their opinions or who lack attention to the survey content (Paulhus, 1991), items 28 and 36 were reversed in the data analysis This involved converting responses such that a score of 1 (strongly disagree) became 5 (strongly agree) and a score of 2 (disagree) became 4 (agree) before entering the data into the file Additionally, several questionnaire items were modified to align with the Vietnamese EFL context, specifically items 4, 17, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, and 31.

33, and 34 were adjusted from different EFL backgrounds to the Vietnamese EFL context The details of the adapted items are presented in Appendix 2

The questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese to ensure students fully understood each item, enhancing comprehension and reliability (Boparai, Singh, & Kathuria, 2018) A bilingual expert in translation reviewed the translated version, and after adjustments, it underwent back-translation by two TESOL lecturers This "back-translation method" assesses the quality of the translation and helps prevent confusion and misunderstandings among participants (Brislin & Freimanis, 2001).

The study evaluated the relevance of meaning between original and translated versions, focusing on semantic and linguistic equivalence, alongside grammatical errors After considering feedback on the questionnaire, the researcher chose to remove items 15 and 16, which pertained to ordering meals and giving directions in English, as they were deemed inappropriate for EFL classrooms As a result, the total number of questionnaire items was adjusted accordingly.

After removing certain items, the Vietnamese questionnaire was reduced to 53 questions It was subsequently piloted with 32 different students to assess its reliability and validity prior to its official use in the main study.

To ensure the reliability of the questionnaire, a pilot study was conducted with 32 students from the research site, distinct from the main sample This group comprised 23 females and 9 males, all sharing the same language proficiency level and school year as the main study participants, as they had taken a university-administered replacement test The participants were drawn from various departments, including Cultural Studies (5 students; 22%), Psychology (11 students; 49%), and Social Work (7 students; 29%).

A pilot study is essential for main research, as it helps identify potential issues with research instruments, evaluates feasibility, and recommends effective methods for the primary study (Teresi, Stewart, & Hays, 2022) Consequently, the researcher conducted a pilot study to ensure that all questionnaire items were fully understood by the participants.

Content validity of the questionnaire

The questionnaire was initially assessed through expert interviews with three academic professionals in education prior to its distribution to pilot participants Among the experts, two were seasoned English teachers from universities, while the third was a book editor from the National University Publisher This expert consultation aimed to enhance the questionnaire by addressing potential issues and measurement errors that could hinder respondent comprehension (Ikart, 2019) The pilot study was conducted on May 10, 2022, lasting approximately 40 minutes, during which the researcher explained the purpose and procedure of the piloting process.

All voluntary participants were invited to identify any confusing items and seek clarification from the researcher Following the resolution of ambiguous points and the identification of potential issues during the piloting phase, the researcher proceeded to have the pilot respondents complete the questionnaire.

To assess the reliability of the survey questionnaire, Cronbach’s alpha analysis was utilized to evaluate its internal consistency This analysis helps researchers comprehend the relationships among items within a variable (Bonett & Wright, 2015) Additionally, coefficient alpha is valuable in minimizing the underestimation of the study’s reliability, particularly when the measurement components are non-equivalent (Taber).

2018) In this study, the research ran Cronbach Alpha analyses separately for both six factors and WTC with the results presented in Table 4.1 in Chapter 4

Reliability of the main study’s questionnaire

Before conducting Cronbach’s Alpha for the main study, the researcher meticulously screened and cleaned the data According to Abu-Bader (2021), this essential process helps identify and eliminate errors, missing values, duplicate entries, outliers, and corrupt data The data was analyzed using SPSS, with visual scans performed to remove questionnaires with missing information Descriptive statistics were employed to identify outliers and invalid data during the data entry phase The cleaning process began by running Frequencies for all variables in SPSS, and the results of the internal consistency coefficients from Cronbach’s Alpha for all variables in the main study will be detailed in Chapter 4.

Validity of the main study’s questionnaire

Validity is a crucial aspect of research that must be ensured (Taherdoost, 2016) Kaplan and Saccuzzo (2005) define validity as the evidence supporting inferences made from test scores This study meticulously examined two types of validity: content and construct Content validity was established through back translation and adjustments based on TESOL experts' recommendations, while construct validity was assessed using factor analyses Cohen and Morrison (2017) describe construct validity as the measurement of logical relationships among questionnaire items and variables Factor analyses, a multivariate statistical method commonly used in social sciences and education, help identify distinct constructs evaluated by a set of measures (Fabrigar & Wegener, 2011) In quantitative research, Flake et al (2017) note that factor analyses, specifically Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), are standard techniques for validating a questionnaire's construct The writer provided a comprehensive description of the data analysis procedure to enhance readers' understanding of factor analysis.

Data collection procedure

Prior to collecting data for the main study, the researcher obtained permission from the university's vice principal to access the sample She then reached out to an academic staff member in the English department for information regarding the pilot EFL class, which was distinct from the sample After confirming the reliability of the questionnaire in the pilot study, the researcher consulted with experts once more to make final adjustments to the main questionnaire.

The researcher coordinated with English teachers overseeing 11 EFL classes to schedule an appropriate time for the survey, which was conducted two weeks after the initial piloting phase This timing was strategically chosen for several reasons.

The researcher analyzed the internal consistency results of the pilot study and adjusted the questionnaire items according to expert recommendations Subsequently, she prepared for the survey by contacting English teachers from 11 EFL classes, coordinating optimal survey distribution days, and printing the questionnaires.

The researcher conducted the survey during participants' recess, lasting 30 minutes and including a 5-minute introduction that outlined the study's purpose, ensured confidentiality and anonymity, and provided instructions According to Pearlin (1961), anonymity allows respondents to express their true opinions without fear of repercussions A total of 315 paper questionnaires were distributed, resulting in 306 valid responses after data cleaning and screening.

Data analysis procedure

This study employed SPSS version 22.0 and AMOS version 20.0 for the quantitative analysis of data from both the pilot and main studies SPSS, recognized as a leading statistical analysis tool for survey data manipulation (Hinton, McMurray, & Brownlow, 2014), was utilized for descriptive and inferential analyses, as well as various multivariate statistical procedures (Dornyei, 2007) Additionally, AMOS served as an add-on software for conducting conceptual factor analysis, path analysis, and structural equation modeling (Collier).

In her thesis, the researcher employed descriptive statistics, including mean, median, variance, frequency, and standard deviation, to analyze the data properties She specifically focused on nominal data, such as genders and departments, calculating the percentage and frequency of these control variables This analysis yielded essential insights for describing the sample effectively.

The researcher conducted an analysis of normality distributions to assess whether the continuous data were normally distributed around the mean after applying Cronbach’s alpha This step is crucial, as non-normal data can skew the mean, which is regarded as the representative value (Abu-Bader, 2021) Additionally, many inferential analyses, including Pearson correlation coefficients, T-tests, ANOVA, and multiple regression, require the dependent variable to follow a normal distribution as a prerequisite for further analysis (Abu-Bader, 2021) In this study, the researcher evaluated the normality of the WTC distributions by examining the skewness and kurtosis coefficients.

After confirming the normality of the study, the researcher utilized a Correlation Matrix to evaluate its suitability for factor analyses and multiple regression (Schott, 2016; Forrester & Zhang, 2020) In this analysis, both the p values and correlation coefficients were analyzed, with a two-tailed p value of less than 0.05 indicating a significant association between the variables The linear association values range from -1 to 1, reflecting the strength and direction of the relationship (Galbraith et al., 2002).

The correlation matrix analysis is essential for assessing multicollinearity in a study (Olivoto et al., 2017) As noted by Senaviratna and Cooray (2019), multicollinearity arises when the correlation coefficient exceeds 0.8 or 0.9, making its identification a vital step prior to conducting factor analyses In this study, the researcher examined multicollinearity among independent variables such as self-confidence, communicative apprehension, motivation, language class risk-taking, classroom atmosphere, and topic, in relation to the dependent variable, willingness to communicate (WTC) Recognizing multicollinearity is crucial as it can significantly impact the results of the multiple regression model, potentially diminishing the precision of estimated coefficients (Jurczyk, 2012) To identify this issue, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was utilized as a detection method.

In the study, multicollinearity was assessed using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF), with values exceeding 5 indicating potential issues (Knight, 2018; Kutner et al., 2004) To enhance the analysis, the researcher identified and removed redundant features, ensuring that multicollinearity was addressed prior to conducting factor analysis.

Factor analysis is a statistical method used to identify the underlying factors that influence the relationships among observed variables (Child, 2006) This technique allows researchers to condense multiple related measures into a smaller set of representative variables (Kline, 2014), facilitating the grouping of variables based on their correlations In quantitative research, factor analysis encompasses two primary techniques: Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) EFA is utilized to validate scales by assessing the correlations between observed and latent variables through factor loadings, while CFA focuses on evaluating construct validity via convergent and discriminant validity (Marsh et al., 2020).

In this thesis, prerequisite analyses, specifically the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity, were performed prior to conducting Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) The KMO value assesses the adequacy of the sample size for factor analysis, with values between 0.7 and 0.9 considered good, and a value above 0.5 deemed acceptable (Field, 2000) Bartlett’s Test evaluates the homogeneity of group variances, enabling the testing of the null hypothesis, with a significant value below 0.05 indicating suitability for further analysis (Field, 2014; Pallant, 2020).

After evaluating Bartlett’s Test, the researcher employed Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to condense numerous items into broader variable groups, thereby simplifying the dataset's description through factor extraction This statistical method enabled her to identify representative components, with Eigenvalues being calculated prior to factor rotation, as they serve as crucial indicators in the analysis.

78 the amount of variance of observed variables explained by a factor (Lasen and Warne, 2010) Regarding the Eigenvalues, a factor with an Eigenvalue greater than

Factor retention indicates that a factor explains more variance than a single observed variable (Loewen & Gonulal, 2015) Hair et al (2010) emphasize that factors should collectively account for at least 50% of the total variance to ensure practical significance in factor extraction The determination of retained factors also relies on scree plots, which compare Eigenvalues greater than 1 (Hair, 1995) Numerous studies have utilized scree plots to visually assess and contrast Eigenvalue results for breaks (Khatib & Nourzadeh, 2015; Lee & Drajati, 2020; Peng & Woodrow, 2010).

The identified factors were rotated to simplify interpretation, allowing the researcher to reduce complexity by eliminating variables with low factor loadings (Abdi, 2003) This factor rotation aims to achieve a clearer and more optimal structure, thereby enhancing the researcher’s understanding of the relationships among variables.

In this study, the researcher utilized Promax rotation to effectively identify the simple structure of items, as supported by Finch (2006) and Tabachnick & Fidell (2001) Promax rotation is advantageous for factor analysis due to its ability to handle large inter-factor correlations According to Hair et al (1995), items with a factor loading above 0.3 are considered acceptable, while those exceeding 0.5 are deemed practically significant The researcher focused on retaining items with factor loadings greater than 0.5 for further analysis, as those with lower loadings could fail to explain a substantial portion of the variance (Hair et al., 2010) Ultimately, factor rotation plays a crucial role in determining the number of factors retained in this study.

The final stage of factor analysis was CFA, which is utilized to validate the factor structure of a group of observed variables by running IBM AMOS version

20 With CFA, researchers are able to examine the relationship between observed variables and latent constructs (Lewis, 2017) In other words, the CFA allows the investigators to bridge the gap between the variables built into theory and the actual observed variables Furthermore, CFA assists them in measuring the study's model fit and identifying parameter estimation via structural equation modeling (SEM)

In the context of the CFA, the study evaluated the differences between two types of variables by examining convergent and discriminant validity Convergent validity assesses whether a theoretical construct correlates with its practical counterpart, indicating the effectiveness of selected indicators in estimating a latent variable (Lim & Lee, 2013) Conversely, discriminant validity ensures that the psychometric structure of a construct is appropriate, allowing researchers to distinguish between different variables According to Hair et al (2010), a study achieves validity when its composite reliability (CR) exceeds 0.7 and its average variance extracted (AVE) surpasses 0.5, indicating strong convergent validity Additionally, for discriminant validity to be confirmed, the maximum shared variance (MSV) must be lower than the AVE (Hair et al., 2017).

In structural equation modeling, several indices in Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) are crucial for assessing model fit The relative chi-square should be less than 2 or 3, with a p-value greater than 0.05, and the ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom (χ2/df) must be below 2 Additionally, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) should exceed 0.9, the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) should be lower than 0.08, and the Goodness of Fit (GIF) should be greater than 0.95 However, many studies have considered a GIF value between 0.80 and 0.89 as indicative of a reasonable fit.

80 the PARSCALE Close (PCLOSE) index, are suggested being lower than 0.08 (Costello & Osborne, 2017), and the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) must be over 0.90 (Harrington, 2009)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of Cronbach’s Alpha analysis

4.1.1 The Cronbach’s Alpha results of the piloting

The results of reliability of seven subscales in the piloting survey which were displayed in table 4.1 were WTC (𝛼 = 0.948), CONFI (𝛼 = 0.857), CA

The reliability of the questionnaire used in the pilot study was confirmed, as all subscales demonstrated acceptable coefficient alpha values exceeding the cut-off of 0.7, with specific values recorded as follows: MOTIV (α = 0.94), ATMOS (α = 0.894), TOPIC (α = 0.837), RISK (α = 0.877), and overall (α = 0.777) A detailed table of the Cronbach’s Alpha results from the piloting phase is available in Appendix 3, supporting the questionnaire's reliability as outlined by Gardner (1995) and Cortina (1993).

Table 4.1 Cronbach’s Alpha for the pilot study

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate; TOPIC = Topic interest; ATMOS Classroom atmosphere; CONFI = Self-confidence; RISK = Language class risk- taking; CA = Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV = Learning Motivation

4.1.2 The Cronbach’s Alpha results of the main study

Table 4.2 demonstrates that all subscales exhibit high Cronbach’s alpha values, ranging from 0.800 to 0.942, indicating strong internal consistency However, items CA3, MOTIV 4, ATMOS3, and ATMOS6 were identified with corrected item-total correlation values below 0.3, leading the researcher to exclude them from the questionnaire This decision was made to enhance the reliability of the summed scale, as these items indicated low associations within the scale (Pallant, 2020).

Table 4.2: The Cronbach’s Alpha result of the subscales for the main study

Scales Cronbach’s alpha Items The value of corrected item-total correlation

Note: WTC: Willingness to communicate; TOPIC: Topic interest; ATMOS:

Classroom atmosphere; CONFI: Self-confidence; RISK: Language class risk- taking; CA: Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV: Learning Motivation

After removing items with a corrected item-total correlation below 0.3, the researcher re-evaluated the internal consistency of three variables: communication apprehension, motivation, and classroom atmosphere, using Cronbach’s alpha This second analysis yielded significantly improved results, indicating that the removal of items that did not meet the internal consistency criterion enhanced the reliability of the scales used in the study Detailed findings from the Cronbach’s Alpha analysis can be found in Appendix 4.

Table 4.3 The coefficient alpha of all variables in the second run of

Number Variables Coefficient Alpha in the main study in the 1 st run

Coefficient Alpha in the main study in the 2 nd run

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate; TOPIC = Topic interest; ATMOS Classroom atmosphere; CONFI = Self-confidence; RISK = Language class risk- taking; CA = Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV = Learning Motivation

Test for normality

To assess the normal distribution of the questionnaire items, researchers examined the Skewness and Kurtosis values A normal distribution is confirmed when the Skewness value (z-value) falls within an acceptable range.

The normality of all items in the study was confirmed, with Skewness values ranging from -1.295 to 0.154 and Kurtosis values between -0.570 and 1.329, adhering to the criteria set by Brown (2006) Consequently, the study ensures that all scales follow a normal distribution.

Table 4.4 Descriptive statistics of participants’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms (N = 306)

Mean Std Deviation Skewness Kurtosis

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate; TOPIC = Topic interest; ATMOS = Classroom atmosphere; CONFI = Self-confidence; RISK = Language class risk-taking; CA = Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV = Learning Motivation

The result of correlation matrix

The correlation matrix indices, detailed in Appendix 5, indicate significant relationships among variables, as evidenced by a p-value less than 0.05 and Pearson correlation coefficients ranging from 0.367 to 0.577, which avoids multicollinearity concerns Notably, most variables showed positive correlations with willingness to communicate (WTC), including topic interest (p = 0.000; r = 0.367), classroom atmosphere (p = 0.000; r = 0.483), self-confidence (p = 0.000; r = 0.527), language class risk-taking (p = 0.000; r = 0.441), and learning motivation (p = 0.000; r = 0.577) In contrast, communication apprehension exhibited a negative correlation with WTC (p = 0.000; r = -0.536).

The result of Multicollinearity

After examining the linear relationships among all variables, the researcher conducted a multicollinearity test to remove any invalid variables that could compromise the accuracy of the factor analysis The findings of the multicollinearity assessment are detailed in the table below.

Table 4.6 The statistical results of multicollinearity test

B Std Error Beta Tolerance VIF

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate; TOPIC = Topic interest; ATMOS Classroom atmosphere; CONFI = Self-confidence; RISK = Language class risk-taking;

CA = Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV = Learning Motivation

Table 4.6 shows that the VIF indices for all variables were below 5, confirming the absence of multicollinearity in the study (Bowerman & O'Connell, 2017) Furthermore, the correlations among the variables were less than 0.9, reinforcing the lack of multicollinearity, as such issues typically arise with correlation values exceeding 0.9 (Olivoto et al., 2017) This finding supports the previous assertion regarding the removal of multicollinearity from the thesis, indicating that all variables met the necessary criteria for factor analysis.

The results of Exploratory Factor Analysis

4.5.1 The results of Exploratory Factor Analysis for six factors

4.5.1.1 The first round of running EFA

Following the confirmation of no multicollinearity, the researcher evaluated two prerequisite tests for Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) as presented in Table 4.7 The KMO measure of 0.905 indicates that the sampling adequacy is appropriate for factor analysis Additionally, Bartlett’s test yielded a p-value below 0.05, suggesting that the observed variables possess equal variances (Pallant, 2011) Consequently, it was determined that the data is suitable for factor analysis.

Table 4.7 KMO and Bartlett's Test Results in the first EFA round

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy

The researcher evaluated the Eigenvalues from the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to understand the variance explained by each factor As shown in Table 4.8, six factors were retained due to their Eigenvalues being greater than 1 The total extracted variance accounted for 59.38%, indicating a significant factor extraction, as it exceeded the 50% threshold (Hair et al., 2010).

Table 4.8 Total variance explained by extracted components in the first EFA round

Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings a Total

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis a When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance

The results of the Promax rotation with factor loading, presented in Table 4.9, indicate that most items exhibited high factor loadings between 0.651 and 0.853 (Hair et al., 1995) However, item RISK 4 showed a low factor loading of 0.402, while items MOTIV 2 (with loadings of 0.599 on component 1 and 0.522 on component 2) and ATMOS 9 (0.502 on component 1 and 0.503 on component 4) displayed cross factor loadings, as they correlated with two different factors (Kline, 2017) Consequently, the researcher eliminated these items and re-conducted the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to enhance the measurement accuracy of the factors.

Table 4.9 Rotated component matrix in the first EFA round for the factors

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis

Rotation Method: Promax with Kaiser Normalization a Rotation converged in 6 iterations

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate; TOPIC = Topic interest; ATMOS Classroom atmosphere; CONFI = Self-confidence; RISK = Language class risk-taking;

CA = Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV = Learning Motivation

4.5.1.2 The second round of running EFA

The results from the second round of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) are summarized in the following tables, showing a KMO index of 0.905 and a Bartlett's test p-value of 0.000 (Table 4.10), indicating strong factorability in this analysis.

Table 4.10 KMO and Bartlett's Test Results in the second EFA round

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .905

The current Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) revealed a six-factor solution that accounted for 58.556% of the total variance, surpassing the results of the initial EFA attempt The presence of greater-than-1 eigenvalues for these six factors indicates that they collectively explain a significant portion of the variance among the 34 items analyzed.

Table 4.11 Total variance explained by extracted components in the second EFA round

Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared

Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings a Total % of

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis a When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance

In the second exploratory factor analysis (EFA), 34 items were retained due to their factor loadings exceeding 0.5, indicating a strong relationship between the observed items and the latent factors The analysis demonstrated a robust structure of the variable group, supported by indices such as KMO, Bartlett's test, Eigenvalues, and factor loadings For further visualization, the scree plot can be found in Appendix 5.

Table 4.12 Rotated component matrix in the second EFA round for the factors

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring

Rotation Method: Promax with Kaiser Normalization a Rotation converged in 6 iterations

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate; TOPIC = Topic interest; ATMOS Classroom atmosphere; CONFI = Self-confidence; RISK = Language class risk-taking;

CA = Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV = Learning Motivation\

4.5.2 The EFA results for WTC

The exploratory factor analysis demonstrated a KMO value of 0.961, confirming the suitability of the data for analysis Additionally, Bartlett’s Test yielded a significant p-value of 0.000, indicating strong evidence against the null hypothesis and further validating the factor analysis approach (Table 4.13).

Table 4.13 KMO and Bartlett's Test Results in the EFA for WTC

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .961

Table 4.14 Total variance explained by extracted components of WTC

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis

Table 4.15 Rotated component matrix for WTC

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis a 1 components extracted

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate

Table 4.14 reveals that one component accounts for 65.971% of the total variance, with an Eigenvalue of 6.597, which exceeds 1 Additionally, Table 4.15 indicates a strong relationship between the variable and the observed items.

The analysis revealed that all 100 loadings were above 0.5, indicating a meaningful and coherent underlying structure in the data (Hair et al., 1995) This clear interpretation of the factor solution serves as a solid foundation for the subsequent analysis of the structural equation model.

The result of Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The data evaluated in the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) were utilized for a comprehensive Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to ascertain the dimensionality of the scale The model's fit was assessed using various indices, as illustrated in Figure 4.1 and detailed in Table 4.16.

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate; TOPIC = Topic interest; ATMOS Classroom atmosphere; CONFI = Self-confidence; RISK = Language class risk-taking;

CA = Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV = Learning Motivation

Figure 4.1 The result of Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Table 4.16 The indices of goodness of model fit

CMIN/DF (Chi-square p value)

GFI RMSEA TLI CFI PCLOSE

Recommended values < 3 ≥ 0.8 < 0.08 > 0.90 > 0.9 > 0.05 The study’s model fit 1.226 0.865 0.027 0.973 0.975 1.000

The model fit for the thesis was confirmed as all key indices met the recommended criteria, with chi-square/df at 1.226, GFI at 0.865, CFI at 0.975, TLI at 0.973, RMSEA at 0.027, and PCLOSE at 1.000.

The model fit was validated through convergent and discriminant validity results As shown in Table 4.17, the composite reliability (CR) for all variables exceeded 0.7, indicating strong reliability Specifically, the CR values were: classroom atmosphere (0.938), learning motivation (0.901), language class risk-taking (0.859), and communication apprehension.

The study demonstrated strong construct validity, with all variables showing acceptable composite reliability (CR), including WTC (CR = 0.943), topic interest (CR = 0.854), and self-confidence (CR = 0.831) Additionally, the average variance extracted (AVE) for each variable exceeded 0.5, confirming convergent validity The measurement scales also exhibited discriminant validity, as the maximum shared variance (MSV) values were lower than the AVE These findings indicate that the scales used in this thesis meet the established criteria for construct validity (Hair et al., 2017).

Table 4.17 The result of the scales’ convergent validity and discriminant validity

CR AVE MSV ATMOS WTC MOTIV RISK CA TOPIC CONFI

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate; TOPIC = Topic interest; ATMOS = Classroom atmosphere; CONFI = Self- confidence; RISK = Language class risk-taking; CA = Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV = Learning Motivation

Hypothesis testing for addressing the two first research question

The study investigated the interrelationships between various factors and non-English major students' willingness to communicate (WTC) in EFL classrooms, following the validation of the research instrument's reliability Six hypotheses were tested: H1 posits that self-confidence enhances WTC; H2 suggests that communication apprehension diminishes WTC; H3 indicates that learning motivation boosts WTC; H4 asserts that risk-taking in language classes encourages WTC; H5 claims that interest in topics increases WTC; and H6 concludes that a positive classroom atmosphere fosters WTC.

The hypotheses were formulated to address the initial research questions, specifically examining the positive relationships between self-confidence, learning motivation, and language class risk-taking with learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) through hypotheses 1, 3, and 4 Additionally, hypothesis 2 was utilized to explore the negative correlation between communication apprehension and WTC, addressing question 1b For the second research question, hypotheses 5 and 6 were considered to investigate the positive correlation of two situational factors with WTC.

Before assessing the hypotheses, several fit indexes of the structural model shown in Table 4.18 were considered in comparison with the suggested criteria (Marsh & Hau,

The SEM model demonstrated a strong fit to the data, as indicated by the following metrics: CMIN/DF = 1.239, RMSEA = 0.028, TLI = 0.971, CFI = 0.973, and PCLOSE = 1.000, all of which meet or exceed the recommended thresholds Although the GFI was slightly lower at 0.864, it is still considered acceptable according to Hu and Bentler (1999), as values close to 0.9 indicate a good fit Overall, the results suggest that the SEM model effectively represents the data, as illustrated in Figure 4.2.

Table 4.18 The structural model index

CMIN/DF (Chi-square p value) GFI RMSEA TLI CFI PCLOSE

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate; TOPIC = Topic interest; ATMOS Classroom atmosphere; CONFI = Self-confidence; RISK = Language class risk-taking;

CA = Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV = Learning Motivation

The researcher analyzed the connections between personal factors such as self-confidence, learning motivation, communication apprehension, and risk-taking in language classes, alongside situational factors like topic interest and classroom atmosphere, in relation to willingness to communicate (WTC) The findings, presented in Table 4.19, include p-values, standardized regression coefficients (𝛽), and effect sizes (𝑓 ! ), with additional details available in Appendix 6.

Table 4.19 The results of path coefficients and effect sizes of the relationship between WTC and factors

Strength of effect Report the hypothesis

H1 Self-confidence à WTC 000 350 527 0.278 0.385 large effect Supported

Learning motivation àWTC 0.000 319 577 0.333 0.499 large effect Supported H4

Note: WTC = Willingness to communicate

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Self-confidence positively correlates with non-English major tertiary students’ WTC in language classroom

The study revealed a significant and beneficial relationship between self-confidence and willingness to communicate (WTC), as indicated by a beta value of 0.35 and a p-value of less than 0.001 This suggests that higher self-confidence correlates with increased WTC Additionally, the R-squared value of 0.278 shows that self-confidence accounts for approximately 27.8% of the variability in WTC, with a large effect size of 0.385 further emphasizing the strong association Consequently, hypothesis 1 was accepted, confirming the high correlation between self-confidence and WTC.

Research shows that students with higher self-confidence are more likely to engage in communicative activities in language classrooms, especially among non-English majors Confident individuals tend to express themselves more fluently and comfortably, aligning with studies by Peng and Woodrow (2010), Lee and Lee (2019), and others, which highlight the positive correlation between self-confidence and second language acquisition This is particularly important as learners often face language anxiety, but those with greater self-assurance are less nervous and more willing to participate in language use (Bensalem & Thompson, 2022) Additionally, Adalikwu (2012) notes that confident learners are more open to speaking despite potential mistakes, indicating a readiness to improve their linguistic skills.

Self-confidence is closely linked to an individual's perception of their communication skills Research by Wang (2020) indicates that students who view themselves as competent communicators exhibit greater confidence in articulating their thoughts Consequently, these confident learners are more inclined to engage actively in discussions during language classes.

Self-confidence plays a crucial role in effective communication, as individuals who believe in their abilities are more inclined to engage in conversations, share their views, and take risks in language learning environments Research by Takahashi and Beebe (2016) indicates that high self-confidence significantly predicts language learners' willingness to communicate (WTC), highlighting its impact on thoughts and behaviors in various contexts.

Descriptive statistics reveal that non-English major participants exhibit varying levels of self-confidence in English communication The highest mean score was recorded for the statement "I am confident I can talk about myself in English" (M = 3.29, SD = 0.843), followed by discussing personal experiences, such as "what I did last weekend" (M = 2.83, SD = 0.936) In contrast, confidence in delivering oral presentations was notably lower (M = 2.16, SD = 0.979) This suggests that participants feel more at ease discussing personal topics, aligning with findings from studies by Yashima (2002), Wong (2012), and Chen and Hung (2019), which indicate that EFL learners are more willing to engage in conversations about subjects they are familiar with, enhancing their confidence in communication.

In conclusion, the positive relationship between self-confidence and WTC orally was confirmed through both the interpreted results of the SEM model and descriptive statistics

Hypothesis 2 (H2): Communication apprehension negatively correlates with non-English major tertiary students’ WTC in language classroom

The SEM model results in Table 4.19 reveal a significantly negative relationship between communication apprehension and willingness to communicate (WTC), with a coefficient of 𝛽 = -0.359 and a p-value less than 0.001 Consequently, the researcher accepted hypothesis 2 Additionally, the analysis indicated a notable strength of association between these variables.

111 large effect with 𝑅 ! = 0.287, 𝑓 ! = 0.403 This meant that higher levels of communication apprehension were strongly correlated with lower levels of WTC

The study revealed that students experienced the highest anxiety when speaking English in front of peers, with a mean score of 4.04 They also expressed significant nervousness regarding oral tasks, averaging 3.99 Additionally, students reported a fear of making mistakes while speaking, with a mean of 3.50 Conversely, their anxiety decreased when they felt well-prepared for speaking tasks, reflected in a mean score of 3.43 Appendix 7 provides further details on the scale range used to interpret these responses.

Participants with high communication apprehension are often less willing to engage in speaking activities within language classrooms Numerous studies indicate that many language learners feel unprepared to participate actively due to embarrassment and fear of making mistakes or expressing differing opinions (O'Sullivan & Gudykunst, 2019; Rezvani & Mohammadi, 2018; Horwitz, 2010; Phillips, 2015) This reluctance is particularly pronounced in Asian cultures, where there is a strong emphasis on harmony and conformity, leading to heightened concerns about critical evaluation (Shao & Gao, 2016).

The thesis's statistical findings align with previous research indicating that public speaking anxiety significantly impacts language learners' willingness to engage in EFL classrooms This anxiety often stems from fears of negative judgment and embarrassment among peers Additionally, concerns about making mistakes and facing criticism can hinder students' readiness to participate in public speaking activities (Seo & Kang, 2018) Learners frequently lack comfort and confidence when required to present orally in tertiary EFL classes, likely due to their prior education focusing on grammar rather than communicative skills Furthermore, insufficient exposure to English in real-life contexts contributes to their reluctance to engage in discussions.

A study by Hoang (2019) involving 141 Vietnamese students revealed that a lack of real-world communication opportunities and an emphasis on test-focused curricula contributed to their anxiety about speaking This finding aligns with the experiences of students who engage in speaking tasks with their teachers and peers, highlighting the importance of practical communication in reducing anxiety.

The study revealed that participants experienced less anxiety when they prepared thoroughly for their presentations, indicating that increased preparation enhances their confidence in language classes When individuals engage in adequate preparation—such as brainstorming, organizing ideas, practicing with peers, and receiving constructive feedback—they are more inclined to perform effectively in the target language Conversely, lack of preparation leads to heightened anxiety and forgetfulness, resulting in a reluctance to engage in speaking activities This highlights a significant negative correlation between communication apprehension and willingness to communicate (WTC) in a language learning environment.

Results of research question 3

4.8.1 Differences between males and females in terms of willingness to communicate orally in Vietnamese EFL classrooms

After testing the six hypotheses to address the two first research questions, the researcher ran an independent samples T-test to examine if there is a difference in WTC

The T-test results, detailed in Tables 4.20 and 4.21, indicate a significant difference in oral communication skills between genders, with a p-value of 0.049 from Levene’s Test confirming the homogeneity of variance.

Table 4.20 The result of Independent Samples T-test

Table 4.21 The statistic result of genders

Levene's Test for Equality of

Variances T-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper

A comparison of the mean scores between two groups revealed no significant difference, with a two-tailed significance value of 0.827 and t(306) = -0.219 (Table 4.20) Although females (M = 3.3740, SD = 0.48164) showed slightly higher readiness to speak compared to males (M = 3.3608, SD = 0.53030), the disparity in their mean scores was minimal Consequently, gender did not significantly influence willingness to communicate (WTC) orally.

This study challenges previous research on gender differences in willingness to communicate (WTC), as Wright (1999) found that girls exhibit a higher WTC in class than boys, potentially due to earlier emotional maturity Additionally, Gholami (2015) suggests that emotional intelligence plays a significant role in WTC disparities, with female students demonstrating higher emotional intelligence, leading to greater interest in communication and improved language proficiency compared to their male peers (Alavinia & Alikhani, 2014).

The findings align with numerous prior studies indicating no significant difference in the preference for speaking activities between male and female students (Rezaee & Ghanbarpoor, 2022; Peng & Woodrow, 2010; ệz et al., 2015) This suggests that factors beyond gender may influence the willingness to engage in oral communication Cultural variations also play a role; as noted by Nanda (2014), different cultures exhibit distinct socialization practices and gender norms, which can affect communication behaviors Consequently, this research did not identify variations in willingness to communicate (WTC) between genders within the same cultural context Additionally, the WTC model is a complex construct shaped by various personal and situational factors, including personality traits, self-confidence, language anxiety, and learning motivation.

123 interlocutors, classroom atmosphere, task interest, and socialization experiences (Lee, Lee,

4.8.2 Differences among departments in terms of willingness to communicate orally in Vietnamese EFL classrooms

Table 4.22 reveals the analysis of willingness to communicate (WTC) among learners from six departments: Sociology, Philosophy, Tourism and Communication, History, Geography, and Literature The findings indicate that Geography students exhibited the lowest WTC mean score of 3.32 (SD = 0.56), while those majoring in Tourism and Communication achieved the highest score of 3.50 (SD = 0.51) The mean WTC scores for the remaining departments were as follows: Sociology and History at 3.35, Philosophy at 3.43, and Literature at 3.41.

The one-way ANOVA results indicated a sig-value of 0.34, exceeding the threshold of 𝛼 = 0.005, suggesting no significant difference in willingness to communicate (WTC) among non-English major participants from various departments This finding aligns with Ghonsooly, Khajavy, and Asadpour (2012), who noted minimal variation in learning motivation and language anxiety among Iranian non-English majors, though eagerness to speak in EFL classrooms remained consistent The lack of significant differences in WTC may be attributed to comparable language exposure, as all participants followed the same English program with uniform lesson periods and activity opportunities Additionally, similar language proficiency, determined through a placement test, may have influenced the results, as suggested by Tajeddin & Mesbah (2013).

A one-way ANOVA test was conducted to assess the differences in respondents' willingness to speak, revealing significant relevance among four key factors: self-confidence and communication.

The study found no significant differences in freshmen's eagerness to use English for oral purposes across different departments, as indicated by two-tailed significance values (p) greater than 0.05 for apprehension, learning motivation, and classroom atmosphere This suggests that these factors may strongly contribute to the overall lack of substantial variation in students' motivation to engage in English communication.

Table 4.22 The results of One-way ANOVA test

WTC CONFI CA MOTIV ATMOS

Note: WTC: Willingness to communicate; ATMOS: Classroom atmosphere; CONFI: Self-confidence; CA: Communicative

In summary, the study revealed that demographic factors such as gender and department do not significantly influence Vietnamese non-English major students' readiness for communicative activities Instead, these students are more likely to engage in oral expressions when they feel confident and are motivated by a supportive classroom environment, particularly with encouragement from their language teachers Additionally, communicative apprehension can lead to silence among these students Therefore, language teachers should foster participation in communicative activities by using supportive verbal and non-verbal cues, incorporating engaging tasks, and creating a fearless classroom atmosphere, which will enhance students' confidence and motivation to speak.

Statistical analyses revealed that non-English major students' willingness to communicate (WTC) was significantly influenced by three personal factors: self-confidence, communication apprehension, and learning motivation Additionally, the classroom atmosphere had a moderate impact on their participation in speaking activities Notably, learning motivation emerged as the most significant factor affecting these students' in-class engagement.

The research revealed no significant relationship between Vietnamese freshmen's willingness to communicate (WTC) in language classes and their risk-taking or interest in topics It was found that students would be more inclined to speak if they felt confident in their language skills, and their oral readiness could improve with heightened motivation However, anxiety about making mistakes or fear of ridicule from peers hindered their ability to express themselves confidently A supportive classroom environment, characterized by a friendly teacher and cooperative classmates, can enhance students' readiness for oral tasks Additionally, the study indicated that there were no differences in WTC among non-English major students from various backgrounds.

The upcoming chapter will present valuable suggestions for language teachers aimed at enhancing their students' motivation to speak Additionally, these findings may provide support for various related studies in the field.

127 findings and contribute to the theory of WTC, which helps emphasize its role in both teaching and learning a foreign language

CONCLUSION

Summary of the findings

Chapter 4 reveals that EFL freshmen's willingness to participate in speaking tasks is influenced by four key factors: self-confidence, communication apprehension, learning motivation, and classroom atmosphere Among these, learning motivation significantly drives students' eagerness to engage in oral activities, particularly as they recognize the importance of English for their academic success and future careers Additionally, a negative correlation between communication apprehension and learners' readiness to speak highlights the necessity of fostering a fearless classroom environment to reduce reticence The findings also indicate that self-confidence and a supportive classroom atmosphere positively affect EFL learners' communicative engagement Teachers' verbal and non-verbal behaviors, such as friendly smiles and motivating teaching methods, play a crucial role in encouraging students to express their opinions on various topics.

This study revealed no correlation between first-year students' willingness to communicate (WTC) and their risk-taking in language classes Instead, students attributed their motivation to engage in conversation to other influences, including self-confidence and teacher support.

The study revealed that EFL students demonstrated a preference for discussing familiar topics where they possessed relevant knowledge and vocabulary, rather than simply choosing topics based on interest Additionally, the findings indicated that students' willingness to communicate orally did not differ based on gender or among various social science departments.

Implications

The findings of this study highlight the importance of enhancing willingness to communicate (WTC) among tertiary students in an EFL context It suggests that understanding the factors influencing oral WTC can significantly change students' perceptions regarding the value of active engagement in EFL classrooms Specifically, students should recognize the advantages of participating in speaking activities designed by teachers, as their enthusiasm for these tasks is one of the most effective ways to improve their speaking skills.

Active engagement in oral tasks can significantly enhance speaking proficiency, as increased exposure to English allows for more fluent and flexible use of diverse lexical and linguistic features.

A positive correlation exists between self-confidence and willingness to communicate (WTC) in EFL classrooms, highlighting the importance of fostering self-assurance in English usage through daily practice, despite fears of making mistakes Students with a strong self-perception of their English communication skills are more likely to actively participate in class, resulting in significant improvements in their academic performance (Becker & Roos, 2016) Conversely, high levels of communication apprehension negatively impact students' willingness to speak, suggesting that addressing this anxiety is crucial for enhancing learners' eagerness to engage in English language learning.

Language anxiety is a common challenge faced by foreign language learners, and it's important for them to recognize this as a normal part of the learning process To combat communication apprehension, learners should actively seek support from teachers and peers, sharing their difficulties and seeking advice Additionally, consistent practice in speaking English, both in and out of the classroom, can significantly enhance fluency and accuracy, ultimately leading to improved oral skills Embracing mistakes and engaging in communication will foster a greater willingness to express ideas and contribute to overall language proficiency.

Learners who actively engage with tasks can greatly benefit from receiving constructive feedback from both teachers and peers, which significantly enhances their learning progress.

(2021) assert that corrective feedback on individuals’ mistakes brings beneficial values for their improvement in communicative competence Another good value of constructive feedback is to foster a supportive classroom atmosphere (Park,

2016) It could lead to an increase in individuals’ readiness to participate in speaking activities

The thesis highlights the crucial role of educators in enhancing students' willingness to communicate (WTC) in language classrooms It discusses implications for English teachers, focusing on both personal and situational factors that influence motivation The study reveals that EFL students are significantly motivated by their teachers' verbal and nonverbal behaviors, particularly feeling encouraged to participate when they encounter friendly smiles and patient interactions These findings suggest that language teachers should adopt a positive perspective on students' language anxiety to effectively foster engagement in classroom activities.

To alleviate students' fear of learning a foreign language, educators should adopt tailored approaches that foster a supportive environment Providing positive reinforcement, such as compliments for students' efforts in using the target language, can enhance their self-perceived communicative competence Additionally, teachers' patience in responding to students encourages more frequent use of English in the classroom, ultimately motivating learners to engage more actively in language acquisition.

In 2017, students expressed joy in sharing their perspectives, feeling valued as teachers actively listened, offered gentle smiles, and provided supportive feedback on their diverse responses to tasks.

To enhance student participation, EFL teachers should foster a positive classroom environment by implementing diverse teaching strategies, including games and interactive activities (Peng, 2020) These games serve as effective tools for stimulating psychological engagement, thereby improving students' focus and memory retention (Hartt, Hosseini).

Games play a crucial role in language learning by fostering cooperation and healthy competition among students, enhancing their communication skills and reducing anxiety Additionally, incorporating interactive activities like role-play, pair work, group work, and storytelling in language classrooms can significantly boost learners' communicative competence These engaging tasks stimulate curiosity and encourage active participation, providing students with ample opportunities to practice the target language orally Ultimately, such interactive approaches not only spark interest in communicative tasks but also improve overall language performance.

The study revealed that students are more willing to engage in discussions about familiar topics, particularly when it involves sharing personal experiences Consequently, educators can enhance students' willingness to communicate (WTC) in language classrooms by creating tailored speaking lessons that foster confidence and encourage self-expression.

To enhance students' familiarity with speaking topics, teachers can implement pre-speaking activities, such as engaging questions, guessing games, board games, and group discussions (Seỗer, Şahin, & Alcı, 2015) These strategies not only deepen learners' understanding of the main topic but also expand their vocabulary through brainstorming and exploring relevant lexical resources Providing clear instructions for each task enables students to meet requirements effectively, fostering their confidence to present in class Additionally, EFL teachers can invigorate the classroom environment by integrating diverse teaching methods, like total physical response and project-based learning, which can significantly increase student motivation and interest in learning English.

The literature review emphasizes the importance of enhancing learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) in EFL classrooms While students and teachers significantly contribute to this readiness, school administrators must recognize the advantages of language learning and implement essential curriculum changes By incorporating more interactive lessons, students can increase their exposure to English in practice (Thaine, 2010) Additionally, integrating speaking and listening assessments into final evaluations will support learners in developing their oral skills.

To enhance language proficiency, school administrators should organize workshops and training sessions for teachers, focusing on effective implementation of interactive tasks and strategies to reduce student reticence in classrooms These sessions will also create a platform for experienced educators to share valuable insights and effective strategies for overcoming challenges in teaching.

In English classrooms, understanding the factors that affect students' willingness to communicate (WTC) is crucial for teachers (Knight, 1992) By recognizing these determinants, educators can implement effective strategies recommended by their peers to address communication challenges faced by students.

Limitations and recommendations

Every research study has its limitations, and this one is no exception The reliance on self-reported questionnaires may not fully capture the intricate relationships between trait factors, situational factors, and willingness to speak While the quantitative data offers statistical insights, it may lack the depth needed to fully understand these relationships To mitigate this limitation, Creswell (2012) recommends complementing the quantitative findings with qualitative methods in subsequent phases, thereby reducing biases and enhancing the overall comprehension of the research topic Future studies should consider this approach for a more thorough exploration.

Qualitative research methods, such as class observations and interviews, can offer valuable insights into students' behaviors and perceptions regarding their willingness to speak (WTC) in language tasks Additionally, employing a quasi-experimental design in future studies could help determine whether an increase in students' WTC in a second language (L2) leads to improved language proficiency.

The current study primarily examined first-year social science students, which may explain the lack of significant differences in oral willingness to communicate (WTC) among students from various departments This limitation suggests the need for further research that includes both social and natural science students to better understand how departmental differences influence their readiness to speak in English classrooms Previous research by Vahdany and Gerivani (2016) highlighted distinct characteristics and language needs between social and natural science students, potentially affecting their participation in language activities Additionally, future studies should involve high school students to explore new factors impacting their speaking performance.

Most research on willingness to communicate (WTC) has concentrated on speaking skills, potentially downplaying the significance of students' readiness to engage in written tasks Therefore, further studies are crucial to explore the influence of WTC in writing on academic success and language acquisition Additionally, implementing practical strategies to enhance students' WTC in written assignments could provide valuable insights for educators seeking effective teaching methods.

In summary, this study identifies three limitations and offers several pertinent recommendations, serving as a valuable reference for future research It aims to assist other researchers in uncovering additional factors influencing willingness to communicate (WTC) and in developing effective strategies for Vietnamese EFL classrooms.

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APPENDIX 1A: THE QUESTIONNAIRE IN ENGLISH VERSION

AN INVESTIGATION INTO FACTORS INFLUENCING

NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS’ WILLINGNESS

TO COMMUNICATE ORALLY IN EFL CLASSROOM

PART II: NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS’ WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE ORALLY IN EFL VIETNAMESE CLASSROOMS

This survey is designed to assess your willingness to communicate orally in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom The researcher requests that you express your opinion by circling the number that reflects your readiness to speak English.

- 1 means “I completely disagree with this statement”

- 2 means “I disagree with this statement”

- 3 means “I have no idea with this statement”

- 4 means “I agree with this statement”

- 5 means “I completely agree with this statement”

I am willing to do a role-play standing in front of the class in English (e.g., ordering food in a restaurant) 1 2 3 4 5

I am willing to give a short self- introduction without notes in English to the class

I am willing to give a short speech in

English to the class about my hometown with notes

4 I am willing to translate a spoken utterance from Chinese into English in my group

5 I am willing to ask the teacher in English to repeat what he/she just said in English because I didn’t understand

6 I am willing to do a role-play in English at my desk, with my peer (e.g., ordering food in a restaurant)

7 I am willing to ask my peer sitting next to me in English the meaning of an English word

8 I am willing to ask my group mates in

English the meaning of word I do not know

9 I am willing to ask my group mates in

English how to pronounce a word in

10 I am willing to ask my peer sitting next to me in English how to say an English phrase to express the thoughts in my mind

PART III: FACTORS INFLUENCING NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS’ WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE

This survey aims to explore the factors that affect your willingness to communicate orally in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom The researcher encourages you to share your views on these factors by circling the number that reflects your willingness to speak English.

- 1 means “I completely disagree with this statement”

- 2 means “I disagree with this statement”

- 3 means “I have no idea with this statement”

- 4 means “I agree with this statement”

- 5 means “I completely agree with this statement”

Phát biểu Mức độ thể hiện sự đồng ý

I am confident I can use English vocabulary and expressions that I learned to interact with my teacher or friends

12 I am confident I can talk about myself in English using sentences 1 2 3 4 5

I am confident I can talk about what

I did last weekend using English sentences 1 2 3 4 5

14 I am confident I can do well in oral presentation in English 1 2 3 4 5

15 I feel nervous when I speak in

English in front of other students 1 2 3 4 5

16 I feel anxious if I am asked a question by my teacher 1 2 3 4 5

17 When speaking in English, I can get so nervous that I forget things that I know

18 I feel nervous when I am called upon to perform a task 1 2 3 4 5

19 Even if I am well prepared for class,

20 I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak

21 When it comes to studying English, I put much effort into it 1 2 3 4 5

22 I actively think about what I have learned in my English class 1 2 3 4 5

23 Considering how I study English, I can honestly say that I really try to learn English

24 I don't really have a great desire to learn English 1 2 3 4 5

25 During English class, I would like to have as much English as possible spoken

26 If I had the opportunity to speak

English outside of school, I would speak English as much as possible

27 I find learning English very enjoyable 1 2 3 4 5

28 English is an important subject to me in my college program 1 2 3 4 5

FACTOR 4: LANGUAGE CLASS RISK TAKING

29 At this point, I don’t like trying to express complicated ideas in English in class

30 I don’t like trying out a difficult sentence in class 1 2 3 4 5

31 I like to wait until I know exactly how to use an English word before using it

I prefer to say what I want in

English without worrying about the small details of grammar

33 In class, I prefer to say a sentence to myself before I speak it 1 2 3 4 5

34 I prefer to follow basic sentence models rather than risk misusing the language

35 I like to talk my classmates in

English about movies and series 1 2 3 4 5

36 I like to talk in English about great artist I know in a group discussion 1 2 3 4 5

37 I like to talk to my classmates in

38 I like to talk in English about my favorite sport in a whole-class discussion

39 Tasks designed in English class are useful 1 2 3 4 5

40 Tasks designed in English class are attracting 1 2 3 4 5

41 I know what I am trying to accomplish in English class 1 2 3 4 5

42 Activities in English class are clearly and carefully planned 1 2 3 4 5

43 I work well with other class members 1 2 3 4 5

44 I am friendly to members of English class 1 2 3 4 5

45 I make friends among students in this class 1 2 3 4 5

46 Class assignments are clear, so everyone knows what to do 1 2 3 4 5

47 I help other class members who are having trouble with their work 1 2 3 4 5

48 The teacher provides a timely response to students’ concerns 1 2 3 4 5

49 The teacher is patient in teaching 1 2 3 4 5

50 The teacher smiles at the class while talking 1 2 3 4 5

51 The teacher asks questions that solicit viewpoints or opinions 1 2 3 4 5

APPENDIX 1B: THE QUESTIONNAIRE IN VIETNAMESE VERSION

BẢNG KHẢO SÁT VỀ NHỮNG YẾU TỐ ẢNH HƯỞNG ĐẾN SỰ SẴN LÒNG NÓI TIẾNG ANH TRONG LỚP CỦA SINH VIÊN VIỆT NAM

PHẦN 1: THÔNG TIN CÁ NHÂN

PHẦN 2: SỰ SẴN LÒNG NÓI TIẾNG ANH TRONG LỚP NGOẠI NGỮ

Trong phần này, chúng tôi sẽ đánh giá mức độ sẵn lòng sử dụng tiếng Anh của bạn trong lớp học Xin vui lòng cho biết mức độ đồng ý của bạn với từng phát biểu bằng cách khoanh tròn số tương ứng.

- 1 nghĩa là “Hoàn toàn không đồng ý”

- 3 nghĩa là “Không có ý kiến”

- 5 nghĩa là “Hoàn toàn đồng ý”

Phát biểu Mức độ thể hiện sự đồng ý

Tôi sẵn lòng tham gia hoạt động đóng kịch trong lớp tiếng Anh (Ví dụ: đặt món ăn ở nhà hàng) 1 2 3 4 5

Tôi sẵn sàng giới thiệu ngắn về bản thân với lớp học mà không cần nhìn giấy ghi chú

Tôi sẵn sàng giới thiệu ngắn về quê hương mình bằng tiếng Anh với ghi chú sẵn có

Tôi sẵn lòng dịch một câu phát ngôn tiếng Việt qua tiếng Anh khi làm việc nhóm

Tôi sẵn lòng sử dụng tiếng Anh để nhờ giáo viên nhắc lại những gì giáo viên giảng mà tôi chưa hiểu

Tôi sẵn lòng tham gia hoạt động đóng vai bằng tiếng Anh cùng bạn tại bàn học của tôi (ví dụ: đặt món ăn trong nhà hàng)

7 Tôi sẵn lòng dùng tiếng Anh để hỏi bạn ngồi bên cạnh về nghĩa của các từ

8 Tôi sẵn lòng dùng tiếng Anh để hỏi các bạn trong nhóm nghĩa của từ mà tôi không biết

9 Tôi sẵn lòng dùng tiếng Anh để hỏi các bạn trong nhóm về cách phát âm của một từ tiếng Anh

10 Tôi sẵn lòng dùng tiếng Anh để hỏi bạn kế bên cách nói một cụm từ tiếng Anh diễn đạt suy nghĩ của mình

PHẦN 3: NHỮNG YẾU TỐ ẢNH HƯỞNG ĐẾN SỰ SẴN LÒNG NÓI TIẾNG ANH CỦA SINH VIÊN VIỆT NAM TRONG LỚP HỌC

Trong phần này, các phát biểu được sử dụng để đánh giá mức độ sẵn lòng của bạn trong việc sử dụng tiếng Anh trong lớp học Xin vui lòng cho biết mức độ đồng ý của bạn với từng phát biểu bằng cách khoanh tròn con số phù hợp.

- 1 nghĩa là “Hoàn toàn không đồng ý”

- 3 nghĩa là “Không có ý kiến”

- 5 nghĩa là “Hoàn toàn đồng ý”

Phát biểu Mức độ thể hiện sự đồng ý

YẾU TỐ 1: SỰ TỰ TIN CỦA BẢN THÂN ĐỐI

Tôi tin rằng những từ vựng và cách diễn đạt tiếng Anh mà tôi đã học sẽ giúp tôi giao tiếp hiệu quả với giáo viên và bạn bè.

12 Tôi tin rằng mình có thể dùng nhiều câu tiếng Anh để nói về bản thân 1 2 3 4 5

13 Tôi tin rằng mình có thể dùng nhiều câu tiếng Anh để nói về những việc mình làm cuối tuần trước

14 Tôi tin rằng mình có thể thuyết trình tốt bằng tiếng Anh 1 2 3 4 5

YẾU TỐ 2: NỖI LO LẮNG KHI GIAO TIẾP

15 Tôi cảm thấy hồi hộp khi nói tiếng

Anh trước nhiều sinh viên khác 1 2 3 4 5

16 Tôi cảm thấy lo lắng khi giáo viên đặt câu hỏi cho tôi

17 Khi nói tiếng Anh, tôi có thể lo lắng quá đến mức quên mất những gì tôi biết

18 Tôi cảm thấy lo lắng khi bị chỉ định lên bảng làm bài

19 Mặc dù tôi chuẩn bị tốt bài cho buổi học, tôi vẫn cảm thấy lo lắng 1 2 3 4 5

20 Tôi lo rằng các học sinh khác sẽ cười nhạo mình khi tôi nói tiếng Anh

YẾU TỐ 3: ĐỘNG LỰC HỌC TIẾNG ANH

21 Tôi rất nỗ lực khi học tiếng Anh 1 2 3 4 5

22 Tôi chủ động nghĩ về những gì mình đã học trong lớp tiếng Anh

23 Xét về cách học tiếng Anh, tôi có thể thành thật nói rằng tôi thực sự rất cố gắng

24 Tôi không thực sự đam mê mãnh liệt với việc học tiếng Anh 1 2 3 4 5

25 Trong lớp tiếng Anh, tôi mong muốn càng có nhiều cơ hội nói tiếng Anh càng tốt

26 Nếu tôi có cơ hội nói tiếng Anh ngoài lớp học, tôi sẽ nói tiếng Anh nhiều nhất có thể

27 Tôi cảm thấy học tiếng Anh rất vui 1 2 3 4 5

28 Tiếng Anh là một môn học quan trọng trong chương trình học đại học của tôi

YẾU TỐ 4: SỰ SẴN SÀNG CHẤP NHẬN RỦI RO TRONG LỚP NGOẠI NGỮ

29 Tôi không thích cố gắng diễn đạt những ý tưởng phức tạp bằng tiếng Anh

30 Tôi không thích thử nói một câu khó trong lớp

31 Tôi thích đợi cho đến khi mình biết rõ cách dùng từ tiếng Anh đó như thế nào trước khi sử dụng nó

Tôi thích nói những gì tôi muốn bằng tiếng Anh mà không phải lo lắng về những chi tiết nhỏ trong ngữ pháp

33 Trong lớp, trước khi nói một câu tôi thích tự nói câu đó với chính mình

34 Tôi thích sử dụng mẫu câu cơ bản hơn là mạo hiểm dùng sai từ và cấu trúc

YẾU TỐ 5: SỰ HẤP DẪN CỦA CHỦ ĐỀ NÓI

Tôi thích nói chuyện tiếng Anh với các bạn học về những bộ phim và chuỗi chương trình truyền hình dài tập

36 Tôi thích nói tiếng Anh về những nghệ sĩ nổi tiếng mà tôi biết khi bàn luận nhóm

37 Tôi thích nói tiếng Anh về môn thể thao yêu thích của tôi trong cuộc thảo luận với cả lớp

38 Tôi thích nói tiếng Anh với bạn học về trò chơi điện tử

YẾU TỐ 6: KHÔNG KHÍ LỚP HỌC

39 Những hoạt động được thiết kế trong lớp rất hữu ích

40 Những hoạt động được thiết kế trong lớp rất thú vị

41 Tôi biết rõ cái mà tôi đang cố gắng đạt được trong lớp

42 Những hoạt động trong lớp được thiết kế một cách rõ ràng và cẩn thận

43 Tôi làm việc nhóm với các thành viên trong lớp rất tốt

44 Tôi thân thiện với các bạn trong lớp tiếng Anh

45 Tôi kết thân với các bạn trong lớp tiếng Anh

46 Mọi người đều biết rõ họ cần làm gì vì yêu cầu của bài tập rõ ràng

47 Tôi giúp các bạn trong lớp khi họ găp khó khăn với bài tập của mình

48 Giáo viên kịp thời giải đáp thắc mắc của sinh viên

49 Giáo viên kiên nhẫn khi giảng dạy 1 2 3 4 5

50 Giáo viên luôn mỉm cười với lớp khi trò chuyện

51 Giáo viên đặt những câu hỏi khơi gợi nhận định cá nhân của sinh viên

THE ADAPTATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEM FROM THE

Item The original questionnaire item The adapted questionnaire item Reason for the adaption

1 Item 4: I am willing to translate a spoken utterance from Chinese into

I am willing to translate a spoken utterance from Vietnamese into English in my group

The item is modified due to fit in the study context in Vietnam

2 Item 15: I am confident I can order a meal in English at a restaurant

Removed The item is removed because the context investigating students’ WTC is in EFL classrooms; therefore, the researcher adapted it to be related to the target context

3 Item 16: I am confident I can ask for and give directions for location in

The item is removed because the context investigating students’ WTC is in EFL classrooms; therefore, the researcher adapted it to be related to the target context

4 Item 17: I feel nervous when I speak in Korean in front of other students

I feel nervous when I speak in English in front of other students The study’s sample target is students who learn

5 Item 19: When speaking in Korean,

I can get so nervous that I forget things that I know

When speaking in English, I can get so nervous that I forget things that I know The study’s sample target is students who learn

6 Item 22: I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak Korean

I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak English The study’s sample target is students who learn

7 Item 23: When it comes to studying

Korean, I put much effort into it

When it comes to studying English, I put much effort into it The study’s sample target is students who learn

8 Item 24: I actively think about what

I have learned in my Korean class

I actively think about what I have learned in my English class

The study’s sample target is students who learn English as a foreign language

Korean, I can honestly say that I really try to learn Korean

Considering how I study English, I can honestly say that I really try to learn English

The study’s sample target is students who learn English as a foreign language

10 Item 26: I don't really have a great desire to learn Korean I don't really have a great desire to learn English The study’s sample target is students who learn

Item 27: During Korean class, I would like to have as much Korean as possible spoken

During English class, I would like to have as much English as possible spoken

The study’s sample target is students who learn English as a foreign language

Item 28: If I had the opportunity to speak Korean outside of school, I would speak Korean as much as possible

If I had the opportunity to speak English outside of school, I would speak English as much as possible

The study’s sample target is students who learn English as a foreign language

13 Item 29: I find learning Korean very enjoyable

I find learning English very enjoyable

The study’s sample target is students who learn English as a foreign language

Item 30: Korean is an important subject to me in my college program

English is an important subject to me in my college program

The study’s sample target is students who learn English as a foreign language

15 Item 31: At this point, I don’t like trying to express complicated ideas in Spanish in class

At this point, I don’t like trying to express complicated ideas in English in class

The study’s sample target is students who learn English as a foreign language

Item 32: I like to wait until I know exactly how to use a Spanish word before using it

I like to wait until I know exactly how to use an English word before using it

The study’s sample target is students who learn English as a foreign language

Item 33: I prefer to say what I want in Spanish without worrying about the small details of grammar

I prefer to say what I want in English without worrying about the small details of grammar

The study’s sample target is students who learn English as a foreign language

18 Item 37: I like to talk to my classmates about movies and series I like to talk my classmates in

English about movies and series The item is modified to clarify the context of using English in EFL classrooms

In group discussions, I enjoy sharing insights about renowned artists I admire, particularly when conversing in English This approach enhances the context of using English in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, fostering engaging conversations around art and culture.

20 Item 39: I like to talk to my classmates about computer games

I like to talk to my classmates in English about computer games

The item is modified to clarify the context of using English in EFL classrooms

21 Item 40: I like to talk about my favorite sport in a whole-class discussion

I like to talk in English about my favorite sport in a whole-class discussion

The item is modified to clarify the context of using English in EFL classrooms

22 Item 41: Tasks designed in this class are useful Tasks designed in English class are useful The item is modified to clarify the context of using English in EFL classrooms

23 Item 42: Tasks designed in this class are attracting

Tasks designed in English class are attracting

The item is modified to clarify the context of using English in EFL classrooms

In this English class, I have a clear understanding of my objectives, particularly in the context of using English in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classrooms My focus is on effectively achieving these goals to enhance my learning experience.

In EFL classrooms, activities are meticulously designed to enhance the learning experience, ensuring that each lesson is both coherent and purposeful The planning of English class activities is done with clear objectives in mind, fostering an effective environment for language acquisition.

26 Item 46: I am friendly to members of this class

I am friendly to members of English class

Tôi thân thiện với các bạn trong lớp tiếng Anh

THE RESULTS OF CRONBACH’S ALPHA IN THE PILOT

Appendix 3a: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to willingness to communicate in the pilot study

Number Variables Cronbach’s Alpha results for the piloting

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 3b: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to self-confidence in the pilot study

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 3c: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to communication apprehension in the pilot study

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 3d: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to learning motivation in the pilot study

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 3e: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to language class risk- taking in the pilot study

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 3f: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to topic interest in the pilot study

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 3g: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to classroom atmosphere in the pilot study

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

THE RESULTS OF CRONBACH’S ALPHA IN THE MAIN

IN THE MAIN STUDY § Appendix 4a: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to willingness to communicate in the main study

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 4b: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to self-confident in the main study

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 4c: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to communicative apprehension in the first run

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 4d: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to communicative apprehension in the second run

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 4e: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to learning motivation in the first run

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 4f: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to learning motivation in the second run

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 4g: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to language class risk-taking in the main study

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 4h: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to topic interest in the main study

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 4i: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to classroom atmosphere in the first run

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Appendix 4j: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha related to classroom atmosphere in the second run

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

Scales Cronbach’s alpha Items The value of corrected item-total correlation

Note: WTC: Willingness to communicate; TOPIC: Topic interest; ATMOS: Classroom atmosphere; CONFI: Self-confidence; RISK: Language class risk-taking; CA:

Communicative Apprehension; MOTIV: Learning Motivation

Appendix 5: The results of the correlation matrix

WTC TOPIC ATMOS CONFI RISK CA MOTIV

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

APPENDIX 6: THE SCREE-PLOT OF EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS

Appendix 5a: The scree-plot of exploratory factor analysis for factors impacting Vietnamese EFL learners’ willingness to communicate

Appendix 5b: The scree-plot of exploratory factor analysis for willingness to communicate

APPENDIX 7: THE RESULT OF STRUCTURAL EQUATION

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Standardized Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

APPENDIX 8: THE DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS OF THE STUDY’S SCALES

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation

APPENDIX 9: THE ONE-WAY ANOVA RESULTS IN RELATION TO THE DIFFERENCES IN WILLINGNESS

TO COMMUNICATE AMONG DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Minimum Maximum Lower Bound Upper Bound

Test of Homogeneity of Variances

Std Error Sig 95% Confidence Interval