The makers of the modern middle east

Tai Lieu Chat Luong T G Fraser The Makers of the Modern Middle East with Andrew Mango and Robert McNamara First published in Great Britain in 2011 by Haus Publishing Ltd This revised and updated second edition published in 2015 by Gingko Library 70 Cadogan Place London sw1x 9ah www.gingkolibrary.com Copyright their text © T G Fraser, Robert McNamara and Andrew Mango, 2011 The moral right of the authors has been asserted A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-909942-00-4 eISBN 978-1-909942-01-1 Typeset in Optima by MacGuru Ltd info@macguru.org.uk Printed in Spain by Liberduplex Maps by Martin Lubikowski, ML Design, London CONDITIONS OF SALE All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser Contents Preface and Acknowledgements The Birth of Nationalisms Wartime Promises and Expectations Arabs and Zionists in Paris San Remo and Sèvres: the Flawed Peace The Middle East Rebels and the Peace Settlement Revisited From War to War Conclusion: The Legacy vii 44 115 167 219 275 327 Further Reading367 Index377 Preface and Acknowledgements Historians have long known that the settlements negotiated at the end of the First World War had ramifications well beyond Europe Much of Volume VI of H W V Temperley’s monumental study A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, published in 1924, was devoted to the affairs of the Middle East and the attempts to set in place a peace settlement with the Ottoman Empire and its successors As such, the contributors ranged across Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine and Persia, as well as the Zionist movement.1 Since then, there have been many investigations of how the region was transformed during the critical years between 1914 and 1923, some of them becoming classic studies.2 This book approaches the problem of post-war reconstruction from three very different perspectives; namely, the emerging but increasingly insistent claims of Arab nationalism, Turkish nationalism and Zionism Whilst these movements, which recast the political shape of the region in spite of the imperial ambitions of the triumphant European powers, transcend any individual, three leaders emerged, who by any reckoning became the makers of the modern Middle East The Hashemite Prince Feisal, with British encouragement, raised the standard of Arab 1  H W V Temperley (ed), A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, Vol VI, (Oxford University Press, London, New York, Toronto: 1924) Chapter 1, ‘The Near and Middle East’ 2 See, for example, George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (Hamish Hamilton, London: 1988) and Leonard Stein, The Balfour Declaration (Vallentine, Mitchell & Co Ltd, London: 1961) For a discussion of Antonius’s book, see Chapter viii the makers of the modern middle east nationalism against centuries of Turkish rule, only to see his hopes of an Arab kingdom destroyed, albeit with compensation for him in Iraq and for his brother in Transjordan From an obscure university position in the north of England, the Russian-born scientist Dr Chaim Weizmann enlisted the support of key British politicians for a Jewish national home in Palestine in the shape of the Balfour Declaration, and then translated that document into a British League of Nations Mandate for Palestine charged with bringing it into effect The Turkish soldier Mustafa Kemal came to prominence in the successful defence of the Gallipoli peninsula in 1915, and then went on to lead and inspire his country’s defiance of the victorious Allied powers to establish a modern, secular Turkish republic, becoming Atatürk, the ‘Father of the Turks’ What their movements achieved, and failed to achieve, are part of their legacies nearly a century later This volume was suggested to me by Dr Barbara Schwepcke of Haus Publishing, who realised that the deliberations of the post-First World War Peace Conference relating to the Middle East could be approached from three very different perspectives This was apparent from three volumes she had published in The Makers of the Modern World series under the editorship of Professor Alan Sharp: namely, Andrew Mango, From the Sultan to Atatürk: Turkey; Robert McNamara, The Hashemites: The Dream of Arabia; and my own, Chaim Weizmann: The Zionist Dream This book, thus, attempts to bring these studies together into an account of a seminal period of Middle Eastern history The Middle East is an area both of fascination and controversy As an historian who has taught and researched its history at universities in Northern Ireland and the United States for over four decades, I have been lucky enough to have visited its countries many times, in the belief, taught me years ago by the late Professor L F Rushbrook Williams, that it is essential for a scholar to get the ‘feel’ for the societies under review His kindly interest in my work as an apprentice historian of the Middle East and South Asia is a memory I will always cherish I have never encountered anything other than the hospitality for which the Middle East is justly renowned, and I retain the fondest memories Preface and Acknowledgements ix of the people I have met and who have educated me in its affairs If I have become convinced of anything, it is that those brought up in the West should have a proper appreciation of, and acknowledge, just how much world civilisation has owed to the contributions of the peoples of the Middle East Unfortunately, it is also a part of the world which has endured more than its fair share of turmoil and tragedy, and this, too, must be acknowledged and understood Tragic events in the Middle East have become standard fare in the headlines for decades, and it is, alas, all too tempting to develop an indifference towards them, or worse Such a path is neither realistic nor justifiable This book proceeds from the belief that a sympathetic, but not uncritical, understanding of Middle Eastern affairs is a sine qua non for the informed citizen The Makers of the Modern Middle East, then, analyses a critical series of events before, during, and after the Paris Peace Conference when the future shape of the Middle East as we have come to know it came into focus I am particularly grateful to my fellow authors Andrew Mango and Robert McNamara for their tolerance as I worked with their texts, and for their general advice I have to note with great sadness that Andrew Mango did not live to see this new edition With his death, the world of Turkish studies has lost a scholar of incomparable talent and experience Barbara Schwepcke of Haus and Jaqueline Mitchell patiently encouraged me through the unfamiliar experience of making a coherent text from three volumes Janet Farren deployed her customary skills in assisting with the preparation of the work for the publisher The Series Editor of The Makers of the Modern World, Alan Sharp, read and commented on the text, as, amidst all the other priorities of academic life, did Dr Leonie Murray of the University of Ulster, saving me from many errors of expression and emphasis Finally, my wife, Grace, was, as ever, an unfailing source of critical understanding and support T G Fraser, MBE Emeritus Professor of History and Honorary Professor of Conflict Research, University of Ulster 376 the makers of the modern middle east and Watson, London: 1939) The Memoirs of Viscount Samuel (The Cresset Press, London: 1945) provide his important testimony Balfour’s role is traced in Arthur James Balfour: First Earl of Balfour, by his niece Blanche E C Dugdale, two volumes (Hutchinson, London: 1939), especially useful since she became a close friend of Weizmann For biographies of the major British participants in the Near Eastern peace settlement, consult Alan Sharp, David Lloyd George (Haus Publishing, London: 2008), David Gilmour, Curzon (John Murray, London: 1994) and Martin Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold: Portrait of a Diplomat 1869–1941 (Heinemann, London: 1973) Crown Copyright materials are published with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office Index 9/11 terrorist attacks 349 a Abdülhamid II, Sultan 2, 6, 8, 17–8, 20, 56, 101, 105, 113, 170, 284 Abdullah, King of Transjordan 19, 20–2, 59–60, 64–5, 75–7, 128, 189, 208, 227, 229–31, 236–8, 298–9, 301, 320, 332–3, 340, 342 Abdullah II, King of Jordan 360 Ahmed Izzet Pasha 102–3, 104–7, 109, 112–3 Ahmed Tevfik Pasha 113–4 al-Ahd 63, 68, 187 al-Arif, Arif 192–3, 241 al-Asad, Hafez 341, 362 al-Asad, Bashar 362–3 al-Fatat (the Young Arab Society) 14, 63, 187 al-Husayni, Haj Amin 155, 193, 241–2, 274, 317, 325 al-Husayni, Musa Kasim 192–3, 244 al-Khouri, Bishara 331 al-Maliki, Nuri 349 al-Qaeda 349 al-Qahtanyia 14 al-Quwwatli, Shukri 331, 332 al-Sadat, Anwar 341–2, 361 Israel, peace with 346 Alexander of Greece, King 224 Ali, King of the Hejaz 19, 75, 231, 299 Ali (Çetinkaya) 168–9 Ali Fuad (Cebesoy) 170, 178 Ali Kemal 279, 280–1 Ali Rıza Pasha 125, 182, 203 Allenby, General Sir Edmund 79, 97, 99, 100, 115, 116, 117–8, 119, 122–4, 130, 149, 153, 156–7, 162, 184, 190, 218, 233, 310 Amery, Leo 83–4, 94, 315 anti-Semitism 24, 26–7, 35, 133, 193, 206, 316–7, 323–4 Arab Bureau, the 72, 73–4, 75, 84, 120, 124, 128, 186 378 the makers of the modern middle east Arab-Israeli Wars, the 338–40, 341–2 Arab Revolt, the 14, 19, 23, 61–79, 127–8, 187, 228, 229 Arab Revolt in Palestine see under Palestine Arafat, Yasser 344–5, 347, 350–2 Armenians, the 4, 56–9, 62, 79, 84, 85, 97, 104, 113, 129, 164, 167, 169, 172, 175–6, 177–8, 210, 211, 212, 215–6, 219–20, 221, 224, 225, 255, 262, 263–4, 328 Asquith, Herbert 50–4, 62, 83 Atatürk see Mustafa Kemal Austria-Hungary 4, 24, 41, 44, 45, 48, 49, 85, 90, 107, 113, 115, 173, 207 Azerbaijan 216, 222, 223, 226 b Baker, Philip Noel 162 Balfour, Arthur James 37–8, 83, 128, 131–2, 138, 143, 153, 154, 161, 162–3, 183, 184, 194, 238 and Weizmann 37–8, 119, 132, 133, 134, 136, 153, 154, 200, 243–4, 247, 310, 312 visit to Palestine 310–11 Balfour Declaration, the 82–3, 84–90, 90–7, 116, 117, 118, 120, 123, 126, 135, 137, 138, 160, 161, 183, 237–8, 243, 244–6, 247–50, 274, 314 San Remo Conference, and the 191–202, 217–8 Barak, Ehud 351 Beeley, Harold 333 Begin, Menahem 326, 346 Bekir Sami 221, 226, 259 Bell, Gertrude 15, 73, 186–7, 237, 239 Ben Yehuda, Eliezer 28 Ben-Gurion, David 81, 201, 243, 310, 319, 320, 326, 333, 335, 337, 338, 339 Berthelot, Philippe 194–6 Bevin, Ernest 333 Biltmore Conference, the 326, 335 Bliss, Reverend Howard S 141, 149 Bliss, General Tasker 183 Boghos Nubar Pasha 103 Bols, Major-General Sir Louis 202 Bonar Law, Andrew 184, 273, 288 Bonsal, Stephen 125, 137 139–40, 142 Brandeis, Louis B 40–1, 88–9, 93, 94–5, 118, 132–3, 201–2, 240–1, 243, 319 Bristol, Admiral 165 Bulgaria 5, 6, 56, 100–1, 103, 109, 168, 175, 207, 294, 322, 329 Bunsen, Sir Maurice de 62, 71 Index Bush, President George H W 348–9 Bush, President George W 352, 353, 365 c Cairo Conference, the 237–9 Caix, Robert de 155, 197 Caliphate, the 2, 18, 20–1, 44, 60–1, 63, 65–6, 67, 68, 107, 167, 173, 180, 207–8, 213, 228, 278–80, 282–5, 298–9, 305–6, 364 Calthorpe, Admiral Sir Somerset 105, 106, 109–11 Camp, Major J N 154–5 Cavid Bey 102, 169, 287, 307 Cecil, Lord Robert 83, 88, 92, 96, 132, 133, 162, Cemal Bey 6, 45, 54, 64, 72, 79–80, 113, 114, 121–2 Chamberlain, Austen 315 Chamberlain, Joseph 35 Chamberlain, Neville 319, 320, 325 Chanak Crisis, the 264–74 Chelmsford, Lord 92 Chinda, Viscount 211 Churchill, Winston 49, 183, 227, 273, 323, 368 Cairo Conference, and the 237–9 Chanak Crisis, and the 266–7, 270–1 Colonial Secretary, as 235–7 379 White Paper on Palestine 246–50, 274 Zionism, and 38–9, 82, 241–4, 244–6, 318 Clayton, Brigadier-General Gilbert 68–9, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 117, 118, 134, 154, 156, 158, 161, 162, Clemenceau, Georges 129–31, 138–9, 141–2, 144, 148, 149–50, 152, 155, 157, 164, 165, 184–6, 188, 189 Clinton, Hillary Rodham 365 Clinton, President Bill 350–1 Cold War, the 256, 327–30, 343, 355 Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), the 6, 13, 20, 21, 63, 65, 101, 103, 106, 112, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173–4, 181, 213, 221, 279, 284, 308–9 removal of the 101, 113–4 resistance to Allied occupation, role in the 170 Constantine of Greece, King 224–5, 250, 251, 254–5, 259, 262, 269 Cornwallis, Lieutenant-Colonel 154 Coupland, Reginald 83, 317–8 Cowen, Joseph 86, 117 Cox, Percy 234–5, 237, 239 Cromer, Lord Curzon, Lord 94, 95, 128, 131, 380 the makers of the modern middle east 154, 155–6, 161, 162, 189–90, 194–5, 196–7, 197–8, 200, 211, 214, 231, 235, 236, 258, 268, 273, 288, 289, 290, 291–2, 295, Cyprus 35, 228, 354, 358 d Damad Ferid Pasha 105–7, 112–3, 169–70, 171, 180–2, 204, 207–8, 211, 213, 216, 220, 279, Dreyfus, Charles 37–8 e Eden, Anthony 319 Eder, Dr David 117, 133 Egypt 1, 3, 5, 7, 16–7, 45, 50, 54, 59, 60, 62, 63, 67, 74, 80, 81, 88, 115, 116, 117, 129, 149, 159, 184, 228, 232–3, 257, 311, 321, 332, 342, 349, 353, 361, 362, 366 Arab-Israeli Wars 338–42 Free Officers Movement 339 Israel, peace with 341–2, 345–6 Suez Crisis, and 340 United Arab Republic, and the 343 Eisenhower, President Dwight D 341 el-Sisi, Abdel Fattah 362 Enver Pasha 6, 8, 45, 54, 55, 63, 98, 100, 101, 105, 110, 113–4, 169, 221–2, 255–6, 269 Erdogan, Recep Tayyip 356, 357, 359 European Union, the 354, 358–9, 360 f Fatah 344–5, 348, 353, 360 Feisal, Emir, King of Iraq 19, 302 Arab Revolt, and the 63–6, 72–3, 74–9, British, and the 72–3, 76, 77–8, 79, 121–6, 131, 140–3, 149–52, 155–60, 183–5, 196–7, 197–8, 199, 218, 227, 234–7, 239 French, and the 78, 122–6, 127–8, 130–2, 139, 142–3, 149, 150–2, 155–7, 158, 159, 183–6, 187–91, 196, 197–200, 218, 236–7 Iraq, and 227, 234–7, 237, 239, 299–301 Paris Peace Conference, at the 126, 127–8, 138–43 San Remo Conference, and the 192–3 Syria, and 122–6, 127, 128, 141–2, 150, 151–2, 154, 155–7, 157–60, 182–91, 192, 197–200, 218, 301 Zionism, and 86, 118–9, 120, 132–6, 148–9, 153–4, 155, 185 Index Fethi (Okyar) 102, 269, 297, 304, 307 Fevzi Çakmak, General 204, 305 First World War, the Arab Revolt, and the 59–73, 74–9 Ottoman Empire, and the 45–50, 54–9, 97–114 Zionism, and the 50–4, 79–97 France Feisal, and 78, 122–6, 127–8, 130–2, 139, 142–3, 149, 150–2, 155–7, 158, 159, 183–6, 187–91, 196, 197– 200, 218, 236–7 Sykes-Picot Agreement, the 71–3, 74, 78, 87–8, 120, 122, 126, 131, 139, 149–50, 152, 158, 214, 217, 365 Syria, and 3, 12, 120–6, 128–32, 138–43, 149–52, 155–60, 182–91, 197–200, 215, 217, 228, 231, 251, 257, 322, 327, 331 Turkey, and 8, 41, 45, 54, 175, 176–7, 180–1, 209–10, 213–4, 215, 217, 250–1, 257, 258, 265, 287–97 Zionism, and 26, 87–8, 97, 117, 145–8 Franklin-Bouillon, Henri 251 French, Colonel John 162 Fromageot, Henri 295–6 381 g Gemayel, Bashir 347 Georgia 98, 222, 223, 226, 328 Germany Nazis and the Holocaust 309, 316–21, 323–4, 328, 339 Ottoman Empire, and the 41–2, 45–50, 98, 100, 102, 107–9, 113 Ghazi of Iraq, King 302, 322 Gounaris, Dimitrios 273 Gouraud, General Henri 185, 186, 188, 197–200 Great Britain Balfour Declaration, and the 84–97, 90–7, 116, 117, 123, 137, 160–1, 183, 192, 194, 196–7, 217, 237, 238, 244–5, 246–50 First World War, and the 44–56, 59–73, 74–85, 102–12 French in the Middle East, and 71, 74, 75, 78, 86, 87, 122–6, 127–32, 138–43, 149–60, 182–91, 197–200 Greeks, and the 250–1, 258–60, 264–9, 271 Hashemites, and the 59–79, 120–8, 138–43, 150–60, 182–91, 197–200, 227–9, 232–9, 299–301, 322 oil, and 44, 62, 71, 98, 130, 275, 293, 300, 302, 321 Palestine, and 71, 137–8, 144, 382 the makers of the modern middle east 145, 147, 153, 154, 155, 160–3, 183, 191–7, 200–2, 237–9, 241–50, 309–21, 324–6, 333–7 Suez Crisis, and the 341 Turkey, and 167, 203–4, 207–18, 250–1, 258–60, 264–74, 287–97, 322–3, 328, 354 Zionism, and 36–41, 50–4, 79–84 Greece Cyprus, and 354, 358 First World War, and the 109–10 Mudanya Armistice, and the 269–74 Turkey, war with 168–80, 208, 209, 210, 212, 214–5, 219, 224–7, 250–8 Greenberg, Leopold 35, 39, 85 Grey, Sir Edward 50–1, 62, 69 Gul, Abdullah 356 h Haas, Jacob de 137, 143, 240 Hall, William Reginald (‘Blinker’) 73 Hamas 347–8, 350, 352, 353, 360 Hankey, Maurice 243 Hardinge, Lord 199, 235 Harington, General Sir Charles 258, 265, 270–1, 282–3 Hasan Tahsin 168 Hatzianestis, General George 261, 273 Haycraft, Sir Thomas 242, 247 Herzl, Theodore 25–9, 32, 33–6, 39, 319 Hitler, Adolf 26, 309, 316–7, 320, 321, 322, 323–4, 325, 333, 339 Hogarth, David 73–4, 120, 124, 132 Holocaust, the 323–4 Hope Simpson, Sir John 313–4 House, Colonel Edward M 92–3, 94, 95, 136, 150, 152 Hussein, Saddam 348–9, 357 Hussein ibn Ali, Sherif Arab nationalism, and 63, 120–2 Arab Revolt, and the 23, 60–1, 72–3, 74, 75 decline of power in the Hejaz 227–32, 283, 298–9 McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, the 66–71 Ottoman Empire, and the 16–23, 63–6 Hussein of Jordan, King 340, 341, 344 i Ibn Saud, Abd al-Aziz 17, 21, 23, 63, 228–32, 239, 283, 298, 299, 320, 328 India 2, 5, 18, 21, 44–5, 48–9, Index 50, 61–2, 92, 94, 116, 128, 141, 159, 184, 234, 239, 258, 266, 268, Iran 3, 329, 343, 348, 355, 357, 363, 365 Iraq 9, 42, 55, 67, 75, 92, 98, 104, 105, 128, 131, 149–51, 156, 157, 161, 183, 184, 187, 189, 190, 196, 197, 208, 214, 217 Ba‘th regime 348–9 Coalition invasion 349 Hashemite kingdom 227, 232–9, 299–302, 342–4 Iran-Iraq War 348 Kuwait, invasion of 348–9 oil 62, 71, 343, 360 Second World War, and the 321–2 Ireland 37, 116, 184, 246, 247, 323 Islamic State 364–5 Ismet (Inönü) 170, 204, 225–6, 227, 251, 263, 271, 287–297, 303–4, 305, 307, 322–3 Israel al-Aqsa intifada 351 Arab-Israeli Wars 338–42 Lebanon, invasion of 347 Middle East peace process, and 345–6, 350–4 Palestinian intifada 347 proclamation of 337–8 Suez Crisis, and the 341–2 Turkey, and 357–8 383 Italy 1, 5, 7, 41, 85, 86, 115, 138, 165–6, 191, 194, 225, 251, 259, 271, 275, 279, 288, 295, 298, 309, 317, 321, 345, 347, occupation of Turkey 163, 164, 165, 194, 210–1, 214, 250 Izmir 3, 104, 105, 109, 111, 164–5, 168, 170, 171, 172, 175, 177, 180, 181, 208, 209, 212, 214, 250, 254, 259, 260–4, 265, 267, 295, 305, 307, 356, j Jabotinsky, Vladimir 80–1, 86, 193, 241, 316 Japan 2, 6, 138, 143, 194, 211, 285, 289, 317, 329 Jerusalem 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 25, 29, 38, 39, 41, 71, 97, 99, 115, 118, 192–3, 194, 202, 237–8, 241, 243, 274, 318, 326, 335, 339, 340, 340, 341, 346, 351, 352, 366 Johnson, Robert Underwood 194 Jordan 9, 67, 208, 227, 237–8, 244, 298–9, 301, 308, 332–3, 340, 343, 344, 346, 350, 360 k Kâmil Pasha 106 Kâzım Karabekir 164, 170, 178, 179, 204, 205, 223–4, 304 384 the makers of the modern middle east Kennedy, President John F 355 Kerry, John F 365 Khurma dispute, the 229–31 King-Crane Commission, the 157–60, 182–3, 185, 189 Kissinger, Henry 260, 341–2, 346 Kitchener, Lord 5, 48, 59–60, 61, 69 Kurds, the 4, 58, 129, 174, 178, 179–80, 208, 215, 216, 234, 239, 257, 263, 290–1, 297, 300, 301, 302, 303, 307, 349, 356–7, 360 Kuwait 63, 348–9 L Lansing, Robert 139, 143, 147–8, 248 Lausanne, Conference and Treaty of 266, 274, 275, 279, 287–98, 302, 303, 304, 309, 330, 356–7 Lawrence, T E 19, 65, 73–9, 118, 121–2, 127, 128, 131, 132, 134–5, 139–40, 151, 152, 228, 232, 234, 236, 237, 239 League of Nations, the 137, 139, 144, 182, 195, 215, 237, 243, 245, 249, 250, 290, 300, 309, 311 Lebanon 3, 6, 12, 13, 71, 123–5, 127, 141–2, 145, 149, 151, 159, 186, 188, 189, 190, 197, 217, 327, 331–2, 338, 340, 345, 347, 353, 363 Levi, Sylvain 117, 143, 146–8, 149 Levi-Bianchini, Angelo 117 Liman von Sanders, General Otto 42, 55, 98 Lloyd George, David 51, 52, 81–2, 83, 247, 273, 313 Middle East, and the 122–3, 129–31, 140–1, 149–50, 151, 157, 161, 208–9, 235, Turkey, and 101, 164, 166, 175, 183, 184, 185, 188, 190, 207, 208–9, 210, 211, 214, 258–260, 265–6, 267–8, 271 Zionism/Palestine, and 52–3, 54, 82–3, 87, 90, 93, 133, 138–9, 153, 194, 195, 196, 243–4, 274, 313, 318 m MacDonald, Malcolm 320 MacDonald, Ramsay 313–7, 320 Mack, Judge Julian 137, 240–1 Mazarakis, General 272 McMahon, Sir Henry 62–3, 64, 65, 67–71 McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, the 66–71, 72, Menderes, Adnan 330, 355–6 Mesopotamia see Iraq Metaxas, General Ioannis 255 Index Middle East peace process, the 345–6, 350–4 Millerand, Alexandre 188–9, 194–5, 197, 210, 211 Milne, General George 165, 209 Milner, Alfred, Lord 83–4, 91–2, 94, 142–3, 143, 151, 233, 235 Mond, Sir Alfred 132, 312–3 Money, General Sir Arthur 136, 154 Montagu, Edwin 53, 90, 92–3, 95, 246 Montenegro Morgenthau, Henry 80, 89 Morsi, Dr Mohamed 362 Mudanya Armistice, the 269–73, 287 Muslim Botherhood 347, 362 Mussolini, Benito 166, 288, 289, 309 Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) 5, 7, 98–9, 102, 166, 180, 366 Bolsheviks, relations with 206–7, 221–4, 256 Gallipoli campaign 55–6 Grand National Assembly, and the 204–7 Greece, war with, and the 224–7, 250–7, 260–74 resistance to Allied occupation 167, 169–80, 181, 203–4 Turkish republic, and the 278–87, 302–9 385 n Nasser, Gamal Abdul 339, 341, 342, 342 Nathan, Sir Frederick 82 Nitti, Francesco 194–6 Noel, Captain Edward 179–80 Nurettin Pasha 263–4, 281 Nuri al-Said 127, 139–40, 193, 198, 300, 302, 320, 322, 342–4 o Obama, President Barack 359, 361, 364, 365 oil 44, 62, 71, 98, 130, 275, 293, 300, 302, 321, 332, 343, 360 Olmert, Ehud 535 Ormsby-Gore, William 84, 89, 96, 117–8, 132, 143, 318, 319, 320 Ottoman Empire, the 1–5, Arabs, and the 9–11, 12–23, 63–5 Armenians, and the 4, 56–9 collapse of 62, 97–114, 180–2, 278–87 First World War, and the 6, 41–3, 44–50, 54–6 p Palestine 6, 9, 10–1, 12, 62, 69–71 Arab-Jewish conflict in 153–5, 238, 241–4, 309–11 Arab Revolt in 316–7 386 the makers of the modern middle east Balfour Declaration, and the 82–3, 84–90, 90–7, 116, 117, 118, 120, 123, 126, 135, 137, 138, 160, 161, 183, 237–8, 243, 244–6, 247–50, 274, 314 British Mandate 71, 137–8, 144, 145, 147, 153, 154, 155, 160–3, 183, 191–7, 200–2, 237–9, 241–50, 309–21, 324–6, 333–7 Churchill White Paper, the 246–9, 274 First World War, and the 54, 55, 72, 79–84, 97–100 Hope Simpson report 314 Jewish immigration to 24–9, 32, 36, 38–9, 41, 51–4, 135–8, 145, 146–7, 192, 200, 238, 241–50, 309, 312–20, 325, 326, 339 Jewish Revolt in 333 partition of 318–20, 333, 334–7, 339–40 Second World War, and the 324–6 United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) 334–5, 339 Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) 344–5, 345–6, 346–54 Palestinian Authority, the 350–5 Palestinian delegation to London, the 244–6 Palestinian refugees 302–4 338–40, 345, 351 Paris Peace Conference, the 115–6, 149–50 Feisal at 127–8, 138–43 Zionist delegation at 132–8, 143–149 Passfield, Lord 312–5 Patterson, Lieutenant-Colonel John Henry 80 Peel, Lord 317, 319, 335 Pichon, Stéphen 97, 139, 141, 143–4, 149, 195 Picot, Franỗois Georges 71, 120, 158 Plumer of Messines, Field Marshal Lord 311 Poincaré, Raymond 268, 287–9, 292 Portsmouth, Treaty of 342 r Rabin, Yitzhak 350 Rashid Ali 302, 322 Rauf (Orbay) 102, 107, 109–12, 171, 178, 203, 290, 295, 296–7, 304 Rawlinson, Colonel Alfred 223–4 Reagan, President Ronald 347 Rogers, William 346 Romania 5, 325 Roosevelt, President Franklin D 327–8 Rothschild, Baron Edmond de 25 Index Rumbold, Sir Horace 101, 103, 258–9, 270, 288, 292, 295 Ruppin, Dr Arthur 29 Russia 4, 5, 24, 28, 35, 41, 61, 62, 95, 171, Bolshevik Revolution 71, 85, 97–8, 115–6, 121, 172, 216, 267, 303 Turkey, and 42, 45–8, 50, 54, 56–9, 219–24, 256, 291 s Sakarya, Battle of 253–7, 258 Salih Hulusi 182, 203–4 Samuel, Herbert 50–1, 52–4, 70, 83, 86, 96, 132, 134, 154, 161–2, 194, 196, 200, 202, 217, 237, 241–4, 245–6, 247, 249, 274, 309, 310, 311, 318 San Remo Conference, the 191–7, 199, 200, 210, 217, 232, 234, 243, 274 Saudi Arabia 9, 15, 67, 299, 320, 328, 332, 338, 349 Scott, C P 51–4, 82, 87, 133 Second World War, the 321–6 Serbia 5, 45, 138, 195 Sèvres, Treaty of 207–18, 219–21, 224, 226, 250, 251, 255, 260, 272, 274, 281, 288, 297, 356 Sforza, Count Carlo 166, 211, 268 Sharon, Ariel 346, 351–3 Shuckburgh, John 236, 247 Simon, Leon 117 387 Smuts, General Jan 92, 132, 313, 315 Smyrna see Izmir Sokolow, Nahum 34, 38, 40, 85–7, 91, 94, 97, 132, 137, 143–4, 161 Soviet Union see under Russia Spire, André 143, 145–6 Stack, Sir Lee 233 Stern, Avraham 326 Storrs, Ronald 59–61, 65, 67, 73, 75, 118, 162 Suez Crisis, the 341 Sykes, Sir Mark 71, 84–7, 89, 96, 120, 126, 132, 235–6, Sykes-Picot Agreement, the 71, 74, 78, 84, 87, 88, 121–2, 126, 131, 133, 134, 139, 149, 152, 183, 214, 217, 365 Syria Arab-Israeli Wars 338–40, 341–2 Arab nationalism in 11–5, 64, 125–6, 186–91, 331–3 Feisal, and 122–6, 127, 128, 141–2, 150, 151–2, 154, 155–7, 157–60, 182–91, 192, 197–200, 218, 301 France and 3, 12, 120–6, 128–32, 138–43, 149–52, 155–60, 182–91, 197–200, 215, 217, 228, 231, 251, 257, 322, 327, 331 United Arab Republic, and the 343 388 the makers of the modern middle east t Talât Pasha 6, 57, 63, 100–1, 113, 114 Tardieu, André 148 Townshend, General Sir Charles 104–5, 263 Toynbee, Arnold 128, 212–3 Transjordan see Jordan Trikoupis, General 262 Truman, President Harry S 329–30, 335–7 Trumpeldor, Joseph 80, 192 Turkey Allied occupation of 167–82, 203–18, 219–21, 250–74 Cold War, and 256, 328–30, 354–5 Cyprus, and 354, 358 European Union membership 354, 358–9 Greece, and 167–80, 219, 224–7, 250–8 Gulf Wars, and the 355 Israel, and 357–8 Kurds, and 263, 290, 307, 356–7 NATO membership 330, 349, 354–5 Second World War, and the 322–3 Soviet Union, relations with 219–24, 256, 291 Treaty of Lausanne, and the 266, 274, 275, 279, 287–98, 302, 303, 304, 309, 330, 356–7 Treaty of Sèvres, and the 207–8, 219–21, 224, 226, 250, 251, 255, 260, 272, 274, 281, 288, 297, 356 u ‘Uganda Offer’, the see under Zionism United Nations, the 323, 327, 334–6, 341, 345, 349 United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) 334–6 United States 9/11 terrorist attacks 349 First Gulf War, the 355, 357 Iraq, invasion of 355, 360–61 Israel, and 335–7, 338, 341–2, 345, 346, 350–3 King-Crane Commission, the 157–60, 182–3, 185, 189 Lausanne Conference, and the 289 Marshall Plan, the 330 Middle East Peace Process, and the 345–6, 350–4 Ottoman Empire/Turkey, and 58, 93, 99–100, 101, 164, 180–2, 213–5, 293, 328–30, 354–5 Suez Crisis, and the 341–2 Treaty of Versailles, and the 182, 191 Zionism, and 88, 92–5, 136, Index 143–5, 195, 201–2, 240–1, 326 Ussishkin, Menahem Mendel 33, 36, 40, 143, 145, 240, 319 v Vahdettin, Sultan (Mehmed VI) 98–9, 102–5, 107, 112–3, 114, 216, 220–1, 278, 281–5 Vansittart, Robert 191, 194 Venizelos, Eleftherios 109, 164, 165, 172, 175, 209–11, 224–5, 251, 258, 262, 267–8, 269, 274, 289 Versailles, Treaty of 161, 182, 191, 207, 210, 232, 361 w Weizmann, Chaim 24 American Zionists, and the 88, 92–3, 132–3, 137, 148–9, 201–2, 240–1 Balfour, and 38, 87, 89, 132, 133, 134, 194, 200, 243–4, 247 Balfour Declaration, and the 84–97 Feisal, and 86, 118–9, 132–3, 134–5, 149, 153–5, 163, 185 Great Britain, and 36–41, 50–4, 153–5, 200–2, 247–50, 312–6 Palestine, and 153–5, 160–3, 200–2, 241–4, 247–50, 389 309–16, 325, 333–7 Paris Peace Conference, at the 116–9, 132–8, 143–9 President of Israel, as 337–8 President Truman, meeting with 335–7 San Remo Conference, and the 191–7 ‘Shell Scandal’, and the 81–3 Zionism, origins of 29–36 Wilson, Sir Arnold 150, 234 Wilson, Colonel C E 72, 73 Wilson, General Sir Henry 123, 183 Wilson, President Woodrow 88, 92–5, 99–101, 123, 126, 131, 136, 139, 142, 149, 157, 158, 161, 164, 176, 182–3, 195, 215, 219 Wingate, Reginald 60, 74, 117, 121 y Yassin, Sheikh Ahmed 347, 352 Yellin-Mor, Nathan 326 Young, Hubert 236 ‘Young Turks’, the see Committee of Union and Progress Yusuf Kemal 259 z Zaghlul Pasha, Saad 233 390 the makers of the modern middle east Zionism Congresses 27–8, 32–3, 35–6, 80, 200, 240–1, 312, 319, 312, 333–4, 336 Jewish opposition to 27, 31, 32, 35, 39, 50, 89, 92–5, 143, 146–8 origins 23–9, 31–4 ‘Uganda Offer’, the 34–9, 85, 137, 319 Zionist Commission, the 116–9 Zionist Organization of America (ZOA) 137, 240–1