Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! The Repair of Vehicle Bodies This well-respected book has been revised and updated, with an additional chapter on setting up a new bodyshop as well as many updated sections and a range of revision questions It also contains skill building notes covering all aspects of construction, repair and finishing for Vehicle Body Repair students Serving as a comprehensive manual, this book fully covers the underpinning knowledge required for the Automotive Skills Council Vehicle Body and Paint Operations requirements, IMI Body Repair and Refinishing Technical Certificates (VRQs), National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs), City & Guilds Vehicle Body Repair Competence courses, and the NVQ and Progression Awards of both City & Guilds and the Institute of the Motor Industry at levels and The most comprehensive text on the construction, repair and finishing of vehicle bodies Updated and revised to meet the latest Automotive Skills standards, IMI Technical Certificate curriculum and NVQ requirements Ideal for body repair work, refinishing, painting and hobby vehicle builders Automotive HND and degree students will find the text valuable for practical project work This text is essential reading for all of those involved in body repair work or insurance assessment, as well as for professional vehicle restorers and DIY enthusiasts working on the restoration or adaption of classic and modern cars Andrew Livesey has been involved in automotive engineering both as a lecturer and a writer for many years He taught and managed the Oxford Brookes University Motorsport programmes at Brooklands and set up the very successful undergraduate training programmes for McLaren He is the author of several motor vehicle books and currently divides his time between lecturing at the University of Kent and running his own company, Andrew Livesey Consulting Ltd Other books by Andrew Livesey: Basic Motorsport Engineering, ISBN: 978-0-750-68909-0 Advanced Motorsport Engineering, ISBN: 978-0-750-68908-3 The Repair of Vehicle Bodies Sixth edition The late A ROBINSON RTechEng, MInstBE, MIBCAM, AWeldl, MISME Formerly Section Leader for Vehicle Bodywork and Vehicle Body Repair Course Coordinator for CGLI 398 Vehicle Body Competencies Course Coordinator for CGLI 385 Vehicle Bodywork at Gateshead College Updated by Eur Ing ANDREW LIVESEY MA CEng MIMechE FIMI Sixth edition published 2013 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Andrew Livesey and A Robinson The right of Andrew Livesey and A Robinson to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe First edition published by Heinemann Educational Books Ltd 1973 Fifth edition published by Butterworth-Heinemann 2005 NOTICE No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Robinson, A (Alan) Repair of vehicle bodies / A Robinson ; updated by Andrew Livesey 6th ed p cm Includes index Automobiles Bodies Maintenance and repair Automobiles Design and construction I Livesey, W A (W Andrew) II Title TL255.R56 2013 629.20 60288 dc23 2012025441 ISBN: 978-0-415-53445-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-07547-0 (ebk) Typeset in Times by Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd, Pondicherry, India To my wife Jean for her help and support whilst writing and my dog Lettie for taking me on walks along the beach to think through concepts Contents List of figures xii List of tables xxii Preface xxiii Acknowledgements xxiv Vehicle construction Vehicle safety testing Elements of vehicle construction Vehicle information code plate Skills and questions 1 6 Health and safety, and the environment Personal health and safety procedures Fire precautions Fire risks in the workshop Safety signs in the workshop General safety precautions in the workshop Electrical hazards Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) Maintain the health, safety and security of the work environment Minimizing the risks from unavoidable hazards Skills and questions 8 10 11 14 14 16 16 16 16 18 23 Hand and power tools Hand tools used in body repair work Hammers Hand dollies Body spoons Body files Hand snips Specialist panel beating tools Clamps Punches Edge setters or jogglers Sheet metal bench stakes Hand grooving tools Rivet sets Cutting tools Bending and swaging tools General-purpose assembly and dismantling tools 24 24 24 26 27 28 28 29 30 30 30 31 33 33 33 34 35 viii Contents Skills Questions 41 41 Materials used in vehicle bodies Skills Steel Aluminium Rubber Sealers Sound deadening, thermal insulating and undersealing materials Interior furnishings Plastics Amorphous and crystalline plastics Abbreviations for automotive plastics Types of plastics Repair procedures Painting plastics Safety glass Skills Questions 43 43 43 51 54 54 56 57 58 58 60 61 63 64 64 66 67 Metal forming processes Properties of metals Heat treatment of steel and aluminium Heat treatment of carbon steel Machines for sheet metal fabrication Cutting machines Bending theory Bending machines Rolling machines Forming and drawing Sheet metal cutting for press work Skills Questions 68 68 71 72 76 77 79 79 80 85 86 88 88 Marking out and measuring Marking out Manufacture of templates Basic marking-out and measuring instruments Precision marking-out and measuring instruments Skills Questions 89 89 89 90 97 101 101 Methods of joining Solid rivets Types of riveted joint Blind rivets Repetition rivets Rivet selection Structural fasteners Screws and bolts Fastening devices Adhesives Selection of adhesives Achieving good results with adhesives 102 102 103 105 109 111 112 115 121 126 127 127 Contents ix Adhesives and the automotive industry Skills Questions 128 130 131 Soft and hard soldering methods Comparison of fusion and non-fusion jointing processes Soft and hard solders Soft soldering Hard soldering Health and safety and the environment Skills Questions 132 132 133 133 137 144 144 144 Gas welding, cutting and plasma arc Development of gas welding Systems of gas welding Oxy-acetylene welding equipment Regulators Definitions of welding terms Welding rods and fluxes Flame control and types of flame Methods of welding Edge preparation and types of joint Welding technique: butt joint in mild steel Welding various metals Gas cutting Gases: characteristics and colour coding Safety measures Plasma arc cutting Skills Questions 146 146 147 148 150 153 154 154 156 157 159 160 160 163 163 167 170 170 10 Electric resistance welding Resistance welding in car body manufacture Resistance spot welding Resistance projection welding Resistance seam welding Resistance flash welding Resistance butt welding Resistance welding in body repair work Resistance spot welding of high-strength steels Weld quality ARO Spotrite Pulsa resistance welding system Single-sided spot welding Skills Questions 172 172 173 174 175 176 176 176 177 177 181 184 185 185 11 Manual metal arc welding Principles of manual metal arc welding Electrical terms used in arc welding Metal arc welding equipment Electrodes used in welding: BS coding Arc welding positions Essential factors of arc welding Technique of welding 187 187 188 188 191 193 194 198 x Contents Safety precautions for the welder Skills Questions 199 200 200 12 Gas shielded arc welding Development of gas shielded arc welding Gases used for shielded arc processes TIG welding Equipment used in TIG welding Application of TIG welding MIG/MAG welding MIG/MAG spot/plug welding Equipment used in MIG/MAG welding MIG/MAG welding techniques Applications of MIG/MAG welding in vehicle body construction Applications of MIG/MAG welding in body repair work MIG/MAG welding of low-carbon steel and HSLA steels Welding stress and distortion in the MIG/MAG process Weld testing and inspection Equipment maintenance and safety Skills Questions 201 201 201 204 205 210 210 211 212 217 221 222 224 225 228 230 231 231 13 Craft techniques and minor accident damage Panel beating: forming panels by hand Shaping metal by hand General guide to the fabrication of hand-made panels Edge stiffening of sheet metal Techniques of damage rectification Hammering techniques Filing Sanding or disc grinding Hot shrinking Cold shrinking Body soldering Chemically hardening fillers (plastic fillers) Body jack (hydraulic) Application of the body jack Repair of component motor body panels Aluminium panel repair Body electrical and electronic systems Skills Questions 232 232 232 239 240 243 245 249 250 250 252 253 254 256 259 262 267 273 278 278 14 Major accident damage repair Damage classification and assessment Pulling, alignment and repair systems used on major accident damage Alignment of the modern integral body Major repair techniques Questions 280 280 281 285 293 316 15 Bodyshop planning Initial planning Planning the areas of the workshop Bodyshop heating 318 318 321 326 Contents xi Bodyshop lighting Essential equipment for the bodyshop Bodyshops and legal requirements Questions 328 329 331 340 16 Reinforced composite materials Introduction Basic principles of reinforced composite materials Manufacture of reinforced composite materials Types of reinforcing material Resins used in reinforced composite materials Moulding techniques for reinforced composite laminates Repair of reinforced composite bodies Common faults in moulded laminates Safety precautions Skills Questions 341 341 341 342 343 346 350 357 359 362 363 363 17 Automotive finishing and refinishing Glossary of terms used in spray painting Basic composition of paint Types of paint Materials used in refinishing Spray painting equipment Types of spray gun Basic parts of a standard spray gun Spray gun maintenance and cleaning Spray gun motion study Spraying defects Sanding and polishing machines Preparation of a motor vehicle for repainting Finishing and refinishing processes Burnishing, polishing and final detail work Rust-proofing Movement of vehicle in the paint shop Common spray painting defects Colour mixing and matching Questions 365 365 366 366 368 371 373 375 377 379 382 384 386 387 398 399 400 401 403 404 18 Case study General appearance Site selection Pre-planning Notable points 406 406 406 406 408 Glossary 411 Websites 419 Index 420 412 Glossary Bottom side The frame member of the base of the body extending along the full length of the main portion of the body Brazing A non-fusion process in which the filler metal has a lower melting point than the parent metal(s) Buckles The resulting distortion of body panels after collision Bulkhead A transverse support in a body structure Bumping Reshaping metal with a hammer and dolly Burr The resulting condition left on a metal edge after cutting or filing Bursting disc A type of pressure relief device which consists of a disc, usually of metal, which is so held that it confines the pressure of the cylinder under normal conditions The disc is intended to rupture between limits of over-pressure due to abnormal conditions, particularly when the cylinder is exposed to fire Butt joint A welded joint in which the ends or edges of two pieces of metal directly face each other Calibrate To check irregularities in measuring instruments Cant panel The curved section of the roof top running between the comparatively flat top and the rain drip or gutter Cantrail The longitudinal framing of the roof at the joint Carbon dioxide A heavy colourless and incombustible gas which results from the perfect combustion of carbon Carbon fibre An extremely strong, though expensive, reinforcement which can be used in conjunction with fibreglass It gives increased rigidity to the laminate Carbonizing flame An oxy-acetylene flame adjustment created by an excess of acetylene over oxygen, resulting in an excess of carbon in the flame Case hardening This is the process of hardening the outer case or shell of articles, which is accomplished by inducing additional carbon into the case of the steel by a variety of methods Catalyst A chemical substance which brings about a chemical change to produce a different substance Catalyst dispenser A purpose-designed container for measuring and dispensing liquid catalyst without splashing Catalytic converter Referred to as a cat, helps to clean the exhaust gas Centre pillar The centre vertical support of a four-door saloon Chassis The base frame of a motor vehicle of composite construction to which the body is attached Check valve A safety device that controls the passage of gas or air in one direction, in order to prevent the reversal of gas flow and a consequent accident Chemical reaction The resulting change when two or more chemical substances are mixed Chopped strand mat Chopped strands bonded into a mat to produce a popular economical general-purpose reinforcement Chopped strands As the name suggests, glass fibre strands chopped into short (about 12 mm) lengths They can be used as fillers Useful for bodywork repairs Circuit The path along which electricity flows When the path is continuous, the circuit is closed and the current flows When the path is broken, the circuit is open and no current flows Cold curing Generic term for materials which harden at room temperatures, after the addition of catalyst Collapsible steering column A safety feature in the form of an energy-absorbing steering column designed to collapse on impact Compartment shelf panel The horizontal panel situated between the rear seat back and the back window Compression ratio (CR) This is the ratio between the volume of the gas above the piston when it is at BDC compared to that at TDC Compressive strength The ability of a material to withstand being crushed It is found by testing a sample to failure: the load applied, divided by the cross-section of the sample, gives the compressive strength Condensation A change of state from a gas to a liquid caused by temperature or pressure changes It may also be formed by moisture from the air being deposited on a cool surface Conductor Any material or substance that allows current or heat to flow through it Copper acetylide A spontaneously explosive and inflammable substance which forms when acetylene is passed through a copper tube Corrosion The wearing away or gradual destruction of a substance, e.g rusting of metal Curing The change of a binder from soluble fusible state to insoluble infusible state by chemical action Curing time The time needed for liquid resin to reach a solid state after the catalyst has been added Cutting tip A torch especially adapted for cutting Glossary 413 Cylinder Steel containers used for storage of compressed gases Dash panel A panel attached to the front bulkhead assembly and which provides a mounting for all instruments necessary to check the performance of the vehicle Deposited metal Filler metal from a welding rod or electrode which has been melted by a welding process and applied in the form of a joint or built up Diagnosis The determination, by examination, of the cause of a problem Dinging Straightening damaged metal with spoons, hammers or dollies In the early days the dingman was the tradesman who worked on completed bodies to remove minor imperfections without injury to the high gloss lacquer or varnish Dinging hammer A special hammer used for dinging or removal of dents Direct damage Primary damage which results from an impact on the area in actual contact with the object causing the damage Dolly block A hand tool, made from special steel, shaped to suit the contour of various panel assemblies and used in conjunction with a planishing hammer to smooth out damaged panel surfaces Door skins Outside door panels Door trim The interior lining of a door D-post The rear standing pillar providing a shut face for the rear door and forming the rear quarter panel area Drip moulding A roof trough to direct water from door openings ECU Electronic control unit, this contains an integrated circuit to control the engine management system, in some cases a separate one is used to control the body functions such as central locking and window operation Electrode The usual term for the filler rod which is deposited when using the electric arc welding process Electrolyte A substance which dissolves in water to give a solution capable of conducting an electric current Epoxy Based on an epoxy resin which is mixed with a hardener Evaporation A change of state from solid or liquid into vapour Expansion The increase in the dimensions of metals due to heat Extrude To draw into lengths Fender American term for wing Filler Inorganic types used to extend low-pressure resins, usually polyesters Filler metal Metal added to a weld in the form of a rod, electrode or coil Fillet weld A weld in which two surfaces at right angles to one another are welded together Firewall Panel dividing engine compartment from interior of body Flange A reinforcement on the edge of a panel formed at approximately right angles to the panel Flashback Occurs when the flame disappears from the end of the welding tip and the gases burn in the torch Flat A panel is said to be flat when insufficient shaping has caused uneven contours and so flat areas are obvious Floor pan Main floor of the passenger compartment of an underbody assembly Flux A chemical material or gas used to dissolve and prevent the formation of surface oxides when soldering, brazing or welding Foams (flexible) A resin which is often used for cushioning in the automobile industries These foams are usually urethanes Foams (rigid) A resin with a higher modulus than the flexible foams These are also normally urethanes and are used in more structural applications such as cores in sandwich constructions Force Effort applied to move, or change the shape of, an object Four-door Denotes the type of saloon body having four doors Frame gauges Self-centring alignment gauges which are from a car’s underbody Friction Pressing the brake pads against the discs causes friction which converts the dynamic energy of the moving vehicle into heat energy The resistance to motion that a body meets when moving over another Fusion welding A process in which metals are welded together by bringing them to the molten state at the surface to be joined, with or without the addition of filler metal, and without the application of mechanical pressure or blows Gas welding A fusion welding process which uses a gas flame to provide the welding heat Gel Resin takes on a gel-like consistency (gels) usually within 10–15 minutes of being catalysed At this point it is impossible to spray, paint or pour Stored resin which has passed its shelf life may gel without being catalysed 414 Glossary Gel coat A thixotropic resin normally used without reinforcement and applied first to the mould It forms the smooth shiny surface of the finished article Glass fibre Glass filaments drawn together into fibres and treated for use as reinforcement Hardener A chemical curing or hardening agent Hardening Heating to a critical temperature followed by a relatively rapid rate of cooling Head-lining The cloth or other material used to cover the inner surface of the car roof Heat and temperature Temperature is the hotness or coldness of a body measured in degrees centigrade (C, also called Celsius) or absolute temperature in Kelvin (K) Heat is energy measured in joules (J) Heelboard The vertical board or panel under the rear seat which forms the support for the seat cushion Hinge pillar A pillar on which a door is swung Hood American term for bonnet Hydraulic pressure Pressure transmitted by a liquid Hydraulics The use of pressurized liquid to transfer force Impregnated The particles of one substance infused into that of another Independent front suspension Suspension system in which each wheel is independently supported by a spring Indirect damage Secondary damage found in the area surrounding the damage which caused it Inertia Inertia is the resistance of a body to stop doing whatever it is doing Property of an object by which it continues in its existing state of rest or motion in a straight line, unless that state is changed by an external force Insulation A material which is non-conductive of either heat or electricity Integral A necessary part to complete a whole unit Interchangeability The ability to substitute one part for another Kerb weight The weight of an empty vehicle without passengers and luggage Kevlar A synthetic aramid fibre used as a reinforcement for resins It is noted for its high impact resistance and is used in racing car bodywork Kinetic energy The energy of motion Laminates A material composed of a number of layers Lap joint A form of joint obtained by overlapping the edges of two pieces of metal The overlapping parts must be in the sample plane Latex A natural rubber used for making flexible moulds It is a liquid which solidifies in contact with air Lay-up Layers of glass fibres are laid on top of wet resin and then pressed down into the liquid resin Leftward welding This is known as forehand welding Levers Levers are used to increase the force exerted by pivoting about a point Mass production Large-scale, high-speed manufacture Metal fatigue A metal structural failure, resulting from excessive or repeated stress, finally resulting in a crack Molecule A minute particle into which a substance can be divided and retain its properties Monomer A simple molecule capable of combining with itself, or a compatible similar chemical, to form a chain (polymer) Moulding The resulting shape of a plastics material when it is removed from its mould Mould release A substance used to coat the mould to prevent sticking of the resin that will be used to make a part It facilitates the removal of that part from the mould Near side The left-hand side of the vehicle as viewed from the driver’s seat Neutral flame A balanced flame, indicating perfect combustion of both oxygen and acetylene gases Non-ferrous metals Metals which not contain any ferrite or iron Normalizing Heating to a high temperature to produce a refinement of the grain structure of a metal or alloy Off side The right-hand side of a vehicle as viewed from the driver’s seat Original finish The paint applied at the factory by the vehicle manufacturer Oxidation Chemical reaction between oxygen and some other element resulting in oxides Oxidizing flame A gas welding flame which has an excess of oxygen when burning Paddle A wooden tool shaped for spreading body solder Parent metal The material of a part to be welded Pascal’s law Pascal discovered that the pressure in a body is equal in all directions Glossary 415 Penetration Depth of fusion or weld penetration Pickle To soak metal in an acid solution in order to free the surface of rust or scale Pillar A vertical support of a body frame Pillar face The front of a pillar visible when the door is opened Pinch weld Two metal flanges butted together and spot welded along the join of the flat surfaces Polyurethane A versatile material used for adhesives, paints, varnishes, resins and foam materials These are often used in conjunction with polyester-based GRP Porosity The presence of gas pockets or inclusions within a weld Power Power is usually expressed in horse power (hp), that is, the number of horses which would be needed to the equivalent amount of work in the same time Pressure The amount force per unit area Prototype An original model Puddle The small body of molten metal created by the flame of a welding torch Quarter light The window directly above the quarter panel Quarter panel The side panel extending from the door to the rear end of the body (including rear wing) Reinforcement Filler material added to plastics (resin) in order to strengthen the finished product Relative density (RD) Relative density is the relationship which other materials have with this Resin Resins occur in nature as organic compounds, insoluble in water, e.g amber, shellac Synthetic resins have similar properties and are normally converted to solids by polymerization Return sweep A reverse curve Saloon An enclosed body not having a partition between the front and rear seats Scuttle panel The panel between the bonnet and windscreen Self-tapping screw A screw that cuts its own threads into a predrilled hole Silicone rubbers Used, amongst other applications, for sealants and flexible mould compounds They are usually cold curing Solvent A chemical fluid which will dissolve, dilute or liquefy another material Specifications Information provided by the manufacturer on vehicle data in the form of dimensions Squab The rear seat back construction Stream lining The shaping of a vehicle body to minimize air resistance Sub-frame Members to which the engine and front-end assembly are attached Swage A raised form of moulding pressed into a piece of metal in order to stiffen it Swage line A design line on a vehicle body, caused by a crease or step in a panel Sweating Uniting two or more metal surfaces by the use of heat and soft solder Synthetic A substance produced artificially Temperature The measurement, in degrees, of the intensity of heat Template A form or pattern made so that other parts can be formed to exactly the same shape Tensile strength The resistance to breaking which metal offers when subject to a pulling stress Thermoplastic Plastic which can be softened by heating, and which still retains its properties after it has been cooled and hardened Typical thermoplastics are polythene and PVC Thermosetting Plastic which hardens by non-reversible chemical reaction, initiated by heat and/or curing agents Once hardened, it cannot be melted down without being destroyed Thixotropic Generally used to describe substances which have a very high viscosity when stable, but low viscosity when stirred or brushed ‘Non-drip’ paint is an obvious example; another is gel-coat resin Torque Torque is the turning moment about a point expressed in newton-metres (Nm) Tunnel A raised floor panel section for drive shaft clearance Turret American term for roof Weld bead One single run of an electrode welding rod in manual metal arc welding Weld deposit Metal which has been added to a joint by one of the welding processes Wheel alignment The adjustment of a vehicle’s wheels so that they are positioned to drive correctly Wheel arch Panel forming inner housing for rear wheels Wheelbase The distance between the centre lines of the front and rear wheels of a vehicle 416 Glossary Abbreviations and symbols A ampere ABS acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABS anti-lock braking system AC alternating current AF across flats (bolt size) AFFF aqueous film forming foam (fire fighting) bar atmosphere, or 14.7 psi BS British Standard BSI British Standards Institution C Celsius (Centigrade) CAD computer-aided design CAE computer-aided engineering CAM computer-aided manufacturing Cd aerodynamic drag coefficient CIM computer-integrated manufacturing cm centimetre cm2 square centimetres cm3 cubic centimetres CO carbon monoxide CO2 carbon dioxide COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (Regulations) dB decibel dB(A) noise level at the ear DC direct current deg or º degree (angle or temperature) dia diameter DTI dial test indicator ECU electronic control unit EPA Environmental Protection Act EU European Union F Fahrenheit ft foot ft/min feet per minute gal gallon (Imperial) g gram (mass) GLS general lighting service (lamp) GRP glass fibre reinforced plastic HASAWA Health and Safety at Work Act HSE Health and Safety Executive HT high tension (electrical) HV a measure of the hardness of a material using the Vickers scale HVLP high velocity low pressure (spray guns) IACS a measure of relative electrical conductivity ID internal diameter IFS independent front suspension IMechE Institution of Mechanical Engineers IMI Institute of the Motor Industry Glossary in inch in3 square inches in2 cubic inches IR infrared ISO International Organization for Standardization kg kilogram (mass) kW kilowatt l litre lb pound (mass) lbf pound force lbf ft pound force foot (torque) lbf/in2 pound force per square inch Lep,d noise exposure level, personal (daily) Lep,w noise exposure level, personal (weekly) LH left-hand LHD left-hand drive LHThd left-hand thread LT Low tension lumen light energy radiated per second per unit solid angle by a uniform point source of l candela intensity lux unit of illumination equal to l lumen/m2 m metre MAG metal active gas (welding) max maximum MIG metal inert gas (welding) – minus (of tolerance) ' minute (of angle) mm millimetre minimum negative (electrical) Nm newton metre no Number OD outside diameter oz ounce (mass) ozf ounce (force) part no part number % percentage + plus (tolerance) + plus or minus PPE Personal Protection Equipment (Regulations) Pt pint (imperial) PVA polyvinyl acetate PVC polyvinyl chloride + positive (electrical) r radius ref reference rev/min or rpm revolutions per minute RH right-hand RHD right-hand drive " second (angle) SAE Society of Automotive Engineers 417 418 Glossary std standard TIG tungsten inert gas (welding) V volt VIN vehicle identification number VOCs volatile organic compounds Websites As a student you’ll produce assignments using material gained from a website If you are using this you must correctly credit it in your assignment, giving the date viewed at the end of the citation: Firm or person, subject viewed, website address, date viewed AkzoNobel, painting systems, www.akzonobel.com Andrew Livesey Consulting Ltd, specialist services to the motor industry, www.livesey.us Bodyshop Consulting, services to the vehicle body repairer industry, www.bodyshopconsulting.co.uk BRD Management Solutions Ltd, management services to the vehicle body repair industry, www.brdms.com Carbench, bodyshop and garage equipment, www.accidentrepairsystems.co.uk Celette, body repair equipment, www.celette-uk.co.uk IMI, professional body for the retail motor industry, www.motor.org.uk MDS Accident Repair Centre, vehicle body repair organization, www.mdsautocare.co.uk Index Note: Page numbers in bold type refer to figures Page numbers in italic type refer to tables accident book: health and safety 20 accident damage: repair questions 278–9; repair skills 278; systems for major 281–2 accidents: major 262, 281–2; minor 262, 263–7 acetylene cylinders 163, 164, 165, 166 adhesives 56; achieving good results 127–8; curing times 127; hot melts 128–9; joint design 129; joint function 127; joint types 127; non-structural 128; repairing body panels 266; representation of joint 128; selection 127; service conditions 127; toughened structural 129–30; toughened when overloaded 130; types 126–7 Advelok fastener 112 Advelok system 112–13, 112 aero-tight nut 119 AHSS (advanced high-strength steel) 49–50 air conditioning 277–8 air power chisel 37, 38 airbags 276 alignment: bonnet 290; door 289–90; front diagonal check 291; manufacturer’s points 289, 289; manufacturer’s transverse points 290; modern integral body 285–93; and repair systems 282–3; side body check 292; upper structure 288–9 alloys: aluminium 52, 53, 74–5; copper-phosphorous 139; mechanical properties 69; physical properties 69; steel 46 alternator 274 aluminium 51–3; abbreviations for basic temper 52–3; abbreviations for heat-treated materials 53; abbreviations for strain hardened materials 53; heat treatment 71–2; manufacturing process 52; production 52; sheet applications 53; sheet types 52 aluminium alloys 52; heat treatment 74–5; used in bodywork 53 aluminium brazing: method 141–3; wetting and fluxing 141 aluminium panel repair 267–72; aluminium welding 272; contamination 268; control box to convert MIG welder to weld aluminium 272; cutting aluminium 272; dent repair 271; differences 267; enclosed work booth 268; galvanic corrosion 267–8; heat shrinking 272; heating aluminium 269; heating application 269; miracle repairs 271; /272/; oxidation 269; riveting 269; temperature measurement 269–71 amp 273 analogue meters 273 angle bender: bending machines 79–80 annealing: metals 71–2 anti-corrosion materials 56 argon: cylinder 163; gas shielded arc welding 203 argoshield cylinder 163 ARO Spotrite Pulsa resistance welding system 181–4 ASPI materials coding system 62 automatic centre punch 92, 92 Automotive EC Directives Avtainer system 114, 115 battery 274 beam compasses 94 beating file 25–6 bending: action 79; allowance 79; behaviour of metal 79; calculating length 79; machines 79–80; rolls 80; theory 79; tools 34–5 bevel gauge 93 bevel protractors 93 Blackhawk front pull set-up 295 Blackhawk general dozer set-up 294 blistering 401–2 blooming 402 blushing 402 body: electrical and electronic systems 273–8; files 28; panels repair using adhesives 266; scanner 283–4; shell panels’ galvanized protection 47; side assembly 5; soldering 253–4; spoons 27–8 body jack (hydraulic) 256–61, 258; application 259; basic equipment 258–9; clamping 251; combinations 259; kit on mobile trolley 257; pulling 250, 250; pushing 259; Snap tome standard set 256; spreading 250, 251; stretching 250–1, 251 body jig: Celette Sevenne 296 body panels: component motor 262–7 bodyshop case study: appearance 406, 406; boardroom 407; layout plan 407; notable points 408–10; office 408; pre-planning 406–8; reception area 408; site selection 406; valet bay 409; workshop 409, 410 bodyshop planning: administration offices 323; assessment area 323; consultants 318; conventional fixed heating systems 327; COSHH 332–4, 335; dust and fume extraction 330–1; electric heating 327; entrances 320; Environmental Protection Act (1990) 334, 337; essential equipment 329–30; fire fighting equipment 326; first aid 326; floor space 320–1; gas heating 327; Health and Safety at Work Act (1974) 331–2; heating 326–7; layout Index 320, 322, 324; legal requirements 319–20, 331–41; light sources 329; lighting 328–9; Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (1992) 337; Manual Handling Operations Regulations (1992) 337; parts department 323; portable heaters 327; PPE 337; pre-planning 318; preparation and refinishing area 325–6; questions 340; radiant heating 326; reception area 321–3; repair areas 323–5; risk assessment 338–40, 339; roof supports 320; site choice 318–19; statutory legislation 331; valeting 326; waste management 336; Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations (1992) 338–9 bolts 118; identification 118 bonded windscreen electric cutter 40 bonnets 266; alignment 290; repair 266 boot: floor assembly 4; lid alignment 291–3 boron steel 50 brake presses 83–5; dies and applications 84 brazing 137–8; aluminium 141–3; aluminium filler alloys 143; copper-phosphorous alloys 139; joint design with welding equivalents 140 bridging 402 Briv system: rivets 110 bronze welding: procedure 143–4 bumper repair 312–13, 312 bumping hammer: light 24–5; standard 24 burnishing 399 callipers 94–5, 95 capacitor 273 captive nut: J type 122, 122; plastic 123, 123; U type 121–2, 121 carbon dioxide: cylinder 163; gas shielded arc welding 203 carbon steel 45–9; heat treatment 72–6 carpets 57 CEBORA spot welder 182 CEBORA synergic pulse 223 Celette Sevenne body jig 296 central locking 275 centre punch 92, 92 centre square 93–4 Chobert system 110 Christmas-tree buttons 124, 124 clamp folder: bending machines 79–80 clamps 30 Cleveloc self-locking nut 120, 120 clinch nut 119, 120 clips: non-metal 123; push on 122–3, 123 coach finish 388 cobwebbing 402 Cold Front heat barrier 301–2, 302 cold shrinking 252–3 colour mixing systems: paint 403–4, 404 421 combination square 93, 93 component motor body panels 262–7 computer: measuring screen 284; repair estimating 315 condenser 273 cone rolling machine 82 control unit 276 corrosion: fluxes 134; galvanic 267–8 COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health): regulations 16, 332–4, 335 costing: repairs 314 CP (complex phase) steel 49 crash sensors 277 cupping 85–8 curved pein hammer 25 cutting tools 33–4 damage: accident 278–9, 281–2; classification and assessment 280–1; describing methods 280–1; direction 280; proportions sustained in different directions 281; rectification by type 296–7; rectification techniques 243–4; repair questions 316–17 depth gauges 95 detail work 399 digital meters 273 dinging hammer 25 diode 274 distortion: frame gauges 288 dividers 94; spring 94 dollies 26–7 door alignment 289–90 door hanging 302–3 door panels: repair 264–5 door skinner tool 30 drill-driver: cordless 39 drills: gauges 97, 97; power 38 drop-line method: checking underbody alignment 286, 286 dry spray 402 dust: extraction 40; and fume extraction 330–1; respirators 9–10 ear protection: health and safety 10 earth return 274 edge: fasteners 125–6, 125; setters 30 edge stiffening: flanging 241–2, 241; folding 241, 241; sheet metal 240–3; swaging 242, 242; wiring 242–3, 243 electric heating: bodyshop planning 327 electric seat 275 electric sunroof 275 electric windows 275 electrical hazards: fire 12; health and safety 16 electrical terms 273–8 Electricity at Work Act (1989) 16 electro-deposition 365, 366 electronic control unit (ECU) 274–5 engineer’s level 99, 99 422 Index engineer’s square 92, 92 Environmental Protection Act (1990) 22, 334, 337 estimating: repairs 314–15 EuroNCAP (European New Car Assessment Programme) 1–2 eye protection: health and safety feeler gauges 95–6, 96 fender bumping hammer 25 files 28; flexible panel 28; hammer 25–6 filing 249–50, 249 fillers 254–5 finishing hammer 25 finishing and refinishing: processes 387–399; questions 404–5, see also spray painting fire 1182; electrical hazards 12; extinction methods 11; fighting equipment 326; flammable liquid 12; gases 12, 164–5; hazards 363; precautions 10–11; reducing risk 12; triangle 11; wood, paper and cloth 11; workshop risks 11–14 fire extinguishers: choice 13; choosing and siting 13–14; types 12–13, 13 first aid 326 flame cutting 160 flammable liquid 12 flange nut 120 flexible panel file 28 floor: assembly 4; coverings 57 floor pan 2–3 fluxes: corrosive 134; gas welding 154; non-corrosive 134–5 foam 54 foot protection frame gauges: distortion 288 front end construction 2, frontal impact test 1, fuses 278 fusion jointing processes 132 galvanic corrosion 267–8 galvanized protection: body shell panels 47 gas cutting: flame cutting 160; hand cutting procedure 162; machine cutting 162; nozzles 161–2, 162; technique 162; torches 161, 161 gas heating 327 gas shielded arc welding: argon 203; argon mixtures 203–4; carbon dioxide 203; development 201; gases used 201–4; helium 203; helium mixes 204; shielding gases 204 gas welding: backfiring and flashbacks of torch 166–7; butt joint in mild steel 159–60; carbonizing flame 155, 155; carburizing flame 155, 155; definition of terms 153–4; development 146–7; distortion control 158–9; edge preparation 158; edge preparation and joint types 157–8; equipment safety 165–6; filler rods 154; flame adjustment 156; flame control 154–6; flame temperature 154–5, 154; fluxes 154; gas pressure 156; high-pressure equipment in use 147; leftward 156–7, 156; low-pressure equipment 147; methods 156–7, 156; neutral flame 155, 155; oxidizing flame 155, 155; Oxy-acetylene equipment 148–53; power of flame 155–6; questions 170–1; rightward 156, 157; section through joint 154; skills 170; systems 147–8; various metals 160 gases: characteristics and colour coding 163; fire 12, 164–5; leaks 164; storage procedure 163–4 gauges 95–7, 96, 97 Genesis electronic system components 283 glass: characteristics breaking patterns 304; laminated 303; safety 64–6 glazing: direct 305–8, 306; indirect 303–5, 305; removal tools 306–7; systems 303–10 goggles grinding 250 guillotines 79 gun-sight gauge method: underbody alignment 287–8, 287 gusset 54 hammering: direct 246, 246; indirect 246–7, 247; metals malleability 68; removing low spots 248–9, 249; spring 247–8, 248; techniques 245–50 hammers 24–6, 25, 31; bumping 24–5; curved pein 25; dinging 25; fender bumping 25; file 25–6; finishing 25; pick and finish 25; planishing 24, 24–5; straight pein 25 hand dollies 26–7 hand grooving tools 33 hand lever shears 77 hand protection: health and safety hand snips 28–9 hazards: minimizing risk 18 head protection: health and safety health and safety: accident book 20; alarms and evacuation 21; cleaning 22–3; COSHH regulations 16; duties for employer and employee 16–18; ear protection 10; electrical hazards 16; emergency services 20–1; eye protection 9; fire precautions 10–11; fire risks in workshop 11–14; foot protection 9; hand protection 8–9; head protection 9; isolating machines 21–2; lifting and handling 19; PPE 19, 19; precautions 14–15; protective clothing 8; reporting 18–20, 21; respiratory protection 9; RIDDOR 16; signs 14; skills and questions 23; skin care 8; suppliers’ and manufacturers’ instructions 19; visitors 20 Health and Safety at Work Act (HWSA 1974) 14, 17, 331–2 heat barrier material 301–2; repair 301–2 heat treatment: steel and aluminium 71–2 heaters: portable 327 heating 326–7; electric 327; gas 327; radiant 326 helium: gas shielded arc welding 203 Index Hemlok: fastener 113; placing sequence 113; system 113 high-strength low-alloy steels (HSLAs) 45 high-strength steels (HSSs) 45, 45, 48–9 high-tensile steel 48 hot shrinking 250–2; process 251–2; technique 251; tools 251 hydrogen cylinder 163 impact air screwdriver 40 interior furnishings 57–8 jig brackets 282–3 jig fixtures: underbody alignment 288 jogglers 30 joining methods: adhesives 126–30; blind rivets 105–9; fastening devices 121–6; questions 131; repetition rivets 109–11; rivet selection 111–12; riveted joints 103–4; screws and bolts 115–20; skills 130–1; solid rivets 102–3; structural fasteners 112–14 joints: sealed types used in bodywork 55 laminated glass 303, 303 leather 57–8 lifting and handling: health and safety 19 lighting 328–9 lights 275–6; warning 277 major repair techniques 293–317 mallets 26 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (1992) 337 Manual Handling Operations Regulations (1992) 337 manual metal arc welding: AC transformers 189–90, 189; aluminium 199; arc length 194, 194; coding 191; current 194–5, 195; current and voltage conditions 192; DC generator 188–9, 189; defects 196; electrical terms 188; electrode and bundle identification 192–3; electrode choice 194; electrode dimensions and tolerance 191–2; electrode length 192; electrodes 191; flat position 193; horizontal position 193–4; impact value 192; joint design 196–8; joint detail 197; joint types 196, 196, 197; light-gauge steel 198–9; mild steel plate 198; overhead position 194; overlapping 196, 196; plate preparation 198; positions 193; principles 187–8, 188; safety 199–200; scratching method 195, 195; skills and questions 200; speed of travel 194; stainless steel 199; static loading conditions 197; STC code 191; striking the arc 195; system choice 190; tapping method 195, 195; tensile properties 192; undercutting 196, 196; vertical position 194; welding accessories 190 marking-off table 98 marking-out 89 marking-out and measuring: instruments 90–101; precision instruments 97–101; skills and questions 101; using scriber and rule 90 423 masks 9–10 materials: questions 67; skills 43, 66–7 metal cutting nibbler 38 metal forming: skills and questions 88 metal shears 37 metals: angles and flanges 76; annealing 71–2; bending 79–80; compressibility 71; crowned surfaces 75–6; cutting machines 77–9; ductility 69–70; elasticity 71; fatigue 71; flow during drawing 87; forming and drawing 85–6; hardness 70; machines for sheet fabrication 76–7; malleability 68; mechanical properties 69; physical properties 69; properties 68–71; providing strength 75; punching 87; rolling machines 80–5; sheet 31–3, 32, 240–3; strengthening 75–6; tensile strength 70; toughness 70–1; U-channels and box sections 76; weldability 71; work hardening 71–2, see also shaping metal by hand meters: analogue 273; digital 273 micro-alloyed steel 45 micrometers 100–1, 100 MIG (metal inert gas) brazing 225 MIG (metal inert gas) welding: aluminium 225 MIG/MAG welding: air-cooled torch 216; bend test 230; continuous weld 218–19, 220; control panel 213; destructive testing 229–30; distortion 226, 226; equipment maintenance and safety 230–1; feed unit 216; gas supply 216; impact test 230; lack of fusion 227, 227, 228; lack of penetration 227, 227; lap spot weld 221, 221; low carbon steel and HSLA steel 224–5; magnetic particle method 229; metal transfer forms 215; Migatronic Dialog torch 217; nick-break test 230; non-destructive testing 229; overfill 227, 227; plug weld 219, 220; positions 218, 220; power unit 212–14; preparing equipment 223–4; principles 210–11, 211; quality control 230; radiography 229; recommended operating conditions 224; residual stress 225–6, 226; root concavity 226–7, 227; root convexity 227, 227; skills and questions 231; sodification cracks 228, 228; spatter 228; spot weld 219, 220; spot/plug 211–12; stitch weld 221, 221; suck back 226–7, 227; tack weld 218, 220; techniques 217–18; tensile test 229; torch 214; ultrasonic inspection 229; undercut 227, 227; underfill 227, 227; in vehicle body construction 221–2; in vehicle body repair work 222–3; visible examination 228–9; weld defects 219; wire 216–17, 218; wire feed unit 217 misalignment and vehicle control 285 monobolt system 113–14, 114 nail punch 92, 92 nibbling machines 77–8 nitrogen cylinder 163 Noise at Work Regulations 10 nut grip 122 424 Index nuts 119–26; aero-tight 119; blind rivet 107–8, 109; captive 121–2, 121, 122, 123; flange 120; identification 119 Nutsert 113, 114 nyloc-self-locking 120, 120 oddleg callipers 95, 95 open circuit 274 orange peel 403 orbital sander: corded 40 Oxy-acetylene equipment: acetylene regulator 151; acetylene supply 148; assembly 153; automatic flashback arrester 151, 152; cylinder identification markings 150; cylinder key 152; cylinder label 149; cylinder labelling 149–50; cylinder trolley 153; cylinder valve 148; gas hose 152; hose check valve 152, 152; oxygen regulator 151; oxygen supply 149–50; regulators 150–1; typical welding and cutting system 148; welding goggles 152–3, 153; welding torches 150 oxygen cylinder 163, 164 paint: colour mixing systems 403–4, 404; composition 366, 367; remover 386–7; types 366–8, see also spray painting paint shops: movement of vehicles 400–1, 401 panel beating: by hand 232; tools 29–30 panels: hand-made fabrication 239–40; partial replacement 300–1; repairing extensively damaged 301; replacement 299–300 parallel 274 pedestrian impact test 1–2, Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations (1992) 337 pick and finish hammer 25 pin-holing 403 pinch rolls 81, 81 planishing hammer 24; swing of 24–5 plasma arc cutting 167–70; air-cooled torch 168; compressed air 170; contact cutting 169; distance cutting 169; equipment 168; fire safety 170; glare and burns 170; process advantages 170; process and equipment 167–8; safety 170; setting up 168–9; simplified diagram 167; torch nozzle 169; ventilation, fumes and vapours 170 plastics: abbreviations for automative 61; amphorous plastics 58–9; applications 59–60; blended 59; fillers 254–5; identification markings 62, 62; manufacturing processes 62–3; painting 64; reinforcement 61–2; repair 60–1; repair procedures 63–4; safety 63; semi-crystalline 59; thermoplastics and thermosetting 58; types of 61; typical mechanical properties 59 plastics welding 310–13; equipment 312, 312 pneumatic metal shears 38 pole test 1, polishing 400; machines 384–6, 386 portable heaters 327 power drills 38 power saw 38 PPE (personal protective equipment) 19 prepressing: wing pane 244 pressing: change in grain structure 244 propane cylinder 163 protective clothing: health and safety 8–9 protractors 93 pulling: direct 294–5; equipment 282; repairs to monocoque bodies 294–6; simultaneous multipulls 296; vector 295–6 pulling out double-skin panel damage 265–6 punches 30, 92, 92 pyramid rolls 81, 81 questions: accident damage 278–9; repair 316–17 radiant heating 326 radius gauges 97, 97 refinishing materials: abrasive papers 369–70; burnishing 370–1; fillers and levellers 369; finish 369; masking 370, 370; primers and dual-purpose primers 368–9; sealers 369; solvents 371 reinforced composite materials: accident damage assessment 358; accident repair 259–359; adhesives used with GRP 349; application 346; basic principles 341–2, 351; basket weave 355, 355; bonded joints 356; carbon fibre 346; catalysts and accelerators 347–8; chopped strand mat 343; chopped strands 345, 345; contact moulding 350–1; core materials 349; fabric types and constructions 354–6; faults-blisters 360, 360; faults-cracking, shrinking and discolouring 361–2; faults-crazing 360–1, 361; faults-fibre pattern 360, 360; faults-fish eyes 360; faults-internal dry patch 361, 361; faults-leaching 361; faults-low rigidity 362; faults-pinholing 359, 359; faults-poor adhesion 359–60, 360; faults-star cracking 361, 361; faults-wrinkling 359, 359; fillers and pigments 348; fire hazards 363; flow chart of principles 342; formers 349, 350; glass fibre reinforcement 344; hot press moulding 352–3, 353; introduction 341; leno 355, 355; manufacture of 342–3; mats manufacture 344; mock leno 355, 355; moulding techniques 350–7; needle mat 343; operating precautions 362; plain weave 354, 354; pre-accelerated resins 348; pre-peg 356–7; production composite moulding processes 353; questions 363–4; releasing agents 348–9; repair 357–9; resins 346–9; rovings 343, 344; safety precautions 362–3; sandwich construction 349; satin 355, 355; skills 363; spillage and disposal 363; spray-up technique 352, 352; staple fibres 345–6, 345; storage precautions 362; synthetic polymers for foam making 357; theory 353–4; twill 355, 355; unsaturated polyester resin production 347; workshop conditions 362–3; woven fabrics 343; yarn 345 Index release sensors 276 repainting see spray painting replacement or repair 313–16 resins 346–49 resistance 273; butt welding 176, 176; flash welding 176, 176; projection welding 174–5, 175; seam welding 175–6, 175 resistance spot welding 173–4; destructive test 181; electrodes 179–80, 179; equipment 184; heat application 179; heat balance 179; HSS 177, 178; modes of failure 181; peel test 181; portable machine in use 174; quality 177–9; single-sided 184–5; stationary pedestal machine 173; system 174; tip pressures 180; weld quality 180–1; welding panels of same thickness 179 resistance welding: body repair work 176–7; car body manufacture 172–3; questions 185–6; skills 185 resistor 273 reskinning door panels 265 respirators 9–10 respiratory protection: health and safety RIDDOR (Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations) 16 risk assessment 339–41, 340 rivets: automatic riveting system 112; bifurcated, tubular and semi-tubular 105; blind 105–9; blind river nut installation sequence 109; blind rivet nut 107–8; Briv placing sequence 110; Briv system 110; Chobert grooved rivet 110; Chobert Grovit system 110, 110; Chobert hollow rivet 110; Chobert system 109–10; dimensions 103; double-riveted lap joint 104; ELF 106, 107; grooved 106, 108; holes 103; LSR 105, 106; peel 106, 108, 109; POP blind 105–9, 105–9; procedure 104–5; repetition 109–11; selection 111–12; sets 33; single-riveted lap joint 103; small heads 103; special POP 109; standard open 105, 105, 106; tools for blind riveting 111, 111; types of joint 103–4; well nuts 108 rotary coupling 276–7 roughing out damage 245–6, 245; position of blows 246 rubber 54 rules: marking-out and measuring 90 rust damage 252–3; repair 262–3 rust-proofing 400–1 safety: glass 64–6; signs 14, 14 safety testing: frontal impact test 1; pedestrian impact tests 1–2; pole test 1; side impact test 1; star ratings sanding: discs 250; machines 40, 384–6; process 385 saw: power 39 screw nails 117–18, 117 screw pitch gauge 96–7, 96 screwdrivers 36; impact air 40 425 screws: CA Taptite screw 116; hammer drive 117, 117; machine 118–19, 119; metal 115; nails117–18, 117; plastite 117; self-tapping 115, 116; Supadriv Taptite thread forming 116; wood 115, 116 scribers 90–1, 91 sealants 56 sealers 54–6 seals: windscreens 309 security and alarm system 277 sensors 275, 276, 278 series 274 shaping metal by hand 232–3; hollowing 233–4, 234; planishing 238–9, 238–9; raising 234, 234–5; split-and-weld system 238, 238; wheeling 235–7, 235–7 shearing theory 77, 77 sheet metal: bench stakes 31–3, 32; edge stiffening 240–3 short circuit 274 shrinking: aluminium 252; equipment 252; hammer 25, see also hot shrinking, cold shrinking side impact test 1, sill panels 266; repair 266 silver soldering 138–41, 142 skills: accident damage 278 skin care: health and safety skin fusion 132 Snapsacs 124 snips 28–9, 33 socket sets 36 soldering: bits 136; hard 137–44; health and safety 144; most popular 133–4; process 136; questions 144–5; silver 138–41, 142; skills 144; soft and hard 133; soft process 135–7; soft solders, fluxes and method of application 135; tools 135; types of soft soldered joints 137 sound deadening 56–7 spanners 35–6 spire speed nut 121, 121 spoons 27–8 spray gun motion study: alternative panel spraying method 381; curved surfaces 381, 381; external corners 381, 381; flat surfaces 379–81; internal corners 381, 382; large panels 381; maintaining spray distance 380; panel spraying method 380; sequence 381–2; spray distance 380; tilting spray gun 380; vertical corners 382 spray guns: air cap 376, 376; basic parts 375–7; bleeder gun 375; external-mix 374, 375; gravity-feed gun 373, 374, 377; HVLP 375, 376, 377, 378; internal-mix 374, 375; maintenance and cleaning 377–9; non-bleeder gun 375; pressure-feed gun 373, 374, 375, 378–9; suction-feed gun 373, 374, 377 spray painting: abrasive paper 387; acrylic lacquer-local repair 391–2; acrylic lacquer-respray 391; air leakage from gun 384; booth combined with low-bake oven 395; burnishing, polishing and final detail work 398; cellulose synthetic – bare metal respray 388–90; cellulose 426 Index synthetic – local repair 390–1; cellulose synthetic – refinishing 390; compressor overheating 384; defects 382–4, 401–3; faulty packing 384; faulty spray patterns 383, 383; fluttering spray 382, 383; glossary 365–6; infrared cassette, arch and paint shop 397; low-bake enamels 393–5; metallic coatings 392; metallic finishes 392; oil in air line 384; ovens joined to spray booths 396; paint leakage from gun 383–4; paint remover 386–7; phosphating liquid 387; preparation 386–7; quick air drying synthetics 393; short-wave infrared heater 397; short-wave infrared paint drying 395–7; spray fog 383; two-pack paint system 397–8; water-based paint 398, 398 spray painting equipment: air compressor 371–2, 371, 372; air hose 373, 373; air lines 372, 372; air transformer 372 stainless steel 50–1 stakes 31–3 steel: AHSS (advanced high-strength steel) 49–50; alloying element 48; boron 50; carbon 45–9, 72–6; case hardening 74; cost 49; CP (complex phase) 49; hardening 73; heat treatment 71–2; making process 43–4; normalizing 73; specifications for use in automobile industry 44–5; stainless 50–1; temperature colours 74; tempering 73–4 steering: angles 298; geometry 298–9 straight edges 91, 91 straight pein hammer 25 supplementary restraint system (SRS) 276–7 surface: fusion 133; gauges 98, 99; plate 98 swaging machines 82; attachments 83 swaging tools 34–5 T-boning templates: manufacture 89–90 tensile strength: increasing 70 thermal insulating 56–7 thermoplastics 311 thermosetting plastics 311 threaded inserts 113 TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding: application 210; DC connections 209; edge preparation 207; electrodes 207–8, 209; filler metals 206–7; gas supply 206; gas, water and power supply 208; modes of operation 204–5; motion of torch 210; power unit 205; principles of operation 204, 205, 206, 207; recommended angles 209; spot welding 205; techniques 208–10; water cooled torch 209; welding torch 206 tools: chests 36; full set 37; hand 24–37; power 37–41; questions 41–2; skills 41 total fusion 132 total write-off 281 toughened glass 303 trammel heads 94 trammels 94 transistor 274 triangulation 284 trim: panel fasteners 124, 125; repair 267 TRIP (transformation induced plasticity) steel 49 truss panel 54 try square 92, 92 underbody alignment: drop-line method of checking 286, 286; gun-sight gauge method 287–8, 287; jig fixtures 288 underbody damage: repairs to monocoque vehicles 297 underframe alignment: checking mono constructed body shell 285–6 undersealing 56–7 UNECE Regulations universal combination snips 28 universal shearing machines 77–8 valeting 326 vector pulling 295–6 vee blocks 99, 99 Vehicle Certification Agency (VCA) vehicle construction: elements 2–6; information code plate 6; safety testing 1–2; skills and questions 6–7 vehicle information code plate: descriptions 6; location 6, vehicle type approval vernier caliper gauge 100, 100 volt 273 W-buttons 124, 124 warning lights 277 waste management 336 water leak detection 308–9 watt 273 welding: bronze 143–4; butt 176, 176; spot 205, see also gas welding; gas shielded arc welding; manual metal arc welding; resistance spot welding; resistance welding wheel alignment 298–9 windscreens: damaged 310; fitting with pull cords 306; Glas-Weld Pro-Vac 309–10, 310, 311; removal and replacement 303–8; seals 309 wings: repair 264 wire gauges 97, 98 wiring harness 277 Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations (1992) 338–9 wrenches 35–6 write-offs 281; classifications 315–16; problems 316 zinc coated steels 46 zipcut spot-weld remover 29