CRYSTALLINE SILICON – PROPERTIES AND USES Edited by Sukumar Basu Crystalline Silicon – Properties and Uses Edited by Sukumar Basu Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Iva Lipovic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer Jan Hyrat Image Copyright Cray Photo, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published July, 2011 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Crystalline Silicon – Properties and Uses, Edited by Sukumar Basu p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-587-7 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 Amorphous and Crystalline Silicon Films from Soluble Si-Si Network Polymers 1 Michiya Fujiki and Giseop Kwak Chapter 2 Study of SiO 2 /Si Interface by Surface Techniques 23 Constantin Logofatu, Catalin Constantin Negrila, Rodica V. Ghita, Florica Ungureanu, Constantin Cotirlan, Cornelui Ghica Adrian Stefan Manea and Mihai Florin Lazarescu Chapter 3 Effect of Native Oxide on the Electric Field-induced Characteristics of Device-quality Silicon at Room Temperature 43 Khlyap Halyna, Laptev Viktor, Pankiv Lyudmila and Tsmots Volodymyr Chapter 4 Structure and Properties of Dislocations in Silicon 57 Manfred Reiche and Martin Kittler Chapter 5 High Mass Molecular Ion Implantation 81 Bill Chang and Michael Ameen Chapter 6 Infrared Spectroscopic Ellipsometry for Ion-Implanted Silicon Wafers 105 Bincheng Li and Xianming Liu Chapter 7 Silicon Nanocrystals 121 Hong Yu, Jie-qiong Zeng and Zheng-rong Qiu Chapter 8 Defect Related Luminescence in Silicon Dioxide Network: A Review 135 Roushdey Salh VI Contents Chapter 9 Silicon Nanocluster in Silicon Dioxide: Cathodoluminescence, Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis and Infrared Spectroscopy Studies 173 Roushdey Salh Chapter 10 Nanocrystalline Porous Silicon 219 Sukumar Basu and Jayita Kanungo Chapter 11 Nanocrystalline Porous Silicon: Structural, Optical, Electrical and Photovoltaic Properties 251 Ma.Concepción Arenas, Marina Vega, OmarMartínez and Oscar H. Salinas Chapter 12 Porous Silicon Integrated Photonic Devices for Biochemical Optical Sensing 275 Ilaria Rea, Emanuele Orabona, Ivo Rendina and Luca De Stefano Chapter 13 Life Cycle Assessment of PV systems 297 Masakazu Ito Chapter 14 Design and Fabrication of a Novel MEMS Silicon Microphone 313 Bahram Azizollah Ganji Chapter 15 Global Flow Analysis of Crystalline Silicon 329 Hiroaki Takiguchi and Kazuki Morita Preface The importance of crystalline silicon and the emergence of nanocrystalline material are heading towards miniaturization of silicon based devices. The entire device technology is getting a radical transformation through bottom up approach and corresponding increase in density of integration that is a challenge in processes and materials via top down approach. The availability of macro-micro-nano phases of silicon is a boom to the silicon based technology for the third generation electronic and optoelectronic devices and their integration for ICs, solar cells, sensors and biomedical devices. So, it can be said that silicon is the heart of both modern & future technology. The crystalline silicon is a store house of developing innumerable human friendly technology. For example, the evolution of green energy to avoid the global contamination from petroleum and its related products is possible only by silicon and silicon related devices. The rich abundance of silicon in nature and its minimum toxic property is a distinct commercial advantage over other synthetic materials. An extensive research & development on silicon materials and devices is a continuing process to study & clearly understand the fundamental changes in the crystalline structure and the defect states with the decrease of the crystallite dimensions from macro to nano sizes. The quantization effect in silicon that has already revealed some interesting properties needs further investigations for more vital information. Along with the theory more advanced experimental techniques are to be employed for this purpose. The book ‘Crystalline Silicon: Properties and Uses’ presents fifteen chapters in all with the examples of different forms of silicon material, their properties and uses. Formation of silicon thin films through solution route via organic precursors has been described in Chapter 1. The modern techniques to study the oxide –silicon interface in different crystalline forms have been highlighted in chapter 2 and the behaviour of the native oxide on silicon has been demonstrated in chapter 3 of this book. Chapter 4 deals with the characterizations of dislocations in silicon in an elaborate fashion. Doping of silicon by high mass molecular ion implantation is treated in detail and an ellipsometric investigation of doping by ion implantation is discussed in chapters 5 and 6 respectively. Silicon nanocrystals, in general, are presented in chapter 7.The cathodoluminescent characterization of silicon nanoclusters in silicon dioxide has been discussed in depth in two chapters e.g. chapters 8 and 9. Nanocrystalline porous silicon, a novel material for nano-electronic, optoelectronic and sensor applications are X Preface presented in three chapters (10, 11 & 12) that cover different novel methods of preparations, structural & optical properties and porous silicon integrated photonic devices for bio-applications. Chapter 13 has been devoted to silicon based photovoltaic solar cells and their life cycle assessment. The use of silicon based MEMS devices in the microphone technology is an interesting addition to this book and the details are dealt in chapter 14. The commercial aspects of the availability & consumption of silicon on global perspective have been taken into consideration in chapter 15. In fact, this book presents different basic and applied aspects of crystalline silicon. It is a unique combination of conventional and novel approaches to understand the behaviour of silicon in different crystalline states for potential applications in the present scenario and in near future. The valuable contributions of the renowned researchers from different parts of the globe working on various aspects of crystalline silicon are magnificent and deserve great appreciations. It is once again proved that knowledge knows no bounds. The credit goes to the entire InTech publishing group members for their tireless efforts to work on this project to publish the book in time. The editorial assistance of the process manager, Ms. Iva Lipovic needs special mention for the success of this book project. The help of Dr. (Ms.) Jayita Kanungo, the research associate of Jadavpur University, India is sincerely appreciated. Prof. Sukumar Basu IC Design & Fabrication Centre, Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Jadavpur University, India [...]... ~5 nm (Lockwood, 19 98; Yu & Cardona, 2005), various low-dimensional Sibased materials have been theoretically (Takeda & Shiraishi, 19 97; Takeda & Shiraishi, 19 98; 2 Crystalline Silicon – Properties and Uses Brus, 19 94; Alivisatos, 19 96) and experimentally explored as follows: (a) 0D and 1D materials as visible-near IR emitters, including nc-Si and nanoparticles (Holmes et al., 20 01; Grom et al., 2000;... deposition (CVD) process 1. 1 Physical and chemical approaches for controlling the band gap of crystalline silicon There are many types of Si-based materials ranging from zero-dimensional (0D) nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si) and nanoparticles, one-dimensional (1D) polysilane and nanowire, and two-dimensional (2D) Si-skeletons, including Si-Si bonded network polysilyne (SNP), Wöhler siloxene, and Si/SiO2 superlattice,... 1 Amorphous and Crystalline Silicon Films from Soluble Si-Si Network Polymers 1Graduate Michiya Fujiki1 and Giseop Kwak2 School of Materials Science, Nara Institute of Science and Technology 2Department of Polymer Science, Kyungpook National University 1Japan 2Korea 1 Introduction Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element (Clarke number ~26%) on Earth and exists mainly in... Weidman, 19 91) and 2D-Si nanosheets (saturated, bonded "sila-graphene") (Brandt et al., 2003; Nesper, 2003), further studies on the pyrolytic products of SNP derivatives and their inherent photophysical properties in a vacuum at low temperature have not yet been reported Dimensionality and Eg (eV) (Brus, 19 94; Takeda & Shiraishi, 19 89) 4Aelements C Si Ge Sn Pb 3D 5.5 (IG) 1. 1 (IG) 0.7 (IG) 0 .1 ~0 2D 1D –... circles and dotted lines are experimental and calculated weight values for elemental Si, respectively 6 Crystalline Silicon – Properties and Uses Fig 4 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of n-propyl SNP pyrolyzed at 900 °C in a N2 atmosphere (scale bars: left, 10 0 m, and right, 1 m) Fig 5 Surface analysis of n-BSNP and n-propyl SNP by SEM and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) before and. .. fairly efficient photoluminescence (PL) in the visible–near IR region from nc-Si (Furukawa & Miyasato, 19 88; Takagi et al., 19 90; Kanemitsu et al., 19 93; Kanemitsu et al., 19 95; Kanemitsu et al., 19 96; Wilson et al., 19 93) and porous Si (Cullis & Canham, 19 91; Cullis et al., 19 97; Lehmann & Gösele, 19 91; Heitmann et al., 2005), extensive research efforts have been expended to produce Si with efficient,... (b) 1D materials as exitonic UV emitters, including chain-like polysilane (Fujiki, 20 01; Hasegawa et al., 19 96); (c) 2D Si skeletons as visible emitters, including Si-Si bonded network polymers (SNP) (Takeda & Shiraishi, 19 97; Bianconi et al., 19 89; Bianconi & Weidman, 19 88; Furukawa et al., 19 90; Wilson & Weidman, 19 91) , Wöhler siloxenes (Brandt et al., 2003), and a Si/SiO2 superlattice (Lu et al., 19 95)... broad PL, PLE, and absorption spectra consist of at least five well-resolved bands with almost equal energy spacing (16 50 ± 10 0 cm -1 for the UV-visible absorption spectra, 15 80 ± 200 cm -1 for the PL spectra, 14 70 ± 70 cm -1 for the PLE spectra) This periodic behavior may be related to the combination of bands arising from the Si-Si stretching mode (~460 cm -1) of the 2D-like Si skeleton and the Si-O-Si... be Amorphous and Crystalline Silicon Films from Soluble Si-Si Network Polymers 13 calculated using EPL (eV) = 1. 6 + 0.7/dSi2, which is given for the Si/SiO2 superlattice (Lu et al., 19 95) Fig 11 Estimated numbers of Si multi-layers extrapolated from the PL peak energy of nBSNP and i-BSNP, based on the equation (EPL(eV) = 1. 6 + 0.7/dSi2) for the Si/SiO2 superlattice (Lu et al., 19 95) Fig 12 Proposed... n-BSNP in THF solution at room temperature is ~1% using 9 ,10 -diphenylanthracene as the reference (F ~97% in methylcyclohexane) As for the n-BSNP film pyrolyzed at 300 °C, the PL band at 560 nm with excitation at 370 nm had fast Amorphous and Crystalline Silicon Films from Soluble Si-Si Network Polymers 11 and slow lifetime components of ~5 nsec and >10 nsec, respectively, at 77 K This short lifetime . Chapter 10 Nanocrystalline Porous Silicon 219 Sukumar Basu and Jayita Kanungo Chapter 11 Nanocrystalline Porous Silicon: Structural, Optical, Electrical and Photovoltaic Properties 2 51 Ma.Concepción. CRYSTALLINE SILICON – PROPERTIES AND USES Edited by Sukumar Basu Crystalline Silicon – Properties and Uses Edited by Sukumar Basu. The book Crystalline Silicon: Properties and Uses presents fifteen chapters in all with the examples of different forms of silicon material, their properties and uses. Formation of silicon