The effects of teaching conjunctions on the cohesion of efl students compositions

INTRODUCTION

Background to the study

Writing is often regarded as the most challenging language skill for both ESL/EFL students and native speakers Unlike speaking, writing lacks nonverbal cues such as gestures and facial expressions, making it essential for learners to convey their ideas clearly To achieve this, students must develop the ability to create cohesive text Conjunctions play a vital role in this process, as they illustrate logical relationships and help readers connect different parts of the text, enhancing overall comprehension.

Conjunctions pose challenges not only for learners of a second language but also for native English speakers Research indicates that even with comprehensive English education, many English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students often make writing errors (Wee, Sim, and Jusoff, 2009) Consequently, it is nearly impossible for EFL learners to write without making mistakes.

Numerous studies have explored the challenges faced by English learners in their writing, particularly regarding the use of cohesive devices Ridha (2012) examined the English essay writing errors of Iraqi EFL college students, identifying predominant issues in grammar, vocabulary, mechanics, and word order Similarly, Liu (2013) analyzed the syntactic errors of Chinese university students in their English essays, revealing that tense, voice, and modality errors were the most common.

Vietnamese students face significant challenges in writing, primarily due to difficulties in achieving cohesion and coherence While high school curricula cover various writing forms—such as paragraphs, diaries, and reports—students often struggle to effectively construct their pieces A major issue is the improper use or absence of cohesive devices, which can lead to confusion and inconsistency in their writing Many students tend to misuse or over-rely on these devices, creating an illusion of logical flow despite a lack of true coherence Consequently, their writing often lacks stability in cohesion and coherence.

The effective use of conjunctions is essential for achieving cohesion in writing, prompting educators to emphasize these devices in their grammar lessons However, teaching students extensive lists of conjunctions without clear explanations often leads to confusion, misuse, and overuse due to their diverse types and applications This situation drives the researcher to design well-structured lessons on cohesive devices, specifically conjunctions, and to examine their impact on the cohesion of students' compositions and overall writing skills.

Aims of the study

Previous research has shown that ESL and EFL students often underuse, overuse, and misuse cohesive devices, indicating challenges in their application (Crewe, 1990; Field & Yip, 1992; Chen, 2006; Heino, 2010; Martinez, 2004) However, there is a lack of studies specifically examining the use of conjunctions among Vietnamese-speaking students, as well as insufficient research on the correlation between teaching conjunctions and enhancing students' writing abilities This study aims to address this gap by investigating students' attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions in their writing and exploring the potential impact of teaching these devices.

This study investigates the role of conjunctions in enhancing the cohesion of compositions written by Vietnamese high school students learning English as a foreign language It focuses on three key aspects: the importance of conjunctions in writing, their impact on overall coherence, and an analysis of how these students utilize conjunctions in their compositions The research was carried out at an educational center where the researcher teaches full-time.

Research questions and research hypotheses

Below are the study’s two research questions:

(1) What are EFL students’ attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions in their writing?

(2) Does teaching conjunctions positively affect the cohesion of student’s compostions? How do students use different types of conjunctions in their writing?

In this study, the research tests the two following hypotheses:

(1) The learners have positive attitudes towards learning and applying the knowledge of conjunctions to their writing

(2) The learners who are taught conjunctions thoroughly can improve the cohesion in their composition as compared to those who have not experienced the explicit teaching of conjunctions.

Significance of the study

The upcoming study aims to highlight the importance of teaching conjunctions through an experimental approach The researcher will determine effective usage of conjunctions in writing based on the study's findings Consequently, educators can refine their teaching methods to address gaps in current practices, ultimately enhancing students' writing skills This research will enable teachers to implement more structured and effective instruction on conjunctions, particularly in the study's focal center.

Scope of the study

This study investigates the relationship between teaching conjunctions and the cohesiveness of students' writing Additionally, it explores how students utilize various types of conjunctions to enhance their writing skills.

The study focuses on 62 grade 12 students from various high schools in Ho Chi Minh City, all enrolled in extra English courses at the Quang Tri Education Center While this convenient sample may not fully represent the broader community of Vietnamese high school students, it provides valuable insights into enhancing learners' understanding of conjunctions and cohesion in writing This foundational knowledge is crucial as students transition to university, where writing skills are emphasized The findings may also encourage further research into both productive and receptive language skills among learners.

Organization of the thesis chapters

This article is structured into five chapters: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Results and Findings, and Conclusion Chapter 1 outlines the study's background, aims, research questions, and significance Chapter 2 offers a critical review of relevant literature, focusing on writing, conjunctions, and cohesion, along with an evaluation of prior studies Chapter 3 details the methodology, covering research design, participants, instruments, site, and data collection and analysis Chapter 4 presents and analyzes the major findings of the study, addressing the research questions Finally, Chapter 5 combines the study's conclusions with recommendations for future research.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Nature of Writing

The definition of writing has been a subject of debate, with some viewing it merely as a transcription of speech, a perspective supported by Lado (1964) who stated that language consists of oral-aural symbols Morris (1966) echoed this sentiment, describing writing as a secondary medium of communication that documents speech Linderman (2001) further defined writing as a method of communication utilizing a traditional visual system However, Arapoff (1969) argued that writing transcends mere orthographic representation, emphasizing it as a conscious selection and organization of experiences Murray (1978) highlighted writing as a complex process where authors use language to clarify meaning and effectively convey their intended messages.

6 words, is a kind of communication that entails "deeper thought than is feasible while pondering and talking." (Walshe, 1986)

In summary, this study reinforces the perspective that writing serves as a form of communication When students engage in writing tasks, they must interact with their readers, taking into account the purpose of their work and the intended audience.

2.1.2 Features of an effective writing

Writing is a complex process that poses challenges for both teachers and students To effectively produce written communication, it is essential to understand the topic, audience, and context Consequently, establishing a framework for teaching and learning is necessary This framework outlines the key elements of effective writing, providing teachers with objective evaluation standards and offering students guidance for reading and improving their writing skills.

In the 1990s, the North Carolina Writing Assessment evaluated student writing based on four key criteria: main idea, support and elaboration, organization, and coherence Following a reevaluation by the State Board of Education and the Department of Public Instruction in light of the 1999 updates to the English Language Arts Standard Course of Study, a new rubric was developed with input from educators This updated rubric aligns with the revised curriculum, addresses concerns from community and business leaders, and incorporates innovative methods for teaching and assessing writing Similar strategies for writing instruction and evaluation are also adopted by many other states.

Eventually, the five most common Features of Effective Writing are focus, organization, support and elaboration, style, and conventions which are presented in Cali, K & Bowen, K (2003)

To effectively respond to a writing assignment, a writer must clearly establish a focus or theme Straying too far from the prompt can undermine this focus, making it essential to stay on topic While an inductive organizational structure can be effective, it should still lead the reader to understand the main idea The clarity of the focus should be evaluated based on the writer's method of development; if the topic is ambiguous, the focus has not been successfully established A successful focus is indicated by the reader's engagement and understanding, ensuring they remain interested rather than confused.

Organization is defined by the progression, consistency, and completeness of concepts A writer achieves a well-structured composition by effectively developing the key elements of a successful beginning, middle, and end, demonstrating a clear purpose When the response exhibits a logical sequence of relevant ideas or events, it becomes coherent and thorough.

Support and elaboration involve the extension and development of a topic, where ideas and events are presented with suitable detail Two key concepts in determining the effectiveness of supporting details are relatedness and sufficiency; details must connect to the main theme to enhance the subject matter A writer's ability to establish a clear link between information and the topic is essential for relevance Supporting information should be clear and pertinent, with the writer conveying thoughts forcefully to ensure sufficiency The strength of a response is bolstered by the effective use of concrete and precise details Insufficient support is often characterized by undeveloped details, repetition, and redundancy, emphasizing that the impact of information is more about quality than quantity.

Style in writing refers to the control of language tailored to the task's purpose, audience, and context A writer's style is reflected in their choice of words and the fluidity of their sentences By employing relevant words, phrases, and descriptions that engage readers, precise and purposeful language enhances the effectiveness of the composition Additionally, language fluency involves creating strong connections between ideas, causes, and claims through the use of varied sentence structures.

Proper grammar, usage, and mechanics are essential conventions that writers must adhere to in their assignments It is the writer's responsibility to apply appropriate grammar rules, ensuring clarity and coherence While minor inaccuracies may occur, they should not hinder the reader's understanding of the conveyed ideas.

This study examines the crucial aspect of Organization, highlighting the logical flow and completeness of ideas within a text It emphasizes two key areas of organizational instruction: the structures specific to various genres and the cohesive devices that connect clauses, sentences, and paragraphs, creating a unified and coherent piece of writing.

Text structure refers to the organization of a text into a beginning, middle, and end, which is essential for coherence Different narrative and expository genres require distinct text structures to effectively address their specific aims and target audiences The introduction and conclusion play a crucial role in creating a cohesive whole for the text.

Cohesive elements, such as conjunctions and transition words, play a crucial role in linking structural components within a text They illustrate the relationships between sentences and ideas, with effective writers employing transitional phrases like "because" and "after" to convey logical and causal connections In contrast, less skilled authors often rely on simple conjunctions like "and" and "then," leading to a disjointed flow in their writing.

In this study, the researcher aims to investigate whether teaching cohesive elements, particularly conjunctions has created any effect on the cohesion of learners’ compositions.

Learners’ attitudes

A crucial element for success in language learning is the learner's attitude Researchers in the field of language acquisition recognize multiple definitions of attitude, each reflecting different meanings from various contexts and viewpoints (Alhmali).

According to Montana and Kasprzyk (2008), an individual's attitude is influenced by their perceptions of potential outcomes or characteristics associated with a behavior, assessed through their evaluations of those outcomes Most research on language attitudes primarily focuses on individuals' perspectives regarding the acquisition of a second language, as highlighted in the study by Gardner and Lambert.

Research from 1972 highlights that an individual's or group's attitudes towards a language and its speakers significantly influence their motivation to learn and use that language Theories suggest that a positive attitude enhances second language acquisition, while a negative attitude hinders it.

In their 1980 general theory of attitudes, Ajzen and Fishbein emphasized the link between attitudes and intentional behaviors They argued that individuals who believe that certain actions will result in positive outcomes tend to develop a positive attitude toward those behaviors Conversely, if a person is convinced that their actions will lead to negative consequences, they are likely to hold a negative attitude.

According to Ajzan (1988), attitudes are defined as a tendency to respond positively to an object, person, organization, or event Gardner (1980) further elaborates that an attitude is an inference drawn from a complex set of beliefs regarding the attitude object Additionally, Garner (1985) perceives attitudes as essential tools for motivating language learners, emphasizing the critical role of motivation in the learning process.

"combination of effort, desire to accomplish the goal of learning the language, and positive attitudes toward learning the language."

Attitude plays a vital role in language learning, as it is intertwined with the study process According to Visserin Abidin (2012), "attitude is considered as an essential factor determining linguistic performance." The success of learners in mastering a target language hinges not only on their intellectual abilities but also on their attitudes toward language acquisition Therefore, learning languages should be perceived as a social and psychological journey rather than just an academic task.

Various attitudes exist that are based on the opinions of experts Partini (1989) makes one of them and claims that an attitude can be separated into:

Attention, effort, activity, and interest are key indicators of a positive attitude towards learning English Focusing during lessons is essential for effective learning, as a lack of attention hinders progress Students must exert effort to achieve proficiency in the language, as dedication significantly impacts their success Engaging in activities not only fosters positive attitudes but also encourages students to participate actively by asking and answering questions in English Lastly, genuine interest in learning reflects a student's satisfaction with their progress; those lacking interest often find it challenging to acquire the language effectively.

A negative attitude towards English can lead learners to ignore the language entirely, resulting in a lack of focus and effort in their studies This disregard ultimately hampers their ability to learn English effectively, creating a cycle of disengagement and poor performance.

Cohesion and Cohesive Devices

Formal connections between sentences and clauses enhance document cohesion Halliday and Hasan (1976) identified five key cohesive techniques: conjunction, reference, substitution, ellipsis, and lexical coherence, as noted by Brown and Yule (1983) and Nunan (1993) Additionally, Thornbury (2005) suggests that tense consistency and parallelism serve as effective text-binding tools.

As a result, there are several kinds of ties that exist in texts and contribute to cohesion These formal connections can make a series of sentences more understandable

To ensure cohesion in writing, it is essential for writers to utilize cohesive devices to create a unified text Halliday and Hasan (1976, 1989) identified four primary types of grammatical ties: reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunctions, along with lexical ties The following section will provide a brief overview of each of these sources of cohesion.

Halliday and Hasan (1976) describe reference as a semantic relationship that maintains continuity of meaning within a text This concept involves elements that lack independent semantic interpretation but rely on references from previous utterances for their understanding.

(1) I saw Sally yesterday She was lying on the beach

The underlined words are examples of reference The item she in the second sentence is interpretable only by reference to Sally

Substitution refers to the process of replacing one linguistic element with another, distinguishing it from reference, which involves the relationship between meanings This concept focuses on the interaction between words or phrases rather than their meanings.

(1) My knife is too blunt I must get a sharper one

(2) These flowers are not fresh Get some fresher ones

One and ones are the examples of substitution of a noun as head of a noun phrase

Cohesion through ellipsis involves omitting specific words or phrases, allowing readers to infer their meaning without explicit representation in the text This technique enhances clarity and flow by relying on the reader's understanding to fill in the gaps.

(1) Do you want to have another cake? – No, thanks I’ve had my two

As can be seen from these examples above, cake which is omitted by nothing in the second sentence, is the example of nominal ellipsis

Conjunctive components, according to Halliday and Hasan (1976), are cohesive

Conjunctions establish the relationship between sentences in a text, guiding readers through the content in a sequential manner Each sentence builds upon the previous one, creating a coherent narrative that can only be fully understood when read in order.

(1) My father felt exhausted after work However, he accepted to help my mother with cooking

The word “However” is an example of conjunction, which is used to connect two sentences in terms of meaning

Halliday and Hasan (1976) stated that:

Reiteration is a key aspect of lexical cohesion, characterized by the repetition of specific lexical items It ranges from using a general term to refer back to a previous lexical item, to employing synonyms, near-synonyms, or superordinate terms This linguistic technique enhances text coherence and clarity by linking ideas through various forms of word repetition and reference.

(1) The young girl is helping an old woman with her heavy bag

In this example, young and old have the opposite meaning, which is an example of reiteration

Collocation is a type of lexical cohesiveness that is produced by grouping together lexical elements that occur often

(1) Red Cross helicopters were in the air continuously The blood bank will soon be desperately in need of donors

In this example, “Red Cross”, “blood bank” and “donors” are words which regularly co-occur, which is calls as a collocation.

Conjunctions in this study

Conjunctions are one of the eight essential parts of speech in English, defined as indeclinable elements that link other parts of speech, thereby classifying their meanings and relationships (Malmkjӕr, 1991) Scholars have explored conjunctions under various labels, noting their role as linguistic devices that create cohesion (Halliday and Hasan, 1976) and as markers of semantic relations (Sanders and Maat) Furthermore, conjunctions serve as a semantic connection between two clauses, highlighting their importance in English linguistics (Er, as cited by Aidinlou and Reshadi, 2014).

Furthermore, Leung (2005) cites four scholars in this regard These are: Schiffrin

In the study of conjunctions, various scholars have offered distinct perspectives on their function and significance Fraser (1999) categorizes conjunctions as "pragmatic markers," while Rouchota (1998) emphasizes their role in encoding diverse meanings and serving as procedural devices Caron (1994) views conjunctions as tools for expressing different types of relations between utterances Additionally, many researchers broadly consider conjunctions to be linkers that facilitate connections in discourse.

14 or connectors that join two words, phrases, clauses or sentences together, either in speech or in writing

Leech and Svartvik (1994) explain that clauses or phrases can be linked through conjunctions, allowing for coordination They also highlight that conjunctions can connect two words within the same word class Aarts (2001) supports this notion, emphasizing the role of conjunctions in linking elements in a sentence.

Conjunctions are a closed class of words that serve a crucial linking function in language According to Roberts (2011), they connect two or more sentences to create a coordinated sentence Similarly, Lester (1990) emphasizes that conjunctions unite words or groups of words Eckhard-Black (1992) further clarifies that a conjunction acts as a connector between two words, phrases, or clauses, facilitating cohesive communication.

Coordinate structures are defined as constituents linked by conjunctions such as "and" or "or" (Carnie, 2007) Conjunctions serve as linking words that connect words, groups of words, or clauses (Kirkpatrick, 2007) According to Murthy (2007), conjunctions are words that join sentences, words, or clauses together Baskervill and Sewell (2015) emphasize that, unlike adverbs, conjunctions do not modify but are solely intended for connection.

Conjunctions are indeclinable parts of speech that connect other words or phrases, thereby clarifying their meanings and relationships (Kirksten, 1991) According to Crystal (2008), these linguistic elements play a crucial role in structuring sentences and enhancing coherence in communication.

A conjunction is a grammatical term that refers to words or processes primarily used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences According to Arthur Mc (1996), conjunctions belong to a specific part of speech that facilitates the coordination of linked units, known as conjuncts Scholars agree that conjunctions play a crucial role in linking and joining various elements within sentences, underscoring their importance in sentence structure and coherence.

15 being a part of speech in a language, is mentioned, the first thing that comes to mind traditionally is that it is a linker, a connector or a joinder

Conjunctions serve essential linking functions in language, as outlined by Leung (2005) They connect words, phrases, and clauses, facilitating relationships between independent and dependent clauses Conjunctions can emphasize continuity or increase, as seen in phrases like "Day by day I am getting better and better." They also introduce logically following questions, present alternatives, and provide estimations between numbers, such as "We will stay there a day or two." Additionally, conjunctions correct comments, explain or justify statements, show contrast, add information, change discussion topics, serve as conditions in conditional statements, and issue warnings, exemplified by phrases like "or else."

Language scholars have differing opinions on the classification of conjunctions Baskervill and Sewell (2015), Arthur (1996), Lester (1990), and Eckhard-Black (1992) categorize conjunctions into two main types: coordinating and subordinating, often excluding correlative conjunctions, which they consider similar to coordinating ones Traditionally, however, conjunctions are classified into three categories: coordinating, subordinating, and correlative Additionally, Halliday and Hasan (1976) identify four types of conjunctions that contribute to cohesion in English: additive, adversative, causal, and temporal Meanwhile, Murthy (2007) outlines four types of conjunctions, which include coordinating, subordinating, correlative, and compound conjunctions.

This study examines the two ways of categorization by Halliday and Hasan (1976) and Murthy (2007) to have an overview of how conjunctions are divided

Types of conjunctions by Murthy (2007)

According to Murthy (2007), conjunctions are sorted out into four types which are coordinating, subordinating, correlative and compound conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are essential for linking words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, allowing for the connection of sentence elements within the same grammatical class This process, known as coordination, enables the joining of nouns with nouns, adverbs with adverbs, and phrases with phrases, as well as linking independent sentences Huddleston (1988) categorizes coordination into basic and non-basic types, while Aarts (2001) describes it as parataxis, indicating a syntactic arrangement side-by-side Coordination can be classified into syndetic, where an overt coordinator is present, and asyndetic, where it is absent The primary coordinating conjunctions include "and," "nor," "but," and "or." Murthy (2007) further divides these conjunctions into three categories: cumulative or copulative, adversative, and disjunctive or alternative conjunctions.

Cumulative or Copulative Conjunctions serve to connect statements or add one statement to another Common examples include "and," "so," "both and," "as well as," "not only but also," and "no less than." These conjunctions play a crucial role in enhancing the flow and coherence of sentences.

For examples: He looked and smiled at me

He is my father so I respect him

Adversative conjunctions express a contrast or an unexpected outcome in communication These conjunctions, such as "but," "still," and "only," highlight the difference between what is anticipated and what is actually conveyed in a conversation.

For examples: She is beautiful but poor

You are intelligent still you have to work harder

(3) Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions are used to express a choice between two alternatives They include: or, nor, either…or, neither…nor, else, whether…or, otherwise, etc

For examples: You must tell me the truth or I cannot help you

She is not a teacher nor a typist

Subordinating conjunctions are essential words that connect subordinate clauses to main clauses in complex sentences, creating a relationship of unequal rank They enable a dependent clause to gain meaning from an independent clause, as the latter can stand alone while the former cannot Aarts (2001) describes this relationship as hypotaxis, indicating that subordinating conjunctions make clauses dependent and transform them into sentence fragments without an independent clause The process of using these conjunctions to link clauses is known as subordination, which, according to Quirk and Greenbaum (2004), establishes a non-symmetrical relationship where one clause is part of another Huddleston (1988) highlights that subordination differs from coordination by involving a dependent element and a superordinate one Subordinating conjunctions, also referred to as transitional conjunctions, can be positioned at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence, and include words like after, because, if, that, although, and when, among others (Sahebkeir & Aidinlou, 2014).

For examples: He came after I had finished my work

He was sacked from office because of his stance against corruption Subordinating conjunctions are divided into eight classes

(1) Time: These are subordinators that express consequence in time or succession in time between clauses Examples include: before, after, till, since, when, while, etc

For examples: Mary had left before my arrival

I began my work after they had gone

Causal subordinators indicate relationships of cause and effect, conveying meanings such as "as a result of this" or "because of this." Common examples include "because," "since," "as," and "for." These words help clarify the reasons behind actions or events, enhancing the coherence of your writing.

For examples: He travelled home because of the death of his mother

Since it is dark, take the torch with you

The relationship between cause and effect is often highlighted through subordinators like "so" and "that," which indicate a consequence stemming from a specific reason For instance, in the sentence "He talked so fast that I could not understand him," the rapid speech serves as the cause, leading to the inability to comprehend, illustrating how one action directly influences another.

I was so tired that I could not eat after cooking

Previous Studies

Previous research, both Vietnamese and international, has examined the connection between cohesive devices and students' writing competence, yielding inconsistent and contradictory results (Emad, 2014) While some studies found no significant relationship between the use of cohesive devices and writing quality (Catro, 2004; Johnson, 1992; Zhang, 2000), others indicated a positive correlation between the number of cohesive devices used and the overall quality of writing (Ferris, 1994; Field & Oi, 1992; Jin, 2001; Neuner, 1987).

For example, Emmanuel (2013) also conducts a study to find out whether the use of cohesive devices can enhance effective academic writing such as laboratory reports,

A study of 26 field trip and final year project reports reveals that cohesive devices are crucial for guiding readers through the text Liu and Braine (2005) found a significant correlation between the use of cohesive devices and the quality of argumentative writing among Chinese undergraduate students Similarly, Martinez (2015) examined conjunction usage in secondary education students' compositions, involving 399 participants The research utilized both quantitative and qualitative methods, finding a positive relationship between conjunction density and overall composition quality Notably, fourth-grade students demonstrated better conjunction use than third-graders, while qualitative analysis indicated limited variety in conjunction usage, particularly among third-grade students, who struggled with adversative and additive conjunctions.

A study by Tran (2007) in Vietnam highlighted the positive impact of teaching cohesive devices on students' ability to write short paragraphs The findings indicate that effective use of these devices enhances writing skills, with students generally finding them easy to learn and incorporating them early in their writing However, the study also noted that instruction on conjunctions can lead to issues such as overuse, misuse, or illogical application by students.

Castro (2004) found that there is no significant difference in the total number and types of grammatical and lexical cohesive devices utilized by students across various essay ratings Similarly, Zhang (2000) conducted an investigation that supports these findings.

This study examined the use of cohesive devices by Chinese undergraduates, analyzing 91 out of 4,845 compositions to assess the frequency of various cohesive ties and their potential relationship with writing quality The results revealed that students utilized a range of cohesive ties, with certain categories being more prevalent than others However, the findings indicated no significant correlation between the frequency of these cohesive devices and the overall quality of writing.

In a 2019 study by Li Yingle and Zhao Xueai titled “An Analysis of Conjunctions as Cohesive Devices in High School Students’ English Writing,” researchers examined the appropriate use of cohesive devices, particularly conjunctions, in high school students' writing The study analyzed 80 English compositions selected through stratified sampling and scored by two teachers Findings revealed that the frequency of conjunctions did not significantly correlate with the quality of writing; instead, it emphasized that the effective use of conjunctive markers is crucial for creating well-structured texts.

In conclusion, while numerous studies have explored the connection between cohesive devices and students' writing skills, the findings have been inconsistent Additionally, there is a lack of research specifically examining EFL students' use of particular cohesive devices in their writing Therefore, further investigation is needed to establish a correlation between specific cohesive devices and the quality of writing among EFL students This study aims to fill that gap by focusing on the use of various types of conjunctions by EFL students.

28 and examining whether there is any correlation between teaching conjunctions and their writing quality.

Conceptual Framework

This section outlines the conceptual framework guiding the study to achieve its research goals, focusing on learners' attitudes as highlighted by Alhmali (2007) It emphasizes the significance of cohesion in writing and the role of conjunctions, drawing on Thornbury's (2005) findings to underscore the importance of cohesion in language learning In the context of Vietnamese education, students have historically struggled with writing, similar to English language learners worldwide The researcher seeks to identify the internal causes of students' challenges in achieving cohesion in writing, linking these issues to the nature of writing and organizational aspects as discussed by Cali and Bowen (2003) The study will focus on the organization of writing, particularly examining conjunctions as a key factor in enhancing cohesion.

To investigate the impact of teaching conjunctions on enhancing cohesion in students' writing, the researcher utilizes an experimental design that includes a pretest, experimental instruction, and a posttest, following Creswell's (2021) framework The instruction focuses on the four types of conjunctions as outlined by Halliday and Hasan (1976), integrating theories of grammar and cohesive devices Resources such as "English Grammar in Use" (Murphy et al., 2004), "Introduction to Academic Writing" (Oshima & Hogue, 2007), "Advanced Grammar in Use" (Hewings, 2013), and "Essay Writing for English Tests" (Duigu, 2003) are employed, along with various online activities and supplementary materials, to ensure students can accurately identify and use different types of conjunctions.

In writing, there are 29 essential factors that are commonly utilized, prompting the researcher to deliberately explain these concepts to students through a well-structured teaching approach This combination of theoretical knowledge and discussion forms a conceptual framework, illustrated in Figure 2.1.

In conclusion, the conceptual framework is crucial as it offers comprehensive guidance for conducting research, enabling researchers to select appropriate methods and instruments that align with foundational theories Furthermore, the design and execution of experimental teaching are closely tied to the framework's content and sequence This framework ensures that all relevant theories and factors are integrated into the study process, facilitating a viable research endeavor.

Chapter Summary

This chapter reviews the definition and significance of writing in language learning, highlighting key aspects for effective writing It explores the concept of cohesion, defining it and discussing its importance, along with cohesive devices and conjunctions Additionally, the chapter examines previous studies on cohesion and conjunctions to underscore the relevance of the current research Lastly, a conceptual framework is presented to illustrate the interconnections among all theoretical components discussed.

METHODOLOGY

Research questions

This study explores the attitudes of EFL students towards the learning and application of conjunctions in English writing, while also examining the impact of teaching conjunctions on the cohesion of their compositions Additionally, it investigates how students utilize various types of conjunctions in their writing.

Research design

The researcher employed a descriptive research design to assess students' attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions in their writing Utilizing a questionnaire, the study aimed to collect comprehensive data on students’ perceptions, challenges, and expectations regarding conjunctions, thereby addressing the initial research question effectively.

This study investigates the statistically significant correlation between teaching conjunctions and the cohesion of students' compositions, as reflected in their essay scores Utilizing a quasi-experimental quantitative research design, the research aims to identify common features that influence this relationship.

In this study, a quasi-experimental quantitative research design is employed to explore the causal relationship between the use of conjunctions in writing (independent variable) and the cohesion of the composition (dependent variable) Standardized procedures, as outlined by Dornyei (2007), guide the hypothesis testing, while Bevans (2021) emphasizes the manipulation of independent variables to assess their effects Notably, the independent variable remains unaffected by others, whereas the dependent variable's value is entirely contingent upon changes in the independent variable (GCU, 2021).

To assess students' performance in using conjunctions before and after experimental teaching, a descriptive research design is utilized Descriptive research, as noted by McCombes (2020), systematically describes a population or phenomenon, making it suitable for identifying characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories The primary objective of this approach is to gather accurate data, which can reveal trends and patterns, aiding in the formulation of hypotheses regarding their causes This design is particularly beneficial for generating hypotheses, as it enables researchers to analyze multiple variables concurrently.

Descriptive research designs encompass various methodologies, such as observational studies, cross-sectional studies, and cohort studies This particular study employs a longitudinal design, which, as noted by Cash (2022), involves repeatedly assessing the same individuals over time Longitudinal studies are particularly valuable for examining the progression of conditions and measuring changes in characteristics throughout the study period.

Descriptive designs are also typically used in conjunction with other research designs, such as experimental and quasi-experimental designs (Cash, 2022)

Therefore, in this research, the research chose to combine both descriptive design and quasi-experimental quantitative design to be able to address two research questions

This study employs a descriptive design to investigate students' attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions Additionally, quasi-experimental quantitative research methods are utilized to evaluate the impact of teaching conjunctions on the cohesion of students' written compositions, focusing on two non-randomly assigned groups.

Research site

The Quang Tri Education Center in Ho Chi Minh City specializes in general English training for junior and high school students, following the Ministry of Education's curriculum Catering to a diverse age group of 6 to 18 years, from grade 1 to grade 12, the center primarily focuses on grammar and vocabulary However, it does not adequately address the four essential language skills—reading, listening, speaking, and writing—resulting in minimal instruction in writing skills Consequently, students often lack knowledge and proficiency in English writing.

Pilot studies

Over a seven-week period from June 1st to July 15th, two pilot studies were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the data collection process and to test various teaching materials, including lesson plans, handouts, exercises, and questionnaires.

A pilot study conducted on June 1st and 2nd allowed the researcher to assess the appropriateness of the questionnaire questions for the target audience, as well as to identify any design issues that could potentially confuse test-takers during the testing process.

The original questionnaire was adapted from the one developed by Tran (2007) Tran

(2007) created the questionnaire to explore the using of cohesive devices in students’

English writing It comprised 3 parts with 18 items related to participants’ demographic information, their attitudes towards learning writing skill in general and learning and using conjunctions in particular

The pilot study revealed the need for necessary adjustments in the research methodology In Part 1, the researcher opted to remove participants' names and class information, as they were deemed unhelpful for the study Parts 2 and 3 remained unchanged, as participants encountered no issues in completing those sections However, the researcher introduced a new Part 4 to gather students' suggestions on teaching writing and conjunction practices in their schools, incorporating two open-ended questions to capture diverse viewpoints While the researcher could not conduct interviews to delve into participants' responses, the questionnaire data provided insights into learners' perceptions—whether positive or negative—regarding writing instruction and conjunction practices, ultimately informing future lesson and course design.

The researcher conducted a six-week pilot study from June 3rd to July 15th to evaluate the effectiveness of the experimental teaching approach Participants were required to complete both a pretest and posttest to identify any issues related to lesson planning and test design If the lessons were found to be inadequately planned due to factors such as difficulty level, timing, or the researcher’s teaching skills, necessary modifications would be made for the main study.

The pilot study sample significantly differed from that of the main research, as the researcher aimed to randomly select a class of 20 grade 12 students to learn about conjunctions However, due to the availability of students at the research site, only 16 students participated in the pilot experiment.

Following the pilot experiment, the researcher retained the lesson plans and handouts with one exception: the exercise in Review 2 Initially designed as a short writing task with a specific topic, it proved too challenging for students to complete within the allotted time Consequently, the researcher modified the task to focus on joining clauses using provided conjunctions, making it more appropriate for completion in a 45-minute session.

Table 3.1: Changes in Revision 2 lesson plan after Pilot study 2

The main study

The study focuses on grade 12 learners enrolled in extra courses at Quang Tri Education Center These students utilize the "English 12" textbook published by the Ministry of Education The researcher is conducting the study with two classes at this center, which serve as the participants.

A total of 62 grade 12 students (37 males and 25 females) from 19 high schools in Ho Chi Minh City participated in the study, all of whom were enrolled in extra courses at Quang Tri Education Center These students were from four different classes taught by the researcher and other educators, providing a diverse range of teaching practices This variety allowed for a comprehensive exploration of students' attitudes toward learning conjunctions and enhancing their writing skills.

For the experimental teaching, convenient sampling was employed to gather quantitative data from 50 intermediate-level English learners, divided into two classes of 25 students each The participants, all Vietnamese grade 12 students from various high schools in Ho Chi Minh City, demonstrated English proficiency at approximately level B1 on the CEFR scale, corresponding to level 3 in VSTEP (Chuan Nang Luc Ngoai Ngu, 2018) All students were taught by the same instructor and exhibited similar performance levels on the placement test, thereby minimizing potential discrepancies between the two groups arising from teaching methods or materials.

Following the pretest, the mean scores of the two selected classes showed no statistically significant difference (refer to Section 4.4.2) The classes were randomly assigned into two groups: Group A served as the control group (CG), while Group B was designated as the experimental group (EG) The researcher implemented the teaching of conjunctions within this framework.

The researcher developed lesson plans for each experimental teaching period, grounded in the theory of teaching grammar and cohesive devices, particularly focusing on conjunctions These plans were informed by key resources such as "English Grammar in Use" by Murphy, Viney, and Craven (2004) and "Introduction to Academic Writing" by Oshima and Hogue.

2007), Advanced Grammar in Use (Hewings, M 2013), Essay writing for English tests (Duigu, G 2003) The activities and exercises were taken from several sources on the Internet or some other supplementary books

To address the first research question, a questionnaire was given to 62 participants for the researcher to collect data Its purpose is to

(1) find out students’ attitudes and difficulties in learning writing skill in general;

(2) explore students’ attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions to improve the cohesion of their writing;

(3) ask for their suggestions for improving teaching writing skill in general and conjunctions in particular

This questionnaire, adapted from Tran's (2007) original version, aims to investigate the use of cohesive devices in students' English writing While the first two sections remain unchanged, the researcher introduced a third section to gather suggestions for enhancing teaching practices related to writing skills and conjunctions.

The questionnaire comprised four sections designed to gather comprehensive data The first section collected personal information from participants, specifically their gender and high school The second section featured seven questions addressing the significance of writing skills, students' attitudes toward writing, and the challenges they face in learning this skill Lastly, the third section contained seven questions focused on students' understanding of conjunction usage and the teaching methods employed in writing instruction.

The article discusses the challenges teachers face in teaching 38 conjunctions and the difficulties students encounter in learning them Additionally, section four features two open-ended questions (15-16) that seek participants' suggestions on improving the teaching of writing skills, specifically regarding conjunctions An outline of the questionnaire is provided in Table 3.2 below.

Table 3.2: The outline of the questionnaire

The questionnaire, available in both Vietnamese and English (refer to Appendix L & M), was exclusively administered in Vietnamese to ensure accurate data collection This approach aimed to focus on understanding students' attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions in English writing, influenced by varying teaching practices across different high schools The three sections comprising 16 questions were deemed adequate to gather essential information for the study.

Pre-tests and post-tests

The study employed pretests and posttests to evaluate the performance of two groups, focusing on the results within each group and between the groups The analysis aimed to validate the hypothesis that teaching conjunctions to intermediate learners significantly enhances the cohesion of their writing.

Pre- and post-tests were conducted to assess the relationship between teaching conjunctions and the cohesion in students' writing, as well as their usage of conjunctions Students from two groups, the Control Group (CG) and the Experimental Group (EG), wrote a 200-word composition on the same topic within 60 minutes The pre-test required students to narrate a story about a good deed they performed, allowing for an evaluation of their conjunction usage and English proficiency prior to the experimental teaching In the post-test, students wrote about a challenging decision they faced after learning conjunctions, enabling an assessment of the impact of conjunction instruction on the cohesion of their compositions This approach aims to determine if teaching conjunctions enhances the overall cohesion in students' English writing.

The writing topics for both the pretest and posttest are derived from the Writing Session of Unit 1 – Home Life and Unit 5 – Higher Education in the English 12 textbook These units are concurrently taught to students during the pretest and posttest periods, ensuring they possess relevant vocabulary and ideas This adaptation aims to eliminate the potential impact of limited vocabulary and ideas on the quality of their writing.

Following the completion of data collection from the pretests, the experimental group (EG) underwent instruction on conjunctions The researcher conducted a total of 10 sessions, which included 8 sessions focused on teaching four types of conjunctions and 2 sessions dedicated to review The details of the experimental teaching plan are outlined in Table 3.3 below.

Table 3.3: The experimental-teaching plan

The study involved 50 grade 12 students, aged 17, comprising 29 males and 21 females from various high schools in Ho Chi Minh City These students are enrolled in evening English classes at Quang Tri Education Center, attending three lessons per week on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, each lasting 90 minutes from 17:45 to 19:15 The experimental class was conducted over a 10-week period, from August 15 to October 22, during which participants focused on learning conjunctions in one 45-minute session each week, while dedicating the remaining time to other language skills and knowledge.

To effectively teach students the meaning and usage of conjunctions in their writing, a total of 7 hours of instruction was necessary The researcher dedicated 2 periods of 90 minutes each to teaching different types of conjunctions, followed by an additional review period after every two types to reinforce the students' understanding.

3.5.3.3.1 Description of teaching procedure of the two groups

Chapter summary

This chapter utilizes a descriptive research design alongside a quasi-experimental quantitative approach to explore the use of conjunctions in English writing and propose effective teaching methods The researcher implemented a 10-week experimental teaching program and conducted a questionnaire to gather data The findings and analysis are detailed in chapter four.

FINDINGS AND RESULTS

The responses to the questionnaire

The questionnaire consisted of four sections: (i) personal information of students, (ii) their attitudes towards learning writing skills, (iii) their perspectives on applying conjunction knowledge in English writing, and (iv) their suggestions for enhancing writing instruction, particularly regarding conjunctions It included a variety of question types, such as open-ended, dichotomous, and Likert-scale questions.

4.1.1 Responses to the students’ personal information

The data were collected from 62 students from 4 classes at Quang Tri Education Center The data consists of 2 variables, namely: their gender and their current high schools

In the survey detailed in Table 4.1, male participants comprised 53.23% while female participants made up 46.77%, indicating a relatively balanced representation between genders among students.

A total of 62 participants from 19 distinct high schools in Ho Chi Minh City were involved in the study, highlighting the diversity in teaching practices and priorities among the schools This variation offers the researcher a comprehensive array of data regarding different teaching methods, practices, and student attitudes.

Table 4.2 The participants’ high schools

The data presented in Section 1 reveals a diverse range of high schools among the participants Additionally, there is a notable balance in the gender distribution, with male and female students represented in similar percentages These personal factors are likely to influence the overall outcomes of the study.

53 of homogeneity of the current sample, but also provide a wide range of data contributing to the diversity of the results produced by the study

4.1.2 Responses to the students’ attitudes towards learning writing skill

Section 2 dealt with the participants’ attitudes towards learning writing skill In detail, the researcher concentrated on how the students thought about the importance of learning writing, their time spent on practicing writing English, the forms of teaching that they are often taught by, their difficulty in learning writing, the factors to pay attention to when conducting a composition

The students’ attitudes towards writing skill Table 4.3: The students’ attitudes towards English writing

According to the results in Table 4.3, 59.9% of students find writing to be a challenging subject, with 21.19% rating it as very difficult and 38.71% considering it difficult Additionally, 33.87% of students view their writing skills as acceptable, while only 3.23% believe that learning writing skills is easy.

A recent survey on writing practice among students revealed that approximately half of the respondents engaged in writing exercises, with 25.81% never practicing, 27.42% rarely practicing, 25.81% sometimes practicing, and 20.97% often practicing Among 19 high schools in Ho Chi Minh City, grammar was the most emphasized skill at 46.77%, followed by reading at 25.81% The importance of writing was acknowledged by the majority, with 58.06% considering it important and 20.97% rating it as very important; only 1.61% of the 62 students surveyed dismissed its significance.

Students acquire extensive vocabulary and grammar from their lessons; however, they struggle to apply this knowledge in their writing This results in numerous grammatical and lexical errors in their compositions Despite recognizing the importance of developing writing skills, they often fail to dedicate sufficient time to practice and revision.

The students’ focuses, difficulties and methods used to teach writing

Table 4.4 The students’ focuses, difficulties and methods used to teach writing

Students prioritize two key aspects of writing: expressing their ideas effectively and ensuring grammatical accuracy According to recent data, 43.55% of students focus primarily on content and ideas, while 30.65% emphasize the importance of grammar accuracy in their writing process.

A recent analysis revealed that only 6.45% of students prioritized cohesion and coherence in their writing, indicating a lack of focus on these critical elements The primary challenges faced by students in writing stem from difficulties in expressing ideas (41.94%), using appropriate words (25.81%), and ensuring grammatical accuracy (24.19%) Interestingly, cohesion, coherence, and punctuation are not perceived as significant issues Teaching methods predominantly emphasize grammatical exercises, such as filling in blanks (45.16%) and transforming sentences (35.48%), rather than fostering communicative writing skills Consequently, students struggle with fluency despite completing their assignments successfully Effective writing necessitates organization and coherence, enabling readers to follow the writer's thoughts seamlessly.

Students recognize the importance of writing skills and acknowledge the challenges they face in this area Despite this awareness, most do not dedicate sufficient time to practicing their English writing Furthermore, many students feel that the writing assignments they receive are ineffective in teaching them how to compose effectively.

4.1.3 Responses to the students’ attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions in English writing

This part revealed how the students felt about learning conjunctions and the application of conjunctions in writing an English composition

The students’ responses to the importance of conjunctions and cohesion in writing

Table 4.5 The students’ responses to the importance of conjunctions and cohesion in writing

A significant majority of students (72.58%) correctly identified the definition of conjunctions, yet 27.42% still lacked a clear understanding Despite this, 77.42% acknowledged the importance of using conjunctions in writing When it comes to application, 38.71% of students found using conjunctions acceptable, while 30.65% considered it difficult, and 20.97% felt it was fairly easy.

Data of the rank of lessons that conjunctions are taught most is presented in the form of the pie chart below

Figure 4.1 Ranking of lessons that conjunctions are taught most

According to Figure 4.1, students indicate that conjunctions are primarily taught in writing classes, with 50% of participants selecting this option Grammar classes follow with 32.26%, while speaking lessons account for 11.29% Reading and listening classes receive the least focus, at 4.84% and 1.61%, respectively This trend highlights the emphasis on conjunctions in writing and grammar instruction, which is consistent across various high schools.

The students’ focuses, difficulties and methods used to teach conjunctions

This article examines students' focus, challenges, and teaching methods related to conjunctions, utilizing three key questions to assess their attitudes The findings for questions 12 and 14 are detailed in Table 4.6 below.

Table 4.6: The students’ focuses, difficulties and methods used to teach conjunctions

Table 4.6 illustrates that students are primarily instructed in conjunction usage through various methods: filling in blanks with given conjunctions (69.35%), combining simple sentences into complex ones (22.58%), cloze exercises (6.45%), and free writing (1.61%) Additionally, when considering important factors in learning conjunctions, 37.09% of students emphasized the significance of tenses, while 29.03% highlighted other aspects that warrant attention.

The results of the two tests

The pretest and posttest played a crucial role in assessing the effectiveness of the intervention, utilizing a consistent format for different objectives The pretest aimed to ensure the homogeneity of the control group (CG) and experimental group (EG), while the posttest was designed to evaluate the impact of teaching conjunctions on the cohesion levels of students' compositions.

The researcher employed the Shapiro-Wilk tests to assess the normal distribution within the population, specifically analyzing the density of conjunctions in students' compositions The density of conjunctions is calculated by dividing the number of appropriately used conjunctions by the total number of T-units in each composition The results of the normality tests guided the choice between parametric and non-parametric statistical methods for further analysis.

Table 4.7 The normal distribution tests

Table 4.7 presents the descriptive statistics from the Shapiro-Wilk tests for learners' pretest and posttest results The null hypotheses (Ho) posited that the data followed a normal distribution The p-values for both groups in the pretest and posttest exceeded 05, leading to the acceptance of Ho for the normality tests at the 0.05 significance level.

The researcher opted for parametric tests due to the distribution-free status, choosing them over non-parametric alternatives To analyze the differences between the control group (CG) and the experimental group (EG), Independent Sample tests were performed Additionally, Paired Sample tests were used to assess the results within a specific group before and after the treatment.

4.2.2 The students’ results of the pretest

The pretests aim to assess the English proficiency levels of the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG), as well as their use of conjunctions in writing This initial evaluation serves as a foundation for conducting more precise posttests.

The density of conjunctions in writing is determined by dividing the number of appropriately used conjunctions by the total number of T-units in each composition To assess the use of conjunctions in English writing among two groups, an Independent Sample test was performed to compare the conjunction density between the Control Group (CG) and the Experimental Group (EG) The null hypothesis (H0) posited that the medians of both groups were similar Descriptive statistics for the Pretest of the two groups are presented in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8 Descriptive statistics of the two groups’ Pretest

Table 4.8 reveals that the mean density of conjunctions in both groups is equivalent, indicating similar average values Furthermore, the standard deviations and standard error of the mean for both groups show minimal differences, suggesting that neither group exhibits a more clustered or dispersed distribution of conjunction densities around their mean.

Table 4.9 Independent Sample test for the two groups’ pretest

TEST Sig of Levene’s test for Equality of Variances 0.47

Sig (2-tailed) of T-test for Equality of Means 0.81

In Table 4.9, Levene’s test yielded a p-value of 0.47, exceeding the 0.05 threshold, which supported the assumption of equal variances Additionally, the 2-tailed p-value from the T-test was 0.81, also greater than 0.05, leading to the acceptance of the null hypothesis (H0) This indicates that there was no significant difference in the density of conjunctions between the control group (CG) and the experimental group (EG).

The Independent Sample test was performed to analyze the density of conjunctions used in the pretest by two groups of students The results indicated no significant difference in conjunction usage between the groups, confirming their homogeneity.

This section analyzes and compares the pretest results of the control group (CG) and experimental group (EG), confirming their homogeneity All students demonstrated equivalent skills in using conjunctions in English writing Therefore, it can be concluded that no significant variance influenced the improvement in conjunction usage between the two groups, apart from the experimental teaching conducted by the researcher.

4.2.3 The students’ results of the posttest

The study demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar levels of conjunction usage in English writing However, only the experimental group (EG) received instruction on cohesion and conjunction application Following this, both groups completed posttests, and the researcher employed Independent Sample tests to analyze the density of conjunctions used in their writing The null hypothesis (H0) posited that the medians of conjunction usage between the control group (CG) and EG were comparable The descriptive statistics for both groups' posttest results are detailed in Table 4.10.

Table 4.10: Descriptive statistics of the two groups’ Posttest

Table 4.10 reveals a notable disparity in performance between the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG) regarding the use of conjunctions The EG achieved a mean score of 0.79, significantly outperforming the CG, which had a mean score of 0.65 Additionally, both the minimum and maximum scores for the EG were considerably higher than those of the CG The total scores further illustrate this gap, with the EG accumulating 19.99 points compared to the CG's 16.22 points Furthermore, the standard deviation for the CG was greater than that of the EG, indicating more variability in the CG's performance.

EG, which revealed that the density of conjunctions of the former were more scattered about their mean when compared to those of the latter

Table 4.11 The Independent Sample test for the two groups’ posttest

In Table 4.11, Levene’s test yielded a significance value of 0.75, exceeding the p-value of 0.05, leading to the use of the 2-tailed significance for equal variances The T-test showed a significance value of 0.02, which is notably lower than the p-value of 0.05, indicating that the null hypothesis for median equivalence was not upheld Consequently, a significant difference in the median density of conjunctions was observed between the control group (CG) and the experimental group (EG) after the treatment This suggests that the treatment positively impacted the EG's use of conjunctions in English composition writing.

This section aimed to analyze and compare the performance of two groups based on their posttest results The statistical analysis revealed that the Experimental Group (EG) significantly outperformed the Control Group (CG) in the use of conjunctions in their writing after receiving targeted instruction Initially, all participants were similar in their backgrounds, English proficiency, and conjunction usage skills The EG exclusively underwent experimental teaching focused on conjunctions, leading to the conclusion that this intervention was the sole factor contributing to the EG's notable improvement in conjunction application.

4.2.4 The EG’s results of the pretest and posttest

In this part, the researcher continued to explain and validate the progress in using conjunctions in English writing within the EG by taking into account their pretests and posttests

25 students joined the EG and received the treatment Hence, there were 25 pretests and 25 posttests administered and completed The normal distribution of the

Sig of Levene’s test for Equality of Variances 0.75

Sig (2-tailed) of T-test for Equality of Means 0.02

The Shapiro-Wilk tests confirmed a normal population distribution (refer to Section 4.1.1) To evaluate the density of conjunctions in the experimental group (EG) before and after treatment, parametric tests, specifically Paired Sample T-tests, were utilized The null hypothesis (H0) posited that the medians of the two variables were equivalent Descriptive statistics for the EG's pretests and posttests are detailed in Table 4.12.

Table 4.12 Descriptive statistics of the EG’s pretest and posttest

EG N Mean Median Std.Deviation Minimum Maximum Sum

Discussion

4.3.1 The learners’ attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions in their English writing

The first research questions, “What are students’ attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions in English writing?” was discussed in this part

The questionnaire indicated that most students recognized the importance of writing skills but faced challenges in mastering them Key factors contributing to these difficulties included insufficient instruction in high school, a lack of dedicated practice time, and writing assignments that failed to effectively teach composition techniques Additionally, while many students demonstrated an understanding of conjunctions, their overall writing proficiency remained a concern.

While 80% of students acknowledged the importance of conjunctions in writing, many remained unclear about the term's definition Most participants found using conjunctions manageable and reported having received instruction from their teachers in writing and grammar classes However, they expressed that the teaching was insufficient and individualized, leading to a lack of comprehensive understanding These observations are consistent with findings from previous studies (Uzun, K., 2018; Martínez, A C L., 2015; Kondal, B & Bairi, S., 2016; Purba, D R., & Pulungan, R.).

In 2017, it was observed that while students often find learning conjunctions easy and begin using them early in their writing, teaching these elements can lead to overuse, misuse, or illogical applications Many students approach writing with a negligent attitude, lacking awareness of coherence and cohesion, and primarily focus on expressing their thoughts rather than writing smoothly and concisely Interestingly, this study found that students ranked temporal conjunctions as the most challenging, followed by additive, causal, and adversative conjunctions Additionally, the questionnaire included a section for students to suggest improvements for teaching conjunctions and writing skills, revealing valuable insights and expectations for enhancing these practices The findings of this research serve as a useful reference for educators aiming to improve their teaching methods.

4.3.2 The effectiveness of teaching conjunctions on the cohesion of EFL students’ composition and the difference in applying conjunctions before and after the treatment

The study aimed to investigate whether teaching conjunctions positively impacts the cohesion of students' compositions and how students incorporate various types of conjunctions in their writing The findings suggest that explicit instruction on conjunctions enhances students' ability to create cohesive texts, leading to improved overall writing quality Additionally, students demonstrated a diverse application of conjunctions, which contributed to clearer and more connected ideas in their compositions.

The study revealed a significant correlation between the experimental teaching of conjunctions and EFL students' writing skills Explicit instruction on conjunctions and their related aspects led to an enhancement in students' ability to use them effectively As a result, students improved their use of conjunctions, enabling them to create more connected sentences and cohesive paragraphs in their compositions.

The treatment significantly improved the way students in the experimental group (EG) used conjunctions in their writing, demonstrating a marked enhancement in cohesion Following targeted instruction on conjunctions, students became more effective and flexible in their application, leading to stronger cohesive ties in their compositions However, this increased proficiency also resulted in an overuse of conjunctions, indicating a need for balanced application in their writing.

This thesis underscores the significant benefits of teaching conjunctions, aligning with previous research (Tran, 2007; Tahsildar & Yusoff, 2018; Uzun, 2018; Martínez, 2015) that demonstrates a strong correlation between conjunction density and the cohesion of written compositions While these studies affirm the positive impact of conjunction instruction on language accuracy, there is a notable lack of research focused on high school students in Vietnam Consequently, this thesis, alongside Tran's (2007) findings, aims to enrich the literature and advocate for enhanced teaching practices that effectively incorporate conjunctions to improve students' writing skills.

The significance of conjunctions in enhancing writing skills has been reaffirmed through explicit teaching, which has provided students with essential micro-skills to overcome challenges in English writing The improvement in their performance highlights the positive impact of teaching conjunctions on their ability to use them effectively This underscores the undeniable effectiveness of conjunction instruction in improving the cohesion of students' compositions Additionally, feedback from a questionnaire indicates that students possess a positive attitude towards learning and using conjunctions in their writing, recognizing their crucial role and expressing a desire for further instruction in this area.

Chapter summary

This chapter presents an analysis of the pretest, posttest, and learners’ questionnaire results, highlighting a significant improvement in EFL students' use of conjunctions following explicit instruction The posttest results demonstrate a marked enhancement in their skills, while the questionnaire responses reflect the students' positive attitudes towards applying conjunction knowledge in their English writing.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of findings

On grounds of the results embraced in the previous chapter, answers to the research questions are formulated as follows:

5.1.1 The learners’ attitudes towards learning and using conjunctions in their English writing

The students' questionnaire responses revealed a comprehensive understanding of their backgrounds, including age, gender, and English proficiency levels Despite all participants being in grade 12 and having studied English for approximately 10-12 years, they faced significant challenges in writing, particularly in crafting cohesive texts This highlights the urgent need for targeted support to improve their writing skills.

Students recognize the importance of conjunctions in enhancing the cohesion of their writing, agreeing that a solid understanding of these linking words can improve their ability to create connected sentences, paragraphs, and essays Many acknowledge that mastering conjunctions can lead to more coherent compositions However, some students remain unclear about the concepts of "conjunctions" and "cohesion," and a portion of them lack concern for cohesion in their writing They often focus solely on expressing their thoughts without considering the flow and clarity of their writing To address these gaps, there is a need for comprehensive instruction and practice opportunities both in and out of the classroom.

Understanding conjunctions is essential for improving the ability to write cohesive sentences, paragraphs, and essays Many students believe that a grasp of conjunctions enhances their awareness of connecting thoughts, leading to more coherent compositions However, some students remain unclear about the meanings of "conjunctions" and "cohesion." This lack of understanding often results in a disregard for coherence in their writing, as they focus primarily on expressing their ideas without considering smoothness or conciseness To address this issue, students require comprehensive instruction and additional resources to practice both in and out of the classroom.

Students offered valuable suggestions for enhancing writing and conjunction practices based on their school experiences and preferred teaching methods They proposed several innovative ideas for teachers to refine their instructional techniques, addressing various aspects of the teaching process from the lead-in phase to the post-phase These recommendations are not only meaningful but also creative, highlighting the potential for improved educational practices.

The study emphasizes the importance of conjunctions, often overlooked by students, in enhancing their writing skills By understanding and applying conjunctions, students can significantly improve their writing abilities and continue to practice effectively in the future.

5.1.2 The effectiveness of teaching conjunctions on the cohesion of EFL students’ composition

A 10-week intervention demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in the experimental group's (EG) ability to use conjunctions in their writing Comparative analysis of posttest results revealed notable differences between the EG and the control group (CG), highlighting the effectiveness of the intervention on the students' writing skills.

In the posttest, EG demonstrated a significantly improved ability to use conjunctions appropriately and diversely compared to the CG This result indicates that the instruction on conjunctions effectively enhanced the cohesion of students' writing.

The 10-week treatment focused on teaching conjunctions significantly enhanced students' awareness of their role in writing cohesion It equipped them with the skills to apply conjunctions appropriately, understand various types, and recognize their importance in creating cohesive texts Additionally, the program fostered a habit of using conjunctions to effectively link ideas in their writing.

Teaching conjunctions significantly enhanced students' understanding by providing a detailed overview, enabling them to distinguish between similar conjunctions, and encouraging more appropriate and flexible usage While this instruction reduced instances of misuse, it also led to a tendency for students to overuse conjunctions in their writing.

Suggestions

Based on the findings from the two tests, the experimental teaching, and the questionnaire, the researcher offers suggestions for both students and teachers aimed at enhancing English language skills through writing.

Students should understand the importance of conjunctions and their role in enhancing cohesion in writing Research, including studies by Uzun, K., demonstrates that explicit training on conjunctions significantly improves learners' ability to effectively use them in their writing.

Research indicates that improving the use of conjunctions significantly enhances the cohesion of written compositions Studies by Septianingrum (2007), Tran (2007), and Tahsildar & Yusoff (2018) highlight the positive effects of conjunctions on writing quality When students recognize the importance of conjunctions, they are likely to shift their mindset and dedicate considerable time and effort to mastering conjunctions and other elements of cohesion.

The learners should initially make a change if they desire to increase the cohesion in their writing Students should take an active role and practice self-study rather than

While formal education imparts knowledge, independent study is essential for a comprehensive learning experience Teenagers, particularly those at the intermediate level, must take charge of their own educational journeys The ability to write clearly in English is largely influenced by the writer's dedication and desire to improve By fostering intrinsic motivation and interest in the language, students can explore various methods to enhance their learning.

In conclusion, conjunctions and cohesion-related elements play a crucial role in effective communication Additionally, students should reinforce their learning by practicing outside the classroom using various resources.

Although students have numerous learning resources at their disposal, they often struggle to understand conjunctions without teacher assistance Therefore, this section offers valuable recommendations for educators to enhance their teaching methods.

Conjunctions play a vital role in creating cohesion in writing, and it is essential for students to understand their proper usage Educators should provide a balanced view of conjunctions, emphasizing that effective cohesion is not achieved by randomly inserting these devices Instead, teachers must demonstrate the different logical and conjunctive relationships that exist between sentences, paragraphs, and entire texts, guiding students to use conjunctions thoughtfully and skillfully.

To enhance sentence clarity, students should be cautious when using conjunctions to connect clauses Teachers must advise against overcrowding sentences with multiple clauses and conjunctions, as this can obscure meaning and lead to confusion A sentence overloaded with conjunctions often becomes cumbersome and unclear Additionally, educators should demonstrate how to effectively join related clauses using appropriate conjunctions, ensuring coherence and clarity in writing.

Teachers should emphasize the importance of logical relationships when students use conjunctions to connect independent clauses If a sentence contains multiple unrelated concepts, students should be encouraged to rephrase it by dividing it into separate sentences Educators should guide students in choosing appropriate conjunctions by providing examples of common clause relationships, such as specified-general, hypothesis-real, and cause-effect Introducing these typical clause relations in English helps students recognize how ideas are interconnected and teaches them to sequence their thoughts effectively to reflect these relationships.

English language teachers play a crucial role in highlighting the significance of conjunctions in writing To achieve this, it is essential for educators to guide students in grasping the typical relationships between clauses in English texts Implementing specific teaching activities can aid learners in effectively combining ideas and information in their written work By utilizing these activities, teachers can enhance the cohesion and coherence of students' compositions.

Limitations of the study

The study faced limitations due to a tight course schedule at the English center, which restricted the time available for practicing conjunctions To enhance their understanding, students would have benefited from additional sessions to reinforce the knowledge gained in previous lessons This lack of practice time may have contributed to the unclear test results observed in some students.

The limited sample size of this study, comprising only 62 participants for the questionnaire and 50 students for the pretest and posttest, posed a significant challenge for the researcher in generalizing the findings to the broader population of EFL students.

88 in Vietnam's high schools It is obvious that more accurate results could have been obtained by using a bigger sample size in the investigation

A significant limitation of the study was the lack of prior research in the relevant field The literature review highlighted that only a few studies focused on conjunctions, which hindered the researcher's ability to effectively compare and contrast findings in the discussion section.

Recommendations for further study

Due to some certain limitations of the study, further studies could be conducted to gain insight into some following aspects

Intermediate students often perceive their limited English proficiency as a barrier to their studies Future research should focus on students across different English proficiency levels to determine if they encounter similar challenges when writing compositions This approach could provide valuable insights into the writing difficulties faced by learners at various stages of language acquisition.

Future studies should focus on utilizing a larger sample size to enhance the representativeness of their findings A robust sample size will enable researchers to obtain more accurate results, which can be crucial for making generalizations about the broader population.

This study involved Vietnamese participants, all of whom regard English as a foreign language, highlighting the potential for future research on the differences in understanding conjunctions among EFL, ESL, and native speakers The focus of the research was on the effectiveness of teaching conjunctions to improve the cohesion of students’ writing However, it is important to note that conjunctions play a crucial role not only in writing but also in enhancing other language skills, including speaking and listening, suggesting avenues for further exploration.

89 researchers may find it interesting and useful to conduct a research to explore the effectiveness of conjunctions in such skills

Cohesive devices encompass a range of elements beyond just conjunctions, including lexical devices, references, ellipsis, and substitution Therefore, exploring these factors across various language skills such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking presents valuable opportunities for research.

Summary

This chapter highlights the key findings of the study on the impact of teaching conjunctions on the cohesion of students' writing and their attitudes toward learning and using conjunctions The results indicate effective strategies for enhancing students' compositions and provide recommendations for educators and future researchers in this area.

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Teacher name: Trương Đinh Minh Đăng

Lesson: Additive Conjunctions (and, or, as well as, moreover, besides, furthermore, for example, for instances)

A OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

- Know how to use additive conjunctions (and, or, as well as, moreover, besides, furthermore, for example, for instances) to combine ideas

- Identify clearly different types of conjunctions

- Know the rules and the structure additive conjunctions

- Apply these structure in daily communication and writing

- Form the structure from examples

B METHOD: Integrated, mainly analysis, demonstration

C TEACHING AIDS: Textbook, teacher’s book, projector, a board and chalk

- Teacher shows a short paragraph using conjunctions

- Based on that, teacher asks students to pay attention to the way conjunctions are used

- Introduce: So, today we will spend time learning about conjunctions that are linking words used to combine words, phrases and sentences in English

❖ Structure: a) and, as well as , or :

Eg: - She likes dancing and singing

- She can sing and she can dance

 Join sentences or phrases that are alike

- He likes sunflowers, roses as well as violet

- My mother as well as I went to supermarket today

- Pay attention to the lesson

Pronoun + as well as + Pronoun

 Join phrases, nouns and pronouns that are alike

Notes: Verb belongs to the S2

Eg: - You might stay or you might leave

- She can go with Tim or John

 Join sentences or phrases that give choices or alternatives

Eg: - Tom loves Erica; moreover, she loves him

- The house is beautiful Furthermore, it is in the city center

 Sentence connector, connect 2 sentences to add more ideas c) For example, For instance

Eg: He has a lot of hobbies For example, he is a fan of travelling

She loves many kinds of fruits, for example, apples and mangoes

 To give an examples, clarify the previous idea

Introduce: We have just learned the structures So, now we are going to apply this knowledge to do some practical tasks

Task 1: Games: Who is faster?

- Teacher divides class into 2 groups

- Each group takes turn to answer multiple choice questions to gain the right to answer the question

- The group having more correct answers will be the winner

- Pay attention to teacher’ instruction

Sen 1 For example / for instance, sen 2

My new neighbors are vegetarians and do not eat meat, including beef, pork, chicken, or fish To be friendly, I invited them over for dinner, and they arrived early with their young son, who is still a baby I prepared rice, noodles, and a fresh green salad for the meal Since they don’t drink coffee or tea, I offered them lemonade and orange juice as drink options For dessert, I provided a choice between chocolate cake and apple pie The husband wanted both desserts, while the wife was uncertain about whether to choose cake or pie They have invited me to their apartment for dinner next month, where they will serve a special vegetarian meal.

1 Bruce and Sam will marry soon

2 Will you go to work or to see the doctor?

3 Would you like lemonade _or orange juice?

4 Are they talking or eating?

6 I am not sure my friend will go ahead or _turn left

7 You should go home and do your homework

8 You have to stop smoking or it will hurt your lungs

9 She should go now _or she will be late for train

10 I am free now _and _my mother doesn’t have anything to do

Teacher name: Trương Đinh Minh Đăng

Lesson: Additive Conjunctions (Both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor)

E OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

- Know how to use conjunctions to combine ideas

- Identify clearly 4 types of additive conjunctions

- Know the rules and the structure of 4 types of conjunctions

- Apply these structure in daily communication and writing

- Form the structure from examples

F METHOD: Integrated, mainly analysis, demonstration

G TEACHING AIDS: Textbook, teacher’s book, projector, board and chalk

- Teacher shows some pictures of hobbies and then askes students who likes these hobbies

- Based on that, teacher forms some sample sentences using conjunctions

- Introduce: So, today we will spend time learning about conjunctions that are linking words used to combine words or phrases in English

Eg: - Sally likes wearing red dress

Alex likes wearing red dress

 Both Sally and Alex like wearing red dress

- Anna is tall She is also thin

 Anna is both tall and thin

- John can sing well He also can dance well

 John can both sing and dance well

- Pay attention to the lesson

1) Tom was late So was Ann

2) It was a very boring film It was very long too

3) Jim wants to listen to music He wants to watch TV too b) Not only … but also

Eg: - She is old She is also fat

 She is not only old but also fat

- Both Tom and Ann are 9 years old

 Not only Tom but also Ann is 9 years old

- She dances beautifully She sings sweetly

 She not only dances beautifully but also sings sweetly

Notes: Verb belongs to the S2

1) Both Tom and Ann were late

2) The film was both boring and long

3) Jim wants to both listen to music and watch TV

1) Mai has not only pens but also pencils

2) Peter is not only handsome but also intelligent

3) Bob not only studies well but also draws well

Not only + N/V/Adj + but also + N/V/Adj

1) Mai has both pens and pencils

2) Peter is handsome He is intelligent too

3) Bob studies well and he also draws well c) Either … or…

Eg: - We can go to Hanoi by train or we can go to Hanoi by plane

 We can go to Hanoi either by train or plane

- You might stay or you might leave

 You might either stay or leave

- John will go with you or

Kevin will go with you

 Either John or Kevin will go with you

Notes: Verb belongs to the S2

1) Lan is not at home She goes to school or she goes out with her parents

1) Lan either goes to school or goes out with her parents

2) Either Linh or her cat broke this vase

2/ Linh broke this vase or her cat did it d) Neither … nor…

Eg: - Bob’s parents do not sing well

Bob does not sing well

 Neither Bob’s parents nor Bob sings well

- She didn’t come and she didn’t phone, too

 She neither came nor phoned

Notes: Verb belongs to the S2

1/ Tom was not sad or disappointed with his exam result

2/ My and I didn’t attend the class yesterday

1/ Tom was neither sad nor disappointed with his exam result 2/ Neither My nor I attended the class yesterday

Introduce: We have just learned the structures So, now we are going to apply this knowledge to do some practical tasks

- Teacher divides class into 2 groups

- Each group takes turn to answer multiple choice questions to gain the right to drive the car

- The group coming to finish first will be the winner

- Pay attention to teacher’ instruction

1/ I don’t like this book It is …… interesting …… cheap a) Both – and c) either – or b) Neither – nor d) not only – but also

2/ Neither Linda nor I …….classic music a) Liking c) liked b) Like d) likes

3/ John is very poor He has ……house……money a) Both – and c) not only – but also b) Neither – nor d) either – or

4/ You should ………disrespect ……deceive your friends a) Both – and c) not only – but also b) Neither – nor d) either – or

5/ Who wrote you this love letter? – I’m not sure I think it was …….Michael… Paul a) Both – and c) either – or b) Neither – nor d) not only – but also

- Task 2: Make up sentences, linking these ideas Use both …and, not only …but also, either …or, neither …nor

For example: Kate plays the violin

 Kate can not only play the violin but also sing well

1/ We can watch TV or we can play computer games now (either)

6/ …… Linh ……her sister like listening to pop music a) Both –and c) either –or b) Neither –nor d) not only – but also

7/ I left it …….on the table …… in the drawer a) Both –and c) either – or b) Neither –nor d) not only – but also

8/ …….the radio …….the television breaks down a) Both – and c) not only – but also b) Neither – nor d) either – or

9/ I’m so lucky I went to …….Spain …….Britain this year a) Both – and c) not only – but also b) Either – or d) neither – nor

10/ Neither Jane nor her parents … this film before a) see c) sees b) has seen d) have seen

2/ Alan couldn’t read Chinese And he couldn’t write it (neither)

3/ I didn’t know Sam’s address My sister didn’t know his address

4/ My new flat is larger than my old flat And it is closer to my office

5/ Dan didn’t meet Tom’s sister

And he didn’t meet Tom’s brother

6/ She will have to study hard She will have to do a lot of exercises

7/ Mary has both toothache and headache (not only)

- Teacher shows some pictures or situations

1/ We can either watch TV or play computer games now

2/ Alan could neither read Chinese nor write it

3/ Neither I nor my sister knew Sam’s address

4/ My new flat is both lager than my old one and closer to my office

5/ He didn’t meet either Tom’s sister or his brother

6/ She will have to not only study hard but also do a lot of exercises

7/ Mary has not only toothache but also headache

- Students base on these hints to make up sentences using one of 4 structures they have learn

- With each correct sentence, the group will earn 10 points

- The group having the most points will be the winner

Task 3: Making up sentences based on given pictures

Teacher name: Trương Đinh Minh Đăng

Lesson: Adversative Conjunctions (but, although, though, even though, ) – Period 1 Class: Experimental group

I OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

- Know how to use conjunctions to combine ideas

- Know the rules and the structure of causal conjunctions

- Apply this structure in daily communication

- Form the structure from examples

J METHOD: Integrated, mainly analysis, demonstration

K TEACHING AIDS: Textbook, teacher’s book, projector, board and chalk

Teacher writes an example on the board

Eg: Although it rains so hard, we go to school on time - Listen to T’s instructions

- Teacher asks students to highlight which clause means positively and which one means negetively

- Then, teacher emphasizes the word “although”, tell students that it is one of adversative conjunctions which are used to combine 2 clauses that have contrasting meanings

- Teacher leads into the new lesson: “ Today will be investigating another group of conjunctions that compare (contrast) something good

(positive) with something bad (negative), or the other way around.”

Although + negative clause, + positive clause

Positive clause+ though + negative clause although

While/ Where are used as comparing tools They compares 2 ideas, opinions, things, actions, in terms of difference

In which clause 1 and 2 often have opposite meanings

- Pay attention to the lesson

Introduce: We have just learned the structures So, now we are going to apply this knowledge to do some practical tasks

Task 1: Read the text and underline:

- Teacher divides class into 4 groups

- Ask students to work in groups

- Teacher asks students to complete the task in 3 minutes

- Ask each group to take turns give their answer and ask other group to give their comments on their classmates’ answers

- Teacher comments on students’ work and give them correct answers

Task 2: Order these cards to make a sentence Can you reorder the cards to make another sentence that makes sense? Write up the sentences that you have made below

- Ask them to work in group of four

- Arrange these card to make as many sentences as possible

- Let students do the task in 5 minutes

- Pay attention to teacher’ instruction

- Work in group of four

- Ask other groups to comment on their classmates’ answers

- Write the answers on the board

- Correct their answers if any

- The cards of task 2 in appendix B

1 Underline the contrasting conjunctions in the text in BLUE, positive clause in GREEN and negative clause in RED

Recycling – It's Not Easy Being Green

Reduce, reuse, and recycle Everyday we are told that we need to take more care of our planet, however it’s not easy being green – or is it?

Local councils are working to simplify recycling by introducing color-coded bins for different recyclable materials, although this initiative is currently limited to certain towns These bins feature clear images, making them user-friendly and accessible While many residents with these bins are successfully recycling, others without them are facing challenges and resorting to disposing of everything as waste It is crucial to address this issue to encourage widespread recycling efforts.

Many individuals argue that recycling is time-consuming, as it requires extra effort to separate waste While some take the time to recycle, the majority express frustration over the perceived inconvenience However, it's crucial to consider the long-term consequences of neglecting recycling, especially as news reports highlight the growing issue of overflowing landfills If we continue to disregard proper waste management, we may face a significant crisis in just 20 years when our dumps reach capacity.

Many individuals believe that one person's actions are insignificant, arguing that their waste won't impact the environment if others recycle However, if everyone adopts this mindset, collective inaction will prevail Each item recycled contributes to environmental preservation, making a tangible difference in our efforts to save the planet Recycling is simpler than it seems, as most everyday items can be recycled It's crucial to take every possible step to protect our planet and its wildlife, reinforcing the idea that green is truly the best color for our future.

HANDOUT though it was raining

She isn’t big She is strong

My sister smiles She lost the game

My father is reading books

My mom is washing dishes whereas

Teacher name: Trương Đinh Minh Đăng

Lesson: Adversative Conjunctions (however, nevertheless, in/by contrast, on the other hand, ) – Period 2

M OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

- Know how to use conjunctions to combine ideas

- Know the rules and the structure of causal conjunctions

- Apply the structure in daily communication and writing

- Form the structure from examples

N METHOD: Integrated, mainly analysis, demonstration

O TEACHING AIDS: Textbook, teacher’s book, projector, board and chalk

- Teacher calls some students to give some examples using adversative conjunctions

(although, though, while, whereas) by themselves

- Teacher asks all class to pay attention to the structure of the above conjunctions, then lead into the new lesson

In this article, we will explore conjunctions that link two independent sentences with contrasting meanings in English Building on our previous understanding of adversative conjunctions, we will focus on how these conjunctions effectively combine contrasting clauses to enhance sentence structure and clarity.

- Teacher writes an example on the board:

Eg: I want to go out with my friends However, it is raining so hard

- Teacher asks students to find which one is positive clause, and which one is negative one

 “However” is used to combine 2 independent sentences in which one has negative meaning and the other has positive meaning

Eg: Some people think Internet is a wonderful invention

On the other hand, others believe that it also has some disadvantages

- Teacher ask students to pay attention to the two clauses

 “On the other hand” is used to combine two sentences having contrasting meanings

- Pay attention to the lesson

Introduce: We have just learned the structures So, now we are going to apply this knowledge to do some practical tasks

Task 1: Making up sentences as required

- Teacher instructs students the requirements of the task

- Each group will be in charge of one toy

- Students base on these hints to make up sentences using adversative conjunctions to persuade others to buy their toy

- With each correct sentence, the group will earn 10 points

- The group having the most points will be the winner

- Pay attention to teacher’ instruction

- Work in group The task in Appendix A

Mrs Jones is considering which toy to buy for her 8-year-old son, James, this Christmas and is seeking assistance to make the best choice.

When comparing these toys, it is essential to consider their price, appearance, running time, number of batteries, and unique features While one toy may be more affordable, it might lack the visual appeal of its pricier counterpart; however, the latter could offer longer running time Additionally, some toys require fewer batteries, making them more convenient, although they may not have as many features as others Ultimately, Mrs Jones should choose the toy that balances cost and functionality while meeting her preferences for aesthetics and performance.

Name MiP Robo-Puppy Coji-bot

• MiP is able to remember his surroundings, follow hand gestures, and even follow objects around

• It reacts to your voice and hand movements

• It can balance and hold objects while moving or standing still!

• Different modes including Roaming and Dancing

• It can listen to your voice and understand your commands!

• Reacts to your touch by panting when stroked

• Train your pet to sit, walk, cry, sing, and do a back flip!

• Comes with a bone to feed him and a ball to play and train him with

• Runs for 3 hours and 30 minutes using 3 batteries

• Has educational games and puzzles to help young children learn maths and spelling

• Lots of fun games to test and improve your memory

• Teaches young children how to program and code computers

• Runs for 4 hours using 2 batteries

• Reacts to being held and touched

Teacher name: Trương Đinh Minh Đăng

Lesson: Review the knowledge of the first two types of conjunctions: Addive conjunctions and Temporal conjunctions

A OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

- Understand well the use of the two types of conjunctions

- Identify clearly different types of conjunctions

- Know the rules and the structure of the Additive conjunctions and Temporal conjunctions

- Apply these structures in doing exerciese and daily communication and writing

- Use additive and temporal conjunctions in speaking and writing

B METHOD: Integrated, mainly analysis, demonstration

C TEACHING AIDS: Textbook, teacher’s book, projector, board and chalk

- Teacher asks students to make some sentences using two types of conjunctions to check their understanding of old lessons

In this article, we will review the first two types of conjunctions: Additive and Temporal conjunctions It's time to reinforce our understanding through practical exercises.

- Pay attention to the lesson

- Teacher distributes handouts of exercises for students and instructs them to do exercises

Exercise 1: Rearrange sentences to form a complete story

- Teacher divides the class into 4 groups

- The group having the correct answer and being the fastest one will be the winner

- Teacher corrects their answers in front of class

- Work in groups to complete exercise 1

- Pay attention to teacher’ instruction

Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks using

- Teacher asks students to pay attention to exercise 2

- Instruct them to read through the paragraph and try to fill in all the blanks with suitable conjunctions

- Ask students to do exercise 2 individually

- Correct their answers in front of class

- Teacher asks students to spin a wheel to choose a conjunction Then, he/she has to make a sentence using that conjunction

- Each area on the wheel represents a conjunctions The student will have to make a sentence using a conjunction by themselves

Rearrange these following sentences to form a complete story

1 Lily had a terrible day today

2 She woke up late She had to hurry

3 She was hungry She didn’t have time to eat any breakfast

4 She got dressed She grabbed her books She ran all the way to the bus stop

5 The bus was just leaving She yelled The bus driver didn’t hear her

6 She could take a taxi to school She could walk

8 One hour later, she arrived at school

9 She had missed her first class She was late to her second one

10 She hadn’t studied for her calculus test Of course, she didn’t do well on it

11 Her biology teacher told her she had to repeat three labs She would fail the course

12 After school, she walked to the bus stop

13 She hadn’t brought her umbrella She got very wet

14 The bus finally came She got on

15 She reached into her pocket for bus fare Her pocket was empty

17 She couldn’t pay the bus fare She had to walk home in the rain

He filled it out and left

He went to the bookshelf, but the book wasn’t there

Tom went to the library to get a book

_He went to the computer catalog

_The librarian told him to fill out a form

_He told the librarian he wanted to reserve that book

_He wrote down the title and call number of the book

_Our vacation in Florida last month was a real disaster

On the way to the airport, our taxi broke down

_We got a new hotel room after arguing with the manager

_When we arrived back home, we found that water had flooded our house because of a broken pipe

_All in all, we should have stayed at home

_We had to wait several hours for the next flight

_When we arrived at our hotel in Miami, our reservations had been canceled because we were late

_It rained the entire week, so we couldn’t go to the beach at all

We missed our plane to Miami

The second day we were in Miami, someone broke into our hotel room and stole all of our clothes

Fill in the blanks using suitable additive and temporal conjunctions

To apply for a scholarship, begin by obtaining the application form from your college's scholarship office and ensure it is filled out completely and accurately Next, request letters of recommendation from two of your instructors Finally, submit the completed application form along with the recommendation letters to the scholarship office before the deadline.

In today's digital age, many services can be accessed without human interaction, such as withdrawing and depositing cash at ATMs, purchasing snacks from vending machines, and making national and international calls using a plastic telephone calling card Additionally, students can earn college credits through television courses, eliminating the need for traditional classroom attendance.

An American breakfast typically includes orange or grapefruit juice and is often accompanied by ham, bacon, eggs, and toast In contrast, a traditional Japanese breakfast features broiled fish, rice, and pickled vegetables While Americans commonly enjoy coffee, Japanese people prefer green tea as their beverage of choice.

Teacher name: Trương Đinh Minh Đăng

Lesson: Causal Conjunctions (so, because, since, as)

A OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

- Know how to use causal conjunctions to combine ideas

- To understand the function of causal conjunctions

- Know the rules and the structure of causal conjunctions

- Apply this structure in daily communication and writing

- Form the structure from examples

B METHOD: Integrated, mainly analysis, demonstration

C TEACHING AIDS: Textbook, teacher’s book, projector, board and chalk

Lead – in: - Listen to T’s instructions

- Starter: Show ‘but’ and ‘so’ used in context

- What word class are these words?

- What is the purpose of these words?

 Conjunctions extend sentences by joining clauses together

 part of a sentence with a subject and verb A sentence can be clause, but a clause is not always a sentence

- I ate the cake but I am still not full

- I ate the cake so I am full now

- How are the functions of these words different?

 - ‘But’ offers a contrasting/opposite view

 - ‘So’ explains the effect of the cause

- Today we will investigate causal conjunctions: these explain how

- Pay attention to the lesson

134 things work or why something has happened They link cause and effect e.g It was raining therefore I brought my umbrella

- Teacher shows a set of sentences using causal conjunctions

- Step 1: find the causal conjunctions

Read through the conjunctions and explain unfamiliar ones

- Step 2: unpick the sentences: what is the cause/effect?

1 The cause, + so + the effect

Eg: It is raining now, so we can’t go to school

Since + the cause, + the effect

Eg: Because it is raining, we can’t go to school

The effect + since + the cause

Eg: We can’t go to school because it is raining

Introduce: We have just learned the structures So, now we are going to apply this knowledge to do some practical tasks

Task 1: Read the text about the problems with plastic shopping bags For each sentence, underline the cause in green, the effect in red, and the causal conjunction in blue

- Teacher instructs students to do task

- Teacher divides the class into 4 groups

- Teacher asks students to do task 1 in group

- Teacher lets students complete the task in 5 minutes

- Teachers asks 2 groups to give their answers, then asks the other two to correct if any

Task 2: Fill in the blanks to complete a summary

- Teacher asks students to look at task

2 and read the requirements carefully

- Teacher asks students to complete the task in group of 4

- Remind students to take time and consider which conjunctions work best for which gaps

- Pay attention to teacher’ instruction

- Do the task in group of four

- Let students to do the task in 5 minutes

- Choose randomly some groups to give their answers

- Correct their answers in front of class

- Correct their answer if any

when plastic bags are not disposed of properly **(causal conjunction)**.

Whales have lived in our oceans for millions of years Because they are clever and magnificent animals, they should not be brutally killed for their meat or blubber

Whales have long endured human exploitation, particularly in Japan, where they are served in upscale restaurants, driving an increasing demand for whale meat With a densely populated landscape and limited agricultural land, Japan heavily depends on the ocean for sustenance, leading its citizens to view whales as a traditional component of their maritime harvest.

Whale meat, a delicacy found primarily in high-end restaurants, remains unaffordable for most Japanese people With a wide variety of meat options available today, including beef and chicken, the necessity to hunt and consume whales has diminished significantly.

Historically, whales have been hunted for various products, particularly before the advent of electricity Whale blubber, or fat, was essential for producing oil for lamps, and it was also utilized in the creation of margarines and soaps.

In today's market, whale oil has been largely replaced by sustainable alternatives such as vegetable oils and jojoba bean oil, eliminating the need for whale hunting to source ingredients for various products.