Electric and hybrid vehicles design fundamentals, 3rd edition

ấu tạo xe hybrid tương tự như xe sử dụng động cơ đốt trong thông thường. Động cơ kết nối với hệ thống truyền động để dẫn động các bánh xe. Tuy nhiên xe hybrid có thêm một động cơ điện chia sẻ nhiệm vụ dẫn động hoặc hỗ trợ động cơ đốt trong. Để cơ cấu này phối hợp nhuần nhuyễn và vận hành trơn tru cần có thêm một số bộ phận hỗ trợ khác như pin và bộ chuyển đổi công suất. Pin (hay ắc quy điện áp cao) là thiết bị giúp tích trữ và cung cấp năng lượng cho động cơ điện. Bộ chuyển đổi công suất giúp chuyển đổi nguồn động lực của động cơ thành nhiều phần phục vụ các mục đích sử dụng khác nhau như dẫn động xe và nạp điện cho pin.

Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Design Fundamentals Third Edition Iqbal Husain MATLAB® and Simulink® are trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc and are used with permission The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® and Simulink® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a ­particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® and Simulink® software Third edition published 2021 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC First edition published by CRC Press 2003 Second edition published by Routledge 2010 Third edition published by CRC Press 2021 CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and p ­ ublishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to ­copyright ­holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been ­acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, ­including ­photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written ­permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe ISBN: 978-1-138-59058-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-69393-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-49092-7 (ebk) Typeset in Times by codeMantra Contents Preface to the Third Edition xv Acknowledgments xvii Author .xix Chapter Introduction to Electric and Hybrid Vehicles .1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Electric Vehicles Hybrid Electric Vehicles Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Components Vehicle Mass and Performance Electric Motor and Engine Ratings Electric and Hybrid Vehicle History 1.6.1 The Early Years 10 1.6.2 1960s 10 1.6.3 1970s 11 1.6.4 1980s and 1990s 12 1.6.4.1 GM Impact (1993 Completed) 12 1.6.4.2 Saturn EV1 13 1.6.5 Recent EVs and HEVs 13 1.7 Well-to-Wheel Analysis 16 1.8 EV/ICEV Comparison 17 1.8.1 Efficiency Comparison 18 1.8.2 Pollution Comparison 20 1.8.3 Capital and Operating Cost Comparison 20 1.8.4 US Dependence on Foreign Oil 20 1.9 Electric Vehicle Market 21 Problems 22 References 22 Chapter Vehicle Mechanics 23 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Roadway Fundamentals 23 Laws of Motion 25 Vehicle Kinetics 27 Dynamics of Vehicle Motion 29 Propulsion Power 30 2.5.1 Force–Velocity Characteristics 30 2.5.2 Maximum Gradability 32 Velocity and Acceleration 32 2.6.1 Constant FTR, Level Road 33 2.6.1.1 Velocity Profile 34 2.6.1.2 Distance Traversed .34 2.6.1.3 Tractive Power 35 2.6.1.4 Energy Required 36 2.6.2 Non-constant FTR, General Acceleration 37 Tire–Road Force Mechanics 39 2.7.1 Slip 40 v vi Contents 2.7.2 Traction Force at Tire–Road Interface 41 2.7.3 Force Transmission at Tire–Road Interface 42 2.7.4 Quarter Car Model 43 2.7.5 Traction Limit and Control 44 2.8 Propulsion System Design .46 Problems .46 References 49 Chapter Vehicle Architectures and Design 51 3.1 3.2 Electric Vehicles 51 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 52 3.2.1 Hybrids Based on Architecture 53 3.2.1.1 Series and Parallel Hybrids 53 3.2.1.2 Series–Parallel Hybrid 55 3.2.1.3 Series–Parallel × Hybrid 56 3.2.2 Hybrids Based on Transmission Assembly 57 3.2.2.1 Pre- and Post-transmission Hybrids 57 3.2.2.2 P0–P4 Hybrid Architectures 58 3.2.2.3 48 V Hybrid Architectures 59 3.2.3 Hybrids Based on Degree of Hybridization .60 3.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle .60 3.4 Electric Vehicles: Skateboard Chassis 61 3.5 Powertrain Component Sizing 62 3.5.1 EV Powertrain Sizing 63 3.5.1.1 Initial Acceleration .64 3.5.1.2 Rated Vehicle Velocity 65 3.5.1.3 Maximum Velocity 65 3.5.1.4 Maximum Gradability 66 3.5.2 HEV Powertrain Sizing 66 3.5.2.1 Rated Vehicle Velocity 67 3.5.2.2 Initial Acceleration 68 3.5.2.3 Maximum Velocity 68 3.5.2.4 Maximum Gradability 69 3.5.3 HEV Powertrain Sizing Example 69 3.5.3.1 Total Power Required: Initial Acceleration 70 3.5.3.2 IC Engine Power: Cruising Speed 71 3.5.3.3 Maximum Velocity 72 3.5.3.4 Generator Sizing 73 3.5.3.5 Battery Sizing 73 3.6 Mass Analysis and Packaging 73 3.7 Mission-Based Design with Vehicle Simulation 75 3.7.1 Vehicle Simulation Model 75 3.7.2 Standard Drive Cycles 77 Problems 83 References 84 Chapter Autonomous Vehicles 87 4.1 4.2 Five Levels of Autonomous Driving 88 Autonomous Vehicle Functional Architecture 89 vii Contents 4.2.1 Sensors .90 4.2.2 External Communications 91 4.3 Software Stack: Perception, Localization, Path Planning and Control 92 4.3.1 Perception 92 4.3.2 Localization 94 4.3.3 Path Planning 95 4.3.3.1 Mission Planning 95 4.3.3.2 Behavioral Planning 95 4.3.3.3 Local Planning 96 4.3.4 Motion Controls 98 4.4 Autopilot and Actuators 99 4.4.1 Throttle-by-Wire 99 4.4.2 Steer-by-Wire 99 4.4.3 Brake-by-Wire 100 4.5 Safety Enhancements with Level Autonomous Driving 101 4.5.1 Cruise Control 101 4.5.2 Lane Control 102 4.5.3 Traction Control 102 4.5.4 Automatic Braking 102 References 103 Chapter Battery Energy Storage 105 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Batteries in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 106 Battery Basics 108 5.2.1 Battery Cell Structure 108 5.2.2 Chemical Reactions 109 Battery Parameters 112 5.3.1 Battery Capacity 112 5.3.2 Open-Circuit Voltage 113 5.3.3 Terminal Voltage 114 5.3.4 Practical Capacity 114 5.3.5 Discharge Rate 115 5.3.6 State of Charge 116 5.3.7 State of Discharge 117 5.3.8 Depth of Discharge 117 5.3.9 Battery Energy 117 5.3.10 Specific Energy 118 5.3.11 Battery Power 118 5.3.12 Specific Power 119 5.3.13 Ragone Plots 119 Electrochemical Cell Fundamentals 119 5.4.1 Thermodynamic Voltage 120 5.4.2 Electrolysis and Faradaic Current 123 5.4.3 Electrode Kinetics 124 5.4.4 Mass Transport 126 5.4.5 Electrical Double Layer 127 5.4.6 Ohmic Resistance 128 5.4.7 Concentration Polarization 128 Battery Modeling 128 5.5.1 Electric Circuit Models 129 viii Contents 5.5.1.1 Basic Battery Model 130 5.5.1.2 Run-Time Battery Model 132 5.5.1.3 Impedance-Based Model 133 5.5.1.4 First Principle Model 133 5.5.2 Empirical Models 134 5.5.2.1 Range Prediction with Constant Current Discharge 136 5.5.2.2 Range Prediction with Power Density Approach 139 5.6 Traction Batteries 141 5.6.1 Lead Acid Battery 141 5.6.2 Nickel-Cadmium Battery 142 5.6.3 Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Battery 143 5.6.4 Li-Ion Battery 144 5.6.5 Li-Polymer Battery 145 5.6.6 Zinc-Air Battery 146 5.6.7 Sodium-Sulfur Battery 146 5.6.8 Sodium-Metal-Chloride Battery 146 5.6.9 Research and Development for Advanced Batteries 147 5.7 Battery Pack Management 149 5.7.1 Battery Management System 150 5.7.2 SoC Measurement 151 5.7.3 Battery Cell Balancing 152 5.7.4 Battery Charging 153 Problems 154 References 156 Chapter Alternative Energy Storage 159 6.1 Fuel Cells 159 6.1.1 Fuel Cell Characteristics 161 6.1.2 Fuel Cell Types 162 6.1.2.1 Alkaline Fuel Cell 162 6.1.2.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell 162 6.1.2.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell 162 6.1.2.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell 162 6.1.2.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell 162 6.1.2.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 162 6.1.3 Fuel Cell Model 164 6.1.4 Hydrogen Storage Systems 164 6.1.5 Reformers 165 6.1.6 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle 166 6.1.6.1 Case Study: Toyota Mirai FCEV 167 6.2 Ultracapacitors 169 6.2.1 Symmetrical Ultracapacitors 169 6.2.2 Asymmetrical Ultracapacitors 171 6.2.3 Ultracapacitor Modeling 172 6.3 Compressed Air Storage 173 6.4 Flywheels 174 Problems 176 References 177 ix Contents Chapter Electric Machines 179 7.1 Simple Electric Machines 180 7.1.1 Fundamental Machine Phenomena 180  7.1.1.1 Motional Voltage B 180 7.1.1.2 Electromagnetic Force 181 7.1.2 Simple DC Machine 181 7.1.2.1 Induced Voltage 181 7.1.2.2 Force and Torque 183 7.1.2.3 DC Machine Back-EMF and Torque 184 7.1.3 Simple Reluctance Machine 185 7.2 Materials for Electric Machines 186 7.2.1 Conductors 186 7.2.2 Magnetic Materials 187 7.3 DC Machines 190 7.4 Three-Phase AC Machines 192 7.4.1 Sinusoidal Stator Windings 193 7.4.2 Number of Poles 195 7.4.3 Three-Phase Sinusoidal Windings 195 7.4.4 Space Vector Representation 195 7.4.4.1 Interpretation of Space Vectors 199 7.4.4.2 Inverse Relations 199 7.4.4.3 Resultant mmf in a Balanced System .200 7.4.4.4 Mutual Inductance Lm and Induced Stator Voltage 201 7.4.5 Types of AC Machines .202 7.4.6 dq Modeling .202 7.5 Induction Machines .204 7.5.1 Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit 206 7.5.2 Simplified Torque Expression 208 7.5.3 Regenerative Braking 211 7.6 Permanent Magnet Machines 212 7.6.1 PM Synchronous Motors 213 7.6.1.1 Surface PMSM Flux and Torque 214 7.6.1.2 Interior PMSM Flux and Torque 217 7.6.2 PM Brushless DC Motors 218 7.6.2.1 PM BLDC Machine Modeling 218 7.7 Reluctance Machines 220 7.7.1 Synchronous Reluctance Machines 220 7.7.2 PM Assisted Synchronous Reluctance Machines 222 7.7.3 Switched Reluctance Machines 222 7.7.3.1 SRM Principles of Operation 223 7.7.3.2 Energy Conversion 225 7.7.3.3 Torque Production 226 7.8 Traction IPM Machine Design 227 7.8.1 Initial Machine Sizing: Electromagnetic Design 228 7.8.2 Thermal Analysis 228 7.8.3 Mechanical/Structural Analysis 228 7.8.4 Stator and Winding Designs 229 7.8.5 Rotor Design 230 Problems 234 References 235 463 Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy 100% 90% Percentage of Maximum Regenerative Torque Allowed 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% FIGURE 15.21 10 Vehicle Speed mi/h 15 20 Derating of regeneration torque as a function of speed to eliminate driveline shudder to the front wheels would assist the friction brakes and still maintain an acceptable bias between front and rear wheel braking If the electric machine is connected to the rear wheels, then most of the rear wheel braking can be accomplished through regenerative braking, since only about a quarter of total braking action is executed in the rear wheels The full regenerative braking scheme would contribute to improved fuel economy at the expense of complicating the vehicle braking system In hybrids converted from conventional vehicles, this entails modifying hydraulic pressures on the brakes to reduce the friction brake command by the amount compensated by the regenerative braking The control algorithm must ensure that vehicle braking safety is not compromised under any circumstances The driver comfort may be compromised by use of excessive regeneration at low vehicle speeds; therefore, the regeneration command should be disabled for those speeds As the vehicle speed increases, the percentage of maximum allowable regeneration power or torque can be gradually increased A piecewise linear increase of allowed regeneration torque between and 15 mph is shown in Figure 15.21 for the Akron hybrid vehicle [12] The absolute value of vehicle speed has been used to account for vehicle driving in reverse Regeneration strategy following a profile of constant power, constant torque or a combination of the two is possible, but test drivers felt the most comfortable with a constant torque regeneration profile as shown in the figure The acceleration pedal input must also be mapped into a regeneration request; a piecewise linear mapping used in the Akron hybrid vehicle is shown in Figure 15.22 [12] The regeneration strategy affects the drivability of the vehicle during both acceleration and deceleration The drivers of hybrid vehicles feel comfortable with a constant negative torque when letting up the accelerator pedal The dotted line in Figure 15.22 indicates the division between requests for propulsion and regeneration Pedal positions less than 10% of the total pedal travel correspond to regeneration request or negative torque command for the electric machine The linear mapping inversely translates 0% pedal position to the maximum regeneration torque request Tregen,max and 10% pedal position to zero regeneration torque request Tregen,max request also has to be a function of the energy storage SoC If the SoC is at its upper limit at SoCmax, then Tregen,max has to be reduced to zero; in contrast, if the SoC is at its lower limit at SoCmin, then Tregen,max can be set to the maximum regeneration torque capability of the electric machine The segment of the curve in Figure 15.22 representing the pedal position for propulsion has been shifted and scaled using piecewise-linear mapping from the range [10%, 100% of modified pedal position] to [0, 100% of available power] The driver power demand can be converted to torque demand through dividing the power demand by the vehicle speed The propulsion torque request from the electric machine should also be limited by the energy storage SoC condition The torque request corresponds to the driver demand related to the accelerator pedal position and vehicle hybrid operating mode less a bias that depends on the SoC The 464 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 100% Modified Pedal Position 80% 60% 40% 20% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Pedal Position from Driver FIGURE 15.22 Piecewise linear mapping of pedal position from driver input regeneration or negative torque request from the electric machine can be directly linked to this bias The less the energy storage SoC, the less the electric motor should assist propulsion, and the higher should be the magnitude for Tregen,max The energy storage SoC would have to be elevated from SoCmin with regeneration even when the accelerator pedal is not depressed at all, especially in the case of parallel hybrid vehicles The bias to be subtracted from the propulsion torque request for the electric machine can be configured as B= SoCmax − SoC × 100% SoCmax − SoCmin According the above relation, if SoC ≥ SoCmax , then no bias is subtracted and full propulsion or positive torque request is passed through to the electric machine If SoC < SoCmin , then 100% bias is subtracted, and transmitted torque request for the electric machine is always negative to recharge the energy storage PROBLEMS 15.1 The supervisory control module (SCM) of a series-parallel × hybrid vehicle has the inputs and outputs as shown in Figure P15.1 Propulsive power demand (from driver) Fuel rate command Accessory power demand Vehicle speed SCM Motor torque command Generator torque command ESS state of charge FIGURE P15.1 Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy 465 The vehicle is cruising at constant speed on a level road in power-split mode The stored energy in the ESS is constant Answer the following questions qualitatively a The accessory power demand increases suddenly because the cabin air conditioner (powered by an electric motor) turns on How should the SCM adjust its outputs to accommodate this increase while maintaining the vehicle propulsive power level and the ESS conditions? b The overall power demand remains constant, but the SCM decides that the ESS stored energy needs to be increased How should the SCM adjust its outputs to cause the ESS to be charged while maintaining the vehicle propulsive and accessory power levels? c The driver increases the propulsive power demand slightly while ascending a grade How should the SCM adjust its outputs to accommodate this increase while maintaining the accessory power level and the ESS conditions? d The driver demands maximum propulsive power to accelerate and pass another vehicle How should the SCM adjust its outputs to draw maximum power from the ESS and accommodate this demand? 15.2 A planetary gear set is used in the powertrain of mechanical power-split series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle The ring of the gear set is connected to the motor/differential, the planet carrier is connected to the IC engine and the sun is connected to the starter/generator In this hybrid vehicle, r the ring to sun gear radii ratio is given as r = 2.8 rs In one vehicle operating condition, the ring power demand is Pring = 32 kW corresponding to the ring speed of ωr = 180 rad/s The ring speed is directly related to the vehicle speed, since it is connected to the electric motor and wheels The IC engine speed is controlled at 2,100 rpm Calculate the (a) ring torque, (b) ICE torque and (c) generator speed REFERENCES 466 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Index AC drives current control methods, hysteresis current controller 257–259 pulse width modulation (PWM) sinusoidal 328–330 space vector 330–332 six-step operation gating signals 325–326 harmonic analysis 327–328 phase voltages 326–328 six-switch inverter topology 324–325 AC machines vector control AC motors electromagnetic torque 207, 209 PM BLDC motors 218–220 dq modeling induction machine 241–242 Park’s transformation 204 power and electromagnetic torque 242–244 rotating reference frame 240 induction machines direct 246–248 indirect 248 rotor flux-oriented vector control 244–246 vector control implementation 248–249 PM machines PM synchronous motor drives 251–252 reference frame, voltage and torque 249–250 simulation model 250 AC motors vector control electromagnetic torque 238 PM BLDC motors 238–239 actuators brake-by-wire 100 steer-by-wire 99 throttle-by-wire 99 adaptive cruise control (ACC) 90, 101 aerodynamic drag force (FAD) 28–29 air-standard cycles diesel cycle 394–395 four strokes 392 Otto cycle 392–394 Akron hybrid vehicle battery sizing 73 generator sizing 73 IC engine power 71–72 initial acceleration tractive power and force requirements 71–72 velocity profile 70–71 maximum velocity 72 parameters and requirements 69 regeneration torque 462–463 alkaline fuel cell (AFC) 162 anti-lock brake system (ABS) 100 asymmetrical ultracapacitors 171 automatic braking 102 automatic transmission in hybrids 427 torque converters 426–427 autonomous driving five levels 88 safety enhancements automatic braking 102 cruise control 101 lane control 102 traction control 102 autonomous driving system (ADS) 88 autonomous vehicles actuators brake-by-wire 100 steer-by-wire 99 throttle-by-wire 99 adaptive cruise control (ACC) 90, 101 autopilot 99 constant velocity turn rate (CVTR) 93–94 convolutional neural network (CNN) 93 external communications packet loss 92 throughput ratio 92 transmission latency 92 functional architecture 89 google street view 94 kinematic bicycle model 95 motion controls 98–99 path planning behavioral planning 95–96 lanelets 95–96 local planning 96–98 mission planning 95 sensors camera 89–90 inertia measurement unit (IMU) 89 infrared camera 90 lidar 89–90 radar 89–90 ultrasonic 89–90 software stack localization 94–95 motion controls 98–99 path planning 95–98 perception 92–94 autopilot 99 AUTOSAR 348–349 average roadway percent grade 25 batteries basics cell structure 108–109 chemical reactions 109–112 battery cell components 108–109 battery pack management battery cell balancing 152–153 battery management system (BMS) 150–151 charging 153–154 SoC measurement 151–152 electric and hybrid vehicles 467 468 batteries (cont.) features 106 properties 142 rechargeable batteries 107 specific energy 108 types 107 electrochemical cells concentration polarization 128 electrical double layer 127–128 electrode kinetics 124–126 electrolysis and faradaic current 123–124 electrolytic cells 119–120 galvanic cells 119–120 mass transport 126–127 ohmic resistance 128 thermodynamic voltage 120–123 energy storage (see energy storage) modeling electric circuit models 129–134 empirical models 134–141 parameters capacity 114–115 depth of discharge (DoD),117 discharge rate 115–116 energy 117 open circuit voltage 113–114 power 118–119 practical capacity 112–113 Ragone plots 119 specific energy 118 specific power 119 state of charge (SoC) 116 state of discharge (SoD) 117 terminal voltage 114 traction batteries lead-acid battery 141–142 Li-ion battery 144–145 Li-polymer battery 145 nickel-cadmium battery 142–143 nickel-metal-hydride battery 143–144 sodium-metal-chloride battery 146–147 sodium-sulfur battery 146 USABC objectives 148 zinc-air battery 146 types 107 battery capacity 112–113 battery energy 117 battery modeling electric circuit models first principle model 133–134 impedance model 133 run-time battery model 132–133 simple electrical equivalent circuit model 130–132 empirical models constant current discharge 135 Peukert’s equation 135–136, 139 power density approach 139 Shepherd model 136 battery pack management battery cell balancing 152–153 battery management system (BMS) features 150 levels 151 charging 153–154 Index SoC measurement 151–152 battery power 118–119 bidirectional switch 269 bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) 267 bit stuffing method 361–362 BJTs see bipolar junction transistors boost DC/DC converters 276 brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) 396–398 brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) 396–398 Brayton cycle 389, 395–396 buck-boost DC/DC converters 276–278 buck DC/DC converters 275–276 Butler-Volmer equation 125, 130 by-wire brake 100 steer 99 throttle 99 CAN see controller area network catalytic converter 407–408 cell balancing power electronic converters active balancing methods centralized DC/DC converter 303–304 current diverter DC/DC converter 304–305 individual DC/DC converter 302–303 passive balancing methods 299–301 centralized DC/DC converters 303–304 charge-sustaining hybrids configuration fuel economy 400 PHEV 60–61 climate control system vapor-compression refrigeration cycle components 437–438 evaporator, compressor and condenser 439 refrigerant 438–439 temperature - entropy diagram 438 vehicle air-conditioning system accumulators 440 compressor 440 condenser 439–440 control unit 440 evaporator 439–440 expansion valve and receiver- drier 440 refrigerant 440 clutches 423 coefficient of rolling resistance 29 cogeneration 160, 162–163, 410 communication networks CAN protocol applications and layout 356 nodes 356–357 physical layer 362–363 programming 363–366 transfer layer 358–362 transfer protocol 357 protocols and classes 355–357 seven-layer OSI model 353–355 compressed air storage components and airflow 173–174 efficiency 174 compression-ignition (CI) engine 390, 392, 395–396, 401 concentration polarization 128 continuously variable transmission (CVT) 469 Index belt-pulley and toroidal systems 427–428 components 428 controller area network (CAN) applications and layout 356 message frames data frame 359–360 error frame 359–360 overload frame 360 remote frame 359–360 nodes 356–357 physical layer bus network and termination 362–363 node hardware 363 programming message list 364–366 structure 363–364 transfer layer bit timing 358–359 error detection and signaling 361–362 message arbitration 361 message frames 359–360 transfer protocol bus 357 layers 357 control mode selection strategy deterministic rule-based methods 447–448 fuzzy-rule-based methods 448 mechanical power-split hybrid modes electric only 449–450 engine-brake 451–452 engine starter 450 parallel 450–451 power relationship 449 power-split mode 451 regeneration 452 series-parallel HEV power train 448–449 operation modes 446–447 series-parallel 2x2 hybrid modes electric-only 453 parallel 453–454 power-split and series 453 control strategy modal algorithms energy storage system 460–462 parallel 455–457 regeneration 462–464 series 454–455 series-parallel 457–460 mode selection mechanical power-split hybrid modes 448–452 series-parallel 2x2 hybrid modes 452–453 vehicle supervisory controller 445–446 convection 441 conventional braking system brake systems 429–430 braking dynamics 430 disc and drum brakes 430 dynamic weights 431–432 friction coefficients 430–432 cooling systems climate control system vapor-compression refrigeration cycle 437–439 vehicle air-conditioning system 439–440 powertrain component convection 441 development 441– 442 heat exchangers 436 hybrid electric vehicle 442 liquid-cooled system 441 Stefan-Boltzmann law 441 temperatures 442 thermal radiation 440 Coursera 93 cruising speed 71–72 current diverter DC/DC converters 304–305 cyclic redundancy check (CRC) 361–362 DARPA Grand Challenge 87, 93 DC/DC converters as electrical power management device functions 273–274 isolated converter topology 282 full-bridge converter topology 283 half-bridge converter topology 282–283 multi-switch converters 282 push-pull converter 282 single-switch converters 281 non-isolated boost converter 276 buck-boost converter 276–278 buck converter 275–276 fourth-order 278 powertrain boost converter 285–288 DC drives open loop base drive signals 311 bi-directional power flow 311 braking operation 316–319 continuous conduction mode (CCM) acceleration 314–315 discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) acceleration 315–316 regenerative power 319–320 ripple reduction 313–314 steady-state analysis 312–313 uncontrollable mode acceleration 316 two-quadrant chopper circuit condition 311 quadrant operation 309–310 switching states 309–310 DC fast charger 370 DC machines vs AC machines 192–193 advantages and disadvantages 190 armature and field windings 190–191 equivalent circuit representation 191 motor drive 191 simple machines back-emf and torque 184–185 force and torque 183–184 induced voltage 181–183 multi-turn conductor 185 torque-speed characteristics 192 Deeplearning.ai 93 depth of discharge (DoD) 117 deterministic dual dynamic programming (DDDP) 385 Diesel cycle 394–395 470 diesel exhaust emissions treatment NOx reduction methods 409–410 oxidation catalysts 408 particulate filters 409 diode 267 direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) 162 discharge rate 115–116 distributed energy resource (DER) 367, 380 DMFC see direct methanol fuel cell dq modeling induction machine 241–242 Park’s transformation 204 power and electromagnetic torque 242–244 rotating reference frame 240 droop-based controls 380–382 dual active bridge (DAB) 372 electrical double layer 127–128 electric machines control 179–180 DC machines vs AC machines 192–193 advantages and disadvantages 190 armature and field windings 190–191 equivalent circuit representation 191 motor drive 191 torque-speed characteristics 183, 192 induction machines per-phase equivalent circuit 206–207 regenerative braking 211–212 simplified torque expression 208–209 slip speed 206 space vector diagram 209 speed control methods 248–249 types 204 permanent magnet machines advantages 212 brushless DC (BLDC) 218–220 synchronous motors 213–217 simple machines DC machine 181–185 Electromagnetic force 181 motional voltage 180–181 phenomena 180 reluctance machine 185–186 torque producing principles 183–184 switched reluctance motor (SRM) advantages and disadvantages 223 design 223–224 operation principle 224–225 structure diagrams 222 three-phase AC machines vs DC machines 192 number of poles 195 sinusoidal stator windings 193–195 space vector representation 195–197 three-phase sinusoidal windings 195 types 193 electric motor drives AC drives current control methods 257–260 pulse width modulation (PWM) 328–335 six-step operation 324–328 block diagram 308 Index components DC/ DC and DC/ AC converter 307–308 drive controller 307 power converter 307–308 DC drives open loop drive 310–320 two-quadrant chopper 308–310 operating point analysis motor speed- torque characteristics 320 scenarios 321 SRM drives controls 260–262 converters 337–338 electric vehicles (EV); see also hybrid electric vehicles applications 52 AUTOnomy chassis 61 charging 369 components electric drive and converter energy storage device 5, 52–53 powertrain 4–6 components and choices 51–52 disadvantage 21 electric motor and engine ratings power 8–9 requirements torque characteristics 8–9 fast charger 370 fast charging station 376–378 features grid impacts 378 history 9–13 vs IC engine vehicle capital and operating costs 20 efficiency 18–19 oil 20 pollution 20 infrastructure issues 21 performance standardization 11 powertrain configuration 414–415 powertrain sizing design specifications 62–63 electric motor torque-speed envelope 63–64 initial acceleration 64–65 maximum gradability 66 maximum velocity 65–66 rated vehicle velocity 65 tractive force vs speed characteristics 64 power transmission path skateboard chassis 61–62 USABC goals 149 vehicle mass and performance 7–8 WTW analysis emission impacts 17 GREET model 17 processes involved 16 tank-to-wheel (TTW) segment 16 well-to-tank (WTT) segment 16 electrochemical cells concentration polarization 128 electrical double layer 127–128 electrode kinetics 124–126 electrolysis and Faradaic current 123–124 electrolytic cells 119–120 471 Index galvanic cells 119–120 mass transport 126–127 ohmic resistance 128 thermodynamic voltage 120–123 electrode potential 123–124 electrolysis 123–124, 129 electrolyte 108 electromechanical brake (EMB) system electric actuator 436 electrohydraulic braking (EHB) control unit 435 four-quadrant operation 435 layout and communication links 434 requirements 434 electronic-CVT/hybrid electric vehicle (eCVT/HEV) 429 electronic power steering (EPS) 99–100 emission control system air-fuel ratio effects 403–404 components catalytic converter 407–408 exhaust gas recirculation 407 diesel exhaust emissions treatment NOx reduction methods 409–410 oxidation catalysts 408 particulate filters 409 NO, flow rate baseline mapping 404 dynamometer test 404–405 engine mapping 404 hybrid electric vehicle 405–406 pollutants generation atmospheric nitrogen 401 1970 Clean Air act and USEPA legislations 402–403 gasoline and diesel fuels 402 energy density see specific energy energy storage batteries basics 108–112 battery pack management 149–154 electric and hybrid vehicles 106–108 electrochemical cells 119–128 modeling 128–141 parameters 112–119 traction batteries 141–149 compressed air storage components and airflow 173–174 efficiency 173–174 flywheels advantages 175 design objective 175 draw backs 175 fuel cells basic structure 159–160 vs batteries 164 characteristics 161 fuel cell electric vehicle 166–167 hydrogen storage systems 164–165 model 164 reformers 165–166 types 162–163 ultracapacitors asymmetrical 171 modeling 172–173 symmetrical 169–171 types 169 energy storage system control 460–462 equivalent vehicle mass (meq) exhaust gas recirculation 407 external communications packet loss 92 throughput ratio 92 transmission latency 92 extreme fast charger (XFC) 370, 378 faradaic current 123–124 fast charger DC 370 extreme 370–378 480V 370 grid impacts 378 medium voltage 371 FDM see fractional depletion model ferrites 188–189 first principle battery model 133–134 flywheel advantages 175 design objective 175 drawbacks 175 energy storage system 175 fractional depletion model (FDM) 136–139 fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) energy storage system 166–167 zero-emission vehicles (ZEVS) 60 fuel cells; see also energy storage basic structure 159–160 vs batteries 164 characteristics 161 fuel cell electric vehicle 166–167 hydrogen storage systems 164–165 model 164 reformers 165–166 types 162–163 full-bridge DC/DC converter topology 298–299 gas turbine engines advantage 396 drawbacks 396 gears gear ratio compound gear train 418–419 force and torque 417–418 law 418 two-mesh gear train 418 mechanism 416 planetary set components 421–422 power-split hybrid vehicles 429 torque-speed characteristics electric vehicle powertrain 414–415 with motor connection 419 types 416 Gibbs free energy 121–123 GM Impact 3, 12–13 half-bridge DC/DC converter topology 282–283 heat engines 389–390 high-energy capacity battery-pack 472 highway fuel economy driving schedule (HWFET) 77–78 high-to low-voltage DC/DC converter 297 hub motors hybrid electric vehicles (HEV); see also electric vehicles Akron hybrid vehicle battery sizing 73 component packaging 74 generator sizing 73 IC engine power 72 initial acceleration 70–72 mass analysis 73–75 maximum velocity 72 parameters and requirements 69 classification 53 component packaging 74–75 components 52 definition 52 degree of hybridization 53 electrical components arrangement 53 48V architecture 59 history 9–10 mass analysis 73–75 P0–P4 architecture 58–59 parallel architecture advantages 55 components’ arrangement 53 disadvantages 55 PHEV architecture choices 60 drawback 61 zero-emission range (ZEV) 61 powertrain sizing configuration 5–6 initial acceleration 64–65 maximum gradability 66 maximum velocity 65–66 power requirements 66–67 rated vehicle velocity 67–68 series architecture advantages 54 components' arrangement 53 disadvantages 54 series-parallel architecture 55–56 series-parallel x architecture 56–57 transmission assembly post-transmission configuration 57–58 pre-transmission configuration 57–58 USABC goals 149 vehicle simulation model block diagram 76 standard drive cycles 77–80 hydrogen-oxygen cell 161 hydrogen storage systems 164 hysteresis current controller 257–259 ICEV see internal combustion engine vehicles IGBT see insulated gate bipolar transistor impedance-based battery model 133 individual DC/DC converters 302–303 induction machines per-phase equivalent circuit 206–207 regenerative braking 211–212 simplified torque expression 208–209 slip speed 206 Index space vector diagram 209 stator and rotor electric circuits 206–207 types 204 vector control direct 246–248 indirect 248 rotor flux-oriented vector control 244–246 vector control implementation 248–249 inset PMSM 214–216 insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) 268–269 interior permanent magnet machine, characteristic current 255–256 interior permanent magnet machine controls maximum torque per ampere 254–255 maximum torque per voltage 255 vector control 253–256 interior PMSM 214–215, 217 internal combustion (IC) engines brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) 396–398 brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) 396–398 constant efficiency curves 459 constant power curve 459 control equation 458 emission control system air-fuel ratio effects 403–404 components 407–408 diesel exhaust emissions treatment 408–410 NOx flow rate 404–406 pollutants generation 407–408 gas turbine engines advantage 396 drawbacks 396 heat engines 389–390 operating points 389 practical and air-standard cycles diesel cycle 394–396 four strokes 392 Otto cycle 392–394 reciprocating engines automotive engine cylinders 391 bottom dead center (BDC) 390 pressure-volume diagram 392 stroke 392–393 top dead center (TDC) 390 types 390 valve train 391 vehicle fuel economy engine power and efficiency 399–400 flow rate 399 in hybrids 400–401 internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) vs electric vehicles (EV) capital and operating costs 20 efficiency 17–19 oil 17–20 pollution 20 mass analysis 73 power transmission path in-vehicle communication protocols 355–356 Japan1015 Japanese standard drive cycle 79 lane control lane centering assist 102 473 Index lane departure warning 102 lane keep assist 102 lead-acid battery cell charge operation 107 cell discharge operation 107 construction 142 overall chemical reaction 112 schematic diagram 142 Li-ion battery cell charge and discharge operations 144–145 drawback 145 LFP, NMC, LFP, LTO 145 linear machines 185 Li-polymer battery 145 manual transmission 425–426 mass transport 126–127 maximum gross vehicle mass mechanical power-split control modes electric only 449–450 engine-brake 451–452 engine starter 450 IC engine constant efficiency curves 459 constant power curve 459 control equation 458 operating points 459 power relationship 449 power-split mode 447–448 regeneration 450 series-parallel HEV powertrain 448–449 mechanical power transmission path (MPTP) medium voltage fast charger 371 metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) 266 microgrid droop-based controls 379–382 oscillator based controls 382 primary and secondary layers 379–382 tertiary layer 382–383 microprocessor control unit (MCU) digital signal processor 382 microcontrollers abstraction layer 348–349 central processing unit (CPU) 345 complex instruction set computing (CISC) 345 counters 346 erasable programmable ROM (EPROM) 344 floating point 344 field programmable gate array (FPGA) 345 fixed point 344 random access memory (RAM) 344 read only memory (ROM) 344 reduced instruction set computing (RISC) 345 peripherals 345–346 timers 346 modal control strategies energy storage system control 460–462 optimization algorithm 454 parallel algorithm 455 IC engine efficiency 457 regeneration control piecewise linear mapping 463–464 power-split strategy 461–462 propulsion torque request 463–464 torque request 462–464 series brake-specific fuel consumptions 455 brake-specific NOx emissions 455–456 IC engine and SoC battery 454–455 objectives 455 series-parallel mechanical power-split IC engine 458–459 series-parallel 2x2 control 459–460 model year 2020 vehicles battery electric 15 fuel cell electric 16 plug-in hybrid electric 15 molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) 162 MOSFETs see metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors motional voltage 180–181 multiport converter 384–385 multi-switch DC/DC converters 282 negative electrode 108 neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnet 188 Nernst equation 125 nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery advantages 142 drawbacks 143 Gibbs-free energy change 122 overall chemical reaction 112 nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) battery disadvantages 143 overall chemical reaction 112 Nissan Leaf 80–82 nominal bit rate 358 NOx reduction methods 409–410 NOx traps 409–410 ohmic resistance 128 on-board charger 284 open circuit voltage 113–114 open loop DC drives base drive signals 292–293 bidirectional power flow 291–292 braking operation 299–302 continuous conduction mode (CCM) acceleration 296–297 discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) acceleration 297–298 regenerative power 302–303 ripple reduction 295–296 steady-state analysis 293–295 uncontrollable mode acceleration 298–299 open systems interconnection (OSI) computer nodes communication 353–354 seven-layer model 353–355 operating points analysis motor speed-torque characteristics 321 scenarios 321 DC machines 320–321 IC engine 403–406 oscillator-based controls 382 Otto cycle 392–394 474 parallel hybrid electric vehicles advantages 55 components’ arrangement 53 disadvantages 55 parallel post-transmission hybrid electric vehicles 57–58 Park’s transformation 204 passenger vehicles 1, 55, 64, 408–419, 414, 427, 429 permanent magnet brushless DC machines (PM BLDC) back-emf and ideal phase currents 218 modeling 219 permanent magnet (PM) machines advantages 212 brushless DC (BLDC) back-emf and ideal phase currents 218 modeling 219 electronic power steering (EPS) 100 permanent magnets 188–190, 212–213 synchronous motors arrangements 214 modeling and control 213–217 vector control reference frame, voltage and torque 249–250 simulation model 250 synchronous motor drives 251–252 transformation equations 251–252 permanent magnets ferrites 188–189 neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) 188–190 samarium cobalt 189 permanent magnet synchronous machine modeling and control 216 vector controls 249 field weakening 252 per-phase equivalent circuit induction machines parameters 206 power and torque relations 207 torque-speed characteristics 207–208 PMSM current and phase voltage 213–214 vector diagrams 216 torque 216–217 Peukert’s equation 135–136, 139–140 PHEV see plug-in hybrid electric vehicle phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) 162 plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) architecture choices 60 charge-depleting hybrids 53 drawback 61 USABC goals 149 zero-emission range (ZEV) 60, 73 PM synchronous machines (PMSM) arrangements 214 modeling and control per-phase equivalent circuit 216 voltage equations 214, 217 PM synchronous motor drives current and voltage controllers 252–253 flux weakening 252 structure 252 PM trapezoidal DC machines see Permanent magnet brushless DC machines positive electrode 108–109 power devices Index electrical properties 269–272 Si-IGBT 272–274 silicon carbide (SiC) 272–274 gallium nitride (GaN) 272–274 power electronic converters cell balancing converters active balancing methods 301–302 passive balancing methods 299–301 circuits 302 DC/DC converters isolated converters 280–283 non-isolated converters 274–280 switches bidirectional switch 269 BJTs 267 diode 267 ideal switch 265–266 IGBT 268–269 MOSFETs 267–268 power electronic switches bidirectional switch 269 BJTs 267 diode 267 ideal switch 265–266 IGBT 268–269 MOSFETs 267–268 power-split pre-transmission hybrid electric vehicles 57–58 power train boost DC/DC converters 285–288 powertrain components clutches 423 cooling systems convection 440 development 441–442 heat exchangers 442 hybrid electric vehicle 442 liquid-cooled system 441 Stefan-Boltzmann law 441–442 temperatures 441–442 thermal radiation 440 differential 423–424 electric vehicle 414–415 gears gear ratio 416–419 mechanism 415–416 planetary set 421–423 torque-speed characteristics 419–421 types 416 passenger vehicles 413–414 transmission automatic 426–427 continuously variable transmission (CVT) 427–428 electronic-CVT/ hybrid electric vehicle (eCVT/HEV) 429 manual 425–426 practical capacity 114–115, 136 propulsion power advantage 30 force-velocity characteristics 30–32 maximum gradability 32 propulsion system design 46 proton exchange membrane fuel cell 162 pulse width modulation (PWM) sinusoidal harmonics 330 475 Index modulation types 330 switch control signals logic 328 three-phase signals 328–330 space vector harmonic frequency components 330–331 switching signals generation 333–335 switching states 331–332 three-phase inverters 330–331 pulse width modulation (PWM) control 153–154 push-pull DC/ DC converters 280–282 PWM see pulse width modulation quarter car model 43–44 radial flux machines 185 Ragone plots 119 range extender see plug-in hybrid electric vehicle rated continuous power 119 rated instantaneous power 119 reciprocating IC engines automotive engine cylinders 391 bottom dead center (BDC) 390 pressure-volume diagram 392 stroke 392–393 top dead center (TDC) 390 types 390 valve train 391 reformers 165–166 regeneration control algorithm piecewise linear mapping 463–464 power-split strategy 461–462 propulsion torque request 463–464 torque request 462–464 regenerative braking 211–212 reluctance machines synchronous reluctance 220–222 switched reluctance 220, 222–227 mutual coupled reluctance 220 PM-assisted synchronous reluctance 220, 222 roadway percent grade 24–25 rolling resistance force (Froll) 28–29 rotor flux-oriented vector control 244–246 run-time battery model 132–133 SAE J227a standard driving cycle 79 acceleration time 77 brake time 77 coast time 77 cruise time 77 idle time 79 Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) 189 Saturn EV1 13 self-driving vehicles 87 separator 108–109 series hybrid electric vehicles advantages 54 components arrangement 53 disadvantages 54 series plug-in hybrid electric vehicle 60–61 Shepherd model 136 simple electrical equivalent circuit model 130–131 single-switch DC/DC converters 281 sinusoidal PWM harmonics 330 modulation types 330 switch control signals logic 328 three-phase signals 329 slip speed 206, 209 sodium-metal-chloride battery 146–147 sodium-sulfur battery 146 software development hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation 349 integrated development environment (IDE) 349 motor controller analog-to-digital conversion 352 CAN communications 352 interrupt services 351 program execution times 352 PWM generation 351–352 quadrature encoder 352 signal conditioning circuit 350 solar generation 384 PEV 385–386 PV-storage hybrid 386 solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) 162–164 solid state transformer 371–372 space vector PWM harmonic frequency components 330 switching signals generation 333–335 switching states 331–332 three-phase inverters 330 space vector representation, three-phase AC machines induced stator voltage 201–202 interpretation 199 inverse relations 199–200 mutual inductance 201–202 reference frame transformations 196 resultant stator mmf 200–201 spark-ignition (SI) engine 390 specific energy (SE) 67, 105–106, 108, 112, 118 specific power vs specific energy see Ragone plots speed voltage see motional voltage squirrel cage induction machines 204–205 SRM see switched reluctance motor standard drive cycles HWFET 77–78 Japan1015, 79 SAE J227a 77, 79, 80 UDDS 77 US06, 77–78 state of charge (SoC) definition 116 measurement 151–152 state of discharge (SoD) 117 stochastic dual dynamic programming (SDDP) 385 supercapacitors see asymmetrical ultracapacitors surface-mounted PMSM 214–215 switched reluctance motor (SRM) advantages 223 controls advance angle calculation 261–262 advanced control strategies 261–262 current-controlled drive 262 parameters 261 voltage-controlled drive 261 converters bridge 337 energy-efficient converter 338 476 switched reluctance motor (SRM) (cont.) Miller converter 338 split-capacitor 338 design flux-angle-current characteristics 224 fundamental frequency 223–224 step angle 224 torque-angle-current characteristics 225 disadvantages 223 operation principle energy conversion process 226 torque production 226–227 torque-speed characteristics 225 voltage equation 225 Tafel solution 126 tangentiaI roadway length 24 tank-to-w heel (TTW) efficiency 17 terminal voltage 114 Tesla Model 14–15, 81–83 thermal radiation 440 thermodynamic voltage 120–123 Thevenin-type circuit model see simple electrical equivalent circuit model three-phase AC machines vs DC machines 192 number of poles 195 sinusoidal stator windings 193–195 space vector representation 195–201 three-phase sinusoidal windings 195 types 202 tire-road force mechanics adhesion and hysteresis friction forces 42 ball- screw gear arrangement 42 forces and stress distribution 41 force transmission 42–43 quarter-car model 43–44 slip 40–41 traction force 41–42 traction limit and control 44–45 tire rolling speed 40 torque converter 426–427 torque-speed characteristics gears 419 induction motors 207–208 traction motors 229 Toyota Mirai FCEV 167–168 traction batteries lead-acid battery 141–142 Li-ion battery 144–145 Li-polymer battery 145 nickel-cadmium battery 142–143 nickel-metal-hydride battery 143–144 sodium-metal-chloride battery 146–147 sodium-sulfur battery 146 zinc-air battery 146 traction control system (TCS) 45, 102 traction inverter boosted inverter 288 busbar and packaging 290–291 controllers and sensors 293–294 DC bus filter 291–292 gate driver 292–293 non-boosted inverter 288 Index thermal design 294 traction IPM machine 227–228 design 228–233 stator and winding design 229–230 rotor design 230 tractive force 23 two-quadrant chopper DC drives circuit condition 311 quadrant 1operation 309–310, 312, 315 switching states 309 Ultium batteries 148 ultracapacitor bank ultracapacitors asymmetrical 171 modeling 172–173 symmetrical 169–171 types 169 urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS) 77 U.S Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) EV 148 HEV 149 PHEV 149 US06 standard drive cycle 78 vapor-compression refrigeration cycle components 437–438 evaporator, compressor and condenser 439 refrigerant 438–439 temperature-entropy diagram 438 vector control methods AC motors 237–239 dq modeling 237–239 induction machine 241 PM machine 249–250 vehicle air-conditioning system accumulators 440 compressor 440 condenser 439–440 control unit 440 evaporator 439–440 expansion valve and receiver-drier 440 refrigerant 440 vehicle brakes conventional braking system brake systems 429–430 braking dynamics 430 disc and drum brakes 430 dynamic weights 431– 432 friction coefficients 430–432 electromechanical brake (EMB) system electric actuator 436 electrohydraulic braking (EHB) control unit 435 four-quadrant operation 435 layout and communication links 434 requirements 434 vehicle curb mass (mv) vehicle fuel economy engine power and efficiency 399–400 flow rate 399–400 in hybrids 400 vehicle grid interface, G2V, V2G, V2H and V2V 368, 384 vehicle mechanics dynamics of vehicle motion 29–30 477 Index kinetics aerodynamic drag force (FAD) 28–29 gravitational force 27–28 modeling 29–30 rolling resistance force (Froll) 28 tangential co-ordinate system and unit tangent vector 27 Newton’s second law of motion 25–26 propulsion power advantage 30 force-velocity characteristics 30–32 maximum gradability 32 propulsion system design 46 roadway fixed coordinate system 24 grade 24–25 tire-road interface adhesion and hysteresis friction forces 42–43 ball-screw gear arrangement 42 forces and stress distribution 41–42 force transmission 42–43 quarter-car model 43–44 slip 40–41 traction force 41–42 traction limit and control 44–45 tractive force 23 velocity and acceleration constant tractive force 33–37 non-constant tractive force 37–39 vehicle simulation mission-based 75 simulation model 75–76 vehicle supervisory controller (VSC) 445–446 velocity and acceleration, vehicle mechanics constant tractive force distance traversed 34–35 energy requirement 36 level road condition 33 tractive power 35 velocity profile 34 nonconstant tractive force 37–39 V2G, G2V, V2H and V2V 368, 384 V2H and H2V power converter 383 V2V, V2I 91 well-to-tank (WTT) efficiency 17 well-to-wheel (WTW) efficiency analysis emission impacts 17 GREET model 17 processes involved 16 tank-to-wheel (TTW) segment 16 well-to-tank (WTT) segment 16 wound rotor induction machines 204 ZEBRA batteries see sodium-metal-chloride battery zinc-air battery 146