Wiley Wastewater Quality Monitoring and Treatment_21 ppt

JWBK117-6.2 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:44 Char Count= 0 6.2 Training Jean-Luc C´ecile and Evelyne Touraud 6.2.1 Introduction 6.2.2 Types of Training and Training Institutes 6.2.3 Water Chemistry 6.2.3.1 Objectives 6.2.3.2 Content 6.2.4 Regulations and their Application 6.2.4.1 Objectives 6.2.4.2 Content 6.2.5 Parameters, Methods and Procedures for Water Quality Characterization 6.2.5.1 Objectives 6.2.5.2 Content 6.2.6 Conclusion 6.2.1 INTRODUCTION The treatment of wastewater, whether industrial or urban, and its impact on the nat- ural environment is an important theme in training, both for courses leading to a qualification and for continuous professional training. However, most courses cover treatment processes rather than their monitoring. The most complete degree courses, which aredescribed later, include this monitoring aspect, particularly by dealingwith the usual methods which comply with the requirements of the various regulations: self-monitoring and self-control of facilities. The impact on the natural environ- ment is reduced to an examination of the evolution of ecosystems. Approximate Wastewater Quality Monitoring and Treatment Edited by P. Quevauviller, O. Thomas and A. van der Beken C  2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-471-49929-3 JWBK117-6.2 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:44 Char Count= 0 378 Training coverage of water bodies is achieved through a systematic follow-up of surface water, underground water and seawater in the framework of national and interna- tional programmes. As a general rule, the presentation is structured around three topics: r Water chemistry, in particular physical and chemical properties and forms of pollution. r Existing regulations and their application. r Parameters for water quality characterization and relevant methods to measure them: standard methods, alternative methods, bioindicators and biosensors. These training programmes consist of a series of conferences and studies of ap- plications. The didactic approach is based on practical cases. Participants’ specific cases are also often used. Training courses include practical work, which is con- ducted in pilot units or in the field, on operational sites. They are intended for technical agents, supervisors and engineers responsible not only for the running of wastewater treatment installations and facilities but also for quality assurance, environmental and safety services. In addition, specific training is given to staff working in public administration (appointment to a new post or training leading to a qualification). The length of the course varies from 1 to 5 days (in continuous professional training) or from 10 to 80 h for training leading to a qualification. 6.2.2 TYPE OF TRAINING AND TRAINING INSTITUTES Considering training, there are two approaches: to offer students a course leading to a vocational qualification; or to provide additional training for active profession- als. In the first case, student training can be offered at three levels, for operating technicians, supervising technicians and engineers. University programmes train students for positions in administration. In the second case, the same three levels exist, although they are not so clearly separated (nonhomogeneous staff). In this section, these types of training are discussed briefly, along with the main training providers. In France, two main institutes, the International Office for Water, OIEau, based in Limoges (www.oieau.fr) and the Instrumentation and Control Institute for Industrial Processes, IRA, based in Arles (www.poleira.com) provide professional training in the water field. The OIEau is intended for the managers of water and sewerage system services, manufacturers, designers,constructors andfitters ofworkand equipment,and admin- istrative bodies in charge of aquatic resources, implementing regulations, technical assistance and control services. The IRA provides industrial personnel with training JWBK117-6.2 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:44 Char Count= 0 Type of Training and Training Institutes 379 in the field of measurement and control, logics and industrial data processing and on-line analysis dedicated to water management. Both institutions provide tech- nological and educational platforms that enable real-life practical training to be performed. Engineering training in French ‘Grandes Ecoles’ is based on a rare blend of Sci- ence, Engineering, Management and Human Sciences combined with project work for industry. The Ecole des Mines d’Al`es, EMA (www.ema.fr) offers students a spe- cialization in Environmental Engineering, including the industrial environmental regulation context, water analysis and monitoring, and wastewater treatment pro- cesses. The EMA provides professional training in environmental chemistry and water metrology. These courses are specifically intended for administrative bodies in charge of water quality control. The Ecole Nationale du G`enie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement in Strasbourg, ENGEES (www-engees.u-strasb.fr) offers special- ized master and bachelor degrees in water management and treatment. Polytech Montpellier (www.polytech.univ-montp2.fr) trains general engineers in the water field through its Water Science and Technology Department. Elsewhere in Europe, water monitoring is an important issue but is not specifically taught, except perhaps in the UK. The Community European Management School, CEMS (www.cems.org) delivers a course which runs over 3 days and is aimed specifically at those people working within the emissions monitoring field, such as Environmental Managers, Stack Testers and Environment Agency Inspectors. The course provides abroad view of thesubject includingcontinuous flowmonitoring and continuous methods for particles. Other issues covered include quality assurance for automated measurementsystems and information onforthcomingCEMS legislation. The course consists of 60 % theory and 40 % practical work. Students work on a comprehensive range of in-situ analysers and systems for practical work, and networked PCs with flat screen monitors for all theoretical work. In North America, we can cite the example of the American Water Works Asso- ciation, AWWA (www.awwa.org). This association offers a training programme for continuous water monitoring. The seminar lasts 1 day and its objective is to respond to future users considering beginning or expanding an on-line monitoring system. The seminar schedule goes from the definition of on-line monitoring in the current water supply and treatment context to the organizational issues involved. It includes the principle components of on-line monitoring systems, evaluating the costs and benefits of on-line monitoring, general equipment selection guidelines, an overview of available on-line instruments and data handling issues. Finally, another example can be given in New Zealand: the National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research, NIWA (www.niwa.co.nz). The science campus focuses on various disciplines including aquaculture, climate, freshwater, coastal, marine, fisheries and atmospheric research. It also has a number of field offices primarily for the collection of environmental data. The institute offers various train- ing courses in the field of water monitoring such as Optimizing Data Quality from Environmental Monitoring Stations, and Successful Use of Handheld and Continu- ous Water Quality Sensors/Loggers. JWBK117-6.2 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:44 Char Count= 0 380 Training 6.2.3 WATER CHEMISTRY 6.2.3.1 Objectives The aim of these courses is to study the physical and chemical properties of water in order to improve its management. The implementation of various methods is covered: laboratory methods (standards), alternative methods (rapid and on-line). Finally, courses deal with the interpretation and exploitation of results. 6.2.3.2 Content Courses consist of an introduction in which the natural water cycle is presented in order to understand the problems raised by its exploitation. Water resources are de- scribed. Because of their vulnerability, regulated management is required, combined with means of control. On the basis of the various uses described in the urban water cycle, including industrial activities, the causes and consequences of the degradation of water body quality are presented. Then, water chemistry is introduced through various concepts concerning atomic and molecular structure, covered at differing levels of detail, in order to provide a better comprehension of reactional mecha- nisms. The main characteristics of water are recapped. The nature of the substances found in water: gas and dissolved salts, ions, nonionic molecules, is addressed in detail. Reactions are grouped into families: r Oxido–reduction reactions; r acid–base reactions; r complexation reactions; r reactions combining oxido–reduction and acid–base; r reactions combining acid–base and complexation; r reactions combining oxido–reduction, acid–base and complexation. Sometimes, the application of metrology/quality assurance to water quality analysis is examined, which is illustrated by the international course series on quality assur- ance for chemical analysis (QUACHA) organized as an ad hoc activity in various languages by the European Commission in the years 1998–2002, but the tendency is to minimize, even neglect this aspect which, nevertheless, is an essential aspect of the measurement approach. The main characteristics of a measurement are described: accuracy, reliability, uncertainty, range of measurements, validation and limits of quantification and response time. The physico-chemical measurements are listed: water level, flow measurement, pressure, basic and specific parameters. Sampling conditions are examined in detail. An important part is dedicated to the principles JWBK117-6.2 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:44 Char Count= 0 Regulations and Their Application 381 and methods applicable in laboratory. The aim is to present existing principles and standards rather than commonly used procedures. Measurements carried out using alternative methods, the so-called micromethods, and on-line measurements using sensors, probes or industrial analysers are very rarely covered. The presentation and exploitation of results are often neglected. The IRA institute offers professional training modules, from basic to advanced level, dedicated to measurement and control and which cover the major points men- tioned above. Several courses are available: basic water chemistry (4 days), self- monitoring of treatment processes (4 days), operating of water sensors and analysers (4 days) and industrial environment: water and wastewater (4.5 days). Similarly, in the framework of a course in environmental chemistry (2.5 days), the EMA cov- ers water chemistry reactions and the fate of pollutants through real and practical applications. OIEau, together with the National Centre for the Water Profession (CNFME), provides professional trainingcourses focusedon themanagement ofwater resources and public services, municipal treatments and networks (potable water and sewage) and the processing and decontamination of industrial wastewater. Finally, some companies which provide advanced analytical systems and techni- cal support for water quality testing also deliver specific training courses. For exam- ple, the Hach Technical Training Center (www.hach.com) offers several workshops (2–3 days) dedicated to water and wastewater training. Some of them concern envi- ronmental metrology with the testing techniques and systems available for quality measurement in applications including drinking water, wastewater, environmental water andindustrial water.Other arededicated toon-line monitoring,especially chlo- rine and turbidity process analysers and their maintenance (calibration, verification and troubleshooting techniques). 6.2.4 REGULATIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION 6.2.4.1 Objectives The main aim is to study the existing regulatory context and the obligations upon project managers. Another objective is to understand what parameters are to be mea- sured (flow, quality parameters). An important part is dedicated to the exploitation and interpretation of results. However, conformity criteria are rarely addressed. 6.2.4.2 Content A very considerable part is dedicated to the presentation of the existing regulatory context applicable to the management of urban and industrial wastewaters. The problems linked to industrial wastewater running into collective urban networks (subject to authorization and agreements) as well as specific cases of industrial JWBK117-6.2 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:44 Char Count= 0 382 Training sites with potential risks for the environment are examined. The principle of self- monitoring and self-control of installations is often proposed. The methodology and procedures used to measure the quantity and the quality of effluents: flow, quality parameters: total suspended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), BOD 5 , global nitrogen, total phosphorus, specific parameters for nonurban effluents are given in detail. As mentioned above, the presentation and interpretation of results are often not covered in much detail. The same applies to the conformity of urban or industrial water treatment processes. 6.2.5 PARAMETERS, METHODS AND PROCEDURES FOR WATER QUALITY CHARACTERIZATION 6.2.5.1 Objectives The main objective is to study the metrology applicable to water measurements, in particular the rules governing implementation andthe existing standards. Inaddition, courses examine how measurement equipment is operated and maintained. Finally, the basis for the organization of a ‘Metrology and Measurements’ Department is given. 6.2.5.2 Content After giving background information on the chemistry of water, the main basis of the metrology applicable to water measurements is explained. A pragmatic or logical approach structured around four main points is used: Why perform measurements? What are the parameters to be measured? Where are the measurements to be made? How are the measurements to be made? Applicable standards are presented and the conditions for their use analysed. Courses are mainly concerned with laboratory methods and procedures, much less with alternative methods. Only rapid methods or micromethods are beginning to be taken into account. The equipment and the conditions of their use for measuring physical parameters, pressure, level and flow (pipes, open channels) are examined in detail. Various modules cover the measure- ment of basic physico-chemical parameters (nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, pesticides). The role of biosensors and biodetectors is rarely studied. The organization of a metrology laboratory for the operation and maintenance of sensors and analysers is made up of several parts: r control and verification operations; r calibration; r quality assurance is sometimes carried out according to standard EN17025. JWBK117-6.2 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:44 Char Count= 0 Conclusion 383 As an example, the parameters for water and wastewater monitoring are presented in the water metrology course (2.5 days) delivered by the Ecole des Mines d’Al`es. Hands-on practice is performed on real samples, on site, using various test methods and portable field instruments. The exploitation and validation of results are studied. 6.2.6 CONCLUSION As a conclusion, it can be said that wastewater monitoring courses are of short duration, as components of a larger whole. There is no occupation dedicated to wastewater monitoring, or to other types of water (drinking water, natural waters). There is clearly a pressing need for this work to be duly recognized, combining a traditional approach (specimen sampling, laboratory measurements) with alterna- tive methods, in particular on-line methods. Some organizations are beginning to acknowledge this need and to offer specialized training. In France, on-line analysis has been adopted as a part of industrial self-monitoring to monitor processes with a view to optimizing performance. Unlike atmospheric controls, however, alternative methods and on-line analysis for the purposes of efflu- ent quality and environmental impact have not gained full acceptance. Thus, alterna- tive methods remain to some extent outside the mainstream, and few organizations offer the training required. JWBK117-IND JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:45 Char Count= 0 Index Note: Page numbers in bold refer to tables and those in italics refer to figures Acoustic Doppler profiler flow meter (ADFM), 137–139 principle, 137 schematic representation, 137, 137 testing, 138–139 Activated sludge, 162–163, 174–176 influent testing, 209, 210 Activated Sludge Model no. 1 (ASM1), 163–164, 164 Agricultural irrigation see irrigation Algae algal bloom, 220 biological monitoring, 80, 214 and human health, 314 Alternating-activated-sludge (AAS) WWTP, 254, 254 Alternative methods, 53–66 characteristics, 56–57, 60 compared with reference methods, 62–65, 63 equivalence verification, 63 defined, 56–57 and emerging tools, 57 types of, 57–60 biosensing systems, 58 modelling, 58–59 optical sensors, 58 qualitative, 59 standard methods adapted, 57–58 toxicity evaluation, 59–60 uses, 60–62 biological monitoring tools, 61–62 field method, 60 handheld devices, 60–61 on-line sensors/analysers, 61 validation procedure, 63–64, 64 Ammonia/ammonium, 117, 221 analysis, 55, 56, 225–227 flow analysis, 233, 234 methods listed, 225–226 sample preparation, 226–227 ecological impact, 277 sample handling/preservation, 223–224 Anaerobic digestion interval observers, 260–261 mass-balance model, 257–258 Analytic processes improvement, 47–51 necessity, 67–69 normative requirements, 68 operation and maintenance, 68 research and development, 68 on-line sensors, 49–51 performance studies, 47–48, 49 validation schemes, 48–49 interlaboratory studies, 48 see also sampling Analytical results evaluation see Certified Reference Materials (CRMs), analytical results evaluation Antibodies, 70 Area-velocity flow meters (AVFMs), 133–137 accuracy, 136, 137 data validity, 135–136 Wastewater Quality Monitoring and Treatment Edited by P. Quevauviller, O. Thomas and A. van der Beken C  2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-471-49929-3 JWBK117-IND JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:45 Char Count= 0 386 Index Area-velocity flow meters (AVFMs) (Cont.) evaluation, 135–136 narrow-beam Doppler, 134 principle, 133 wide-beam Doppler, 134 ATP luminescence, 78 Automated monitoring, 155–158 parameter measurement, 155–156 stations, 155–156, 155 control, 156–157 maintenance, 157 sensors, 156 Bacterial luminescence see bioluminescence Bacterial screening tests, 75 Benthic ecology, 277, 284 Biodegradation effect, 26 Bioindicators, 285 Biological monitoring, 77–80, 280–284 algae analysis, 80 microbiological contamination, 77–80 tools, 61–62, 77 Biological oxygen demand (BOD), 180, 181–182 BOD5, 181–182, 192 determination, 42–43 microbial sensors, 74–75 online analysis, 74–75 Bioluminescence, 210–211, 214–215 toxicity measurement, 280, 282 Biosensors, 58, 67–77, 280–282, 354 applications, 69 bioaffinity-based, 69, 70, 71, 79 biocatalytic-based, 69–70, 71 BOD analysis, 74–75 chemical substance detection, 76–77 defined, 69–70 effluent testing, 215 environmental applications, 72–77 field applications, 80–81 immunoassays, 70 immunosensors, 71 microbe-based, 69, 71 on-line monitoring, 280 optical methods, 72, 76, 280 parameters measured, 280, 281–282 portable, 81 summarised, 73 toxicity analysis, 75–76 transducer links, 71 Brenta River, 319 sampling, 319 TIN and IP mass loads, 320, 322, 323, 324 variables v. flow rate, 320, 321 Capillary electrophoresis, 241 Carbon see total organic carbon (TOC) CEN, 39 Certified Reference Materials (CRMs), 84–109 analyte concentrations, 106–109 analytical result evaluation, 102–105 errors, 102, 103, 104, 105 precision, 103, 104 standard deviation, 102, 103, 104 certification procedures, 94–100 expert laboratories, 100 interlaboratory, 97–98, 98 ISO Guide, 94 single laboratory, 97 collection, 87 defined, 84–85 disadvantages, 85 element concentration, 99 hierarchy, 100–101 homogeneity, 88, 91–92 parameters, 98 preparation, 86–89 producers, 105 repeatability, 102, 103 requirements, 86 stability control, 92–94 storage, 89–91 traceability, 100–101 transport, 89–91 see also Reference Materials (RMs) Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 180 composition, 192–193 determination, 43–44, 43 EKF estimation, 254–255 fractionation, 182–192, 183, 192, 193, 200 case study, 191–192 respirometric approach, 184–189, 184, 185 using analytic monitoring data, 189–191, 189 fractions in wastewater, 182–184 interval observers, 260 JWBK117-IND JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006 20:45 Char Count= 0 Index 387 Chemometrics, 367 Chromatography, 227, 239–241 Clean Water Act (CWA), 10–11, 13–15 disposal regulation, 14–15 effluent limitations, 13–14 main titles, 11 Clean Water State Revolving Fund, 12 Concentrated animal feeding operations, 17 Contaminants see pollutants Continuous Perfectly Mixed Reactor (CPMR), 165, 166, 171, 172, 173 COPANT, 39 Dan Region (Israel) Reclamation Project, 344–346, 344 monitoring practice, 345–346, 345 Dangerous Substances Directive (DSD) (76/464/EEC), 3 Data collection, 351–375 autonomous on-line instruments, 363, 364 biosensors, 354 cost-benefit analysis, 364 data quality standards, 356 discipline inputs, 358 disparate data, 359–361 and EU member states, 358 information sources Micro and Nanotechnology (MNT) Network, 373–374 networked embedded systems, 372 Reconfigurable Ubiquitous Networked Embedded Systems (RUNES), 372–373 SENSCOPE, 373 Sensors for Water Industry Group (SWIG), 372 instrument supply industry, 355–356, 369–371 companies, 369, 370 future developments, 371 market characteristics, 370–371 market fragmentation, 370, 371 sale surges, 370 ‘maintenance’, 363 and management structures, 358–359 MCERTs, 356, 357 measurement choice, 354–355 measurement decisions, 362 measurements overlaid, 360, 361 ‘MicroRisk’ project (EU), 359–360 need for, 361, 374 requirements, 352 research and development support, 361–362 SCADA data, 359–360 sparse data, 359–361 standards, 364 system confidence, 360 techniques, 364–369 battery technology, 366 chemometrics, 367 communications, 368 developments, 365 Lab-on-Chip, 369 miniaturisation, 366 portable instruments, 368 spectrometry, 367 test kits, 368 wireless technology, 368 users, 362–364 Data fractionation of COD, 189–191, 189 biodegradable, 190 particulate fraction, 191 soluble biodegradable, 191 soluble nonbiodegradable, 190 Deflocculation, 209 Dender River, 148–155, 149 dry and wet periods, 305–306 ESWAT model, 149–155 fertiliser, 150, 151–152, 152, 154 input information, 149, 152, 153 nitrate estimation, 304–306 nitrogen, 149–150 pollution, 148–149 sensitivity analysis, 151–152 linear regression, 151–152 uncertainty analysis, 152–153, 154–155 fertiliser, 152–153 rainfall, 153–154, 154 water quality modelling, 294, 298–299, 304–307 Denitrification, 211 Detergent residues, 194, 195 Direct toxicity assessment (DTA), 205 Discharge limits, 180–181 Discharge systems, 311–312 combined sewer overflow (CSO), 312 sewer system, 311 surface urban runoff, 311 [...]... 319 United States implementation and control bodies, 12–13 ‘standard method’, 38 wastewater regulation, 10–22 Urban areas, 161–177 Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD) (91/271/EEC), 2, 3–8, 35–36, 203 deadline, 371 information and reporting, 6 monitoring, 6, 7 planning aspects, 4–5 pollutants, 7 quality control, 7–8 regulation, 5–6 stipulations, 265–266 types of wastewater covered, 4 UV photooxidation,... biodegradable fraction, 187 Rural areas, 145–159 automated monitoring, 155–158 case study, 148–155 characterised, 147 modelling and monitoring, 147–148 as nonpoint sources, 147 sensitivity analysis, 151–152 use of ESWAT, 149–151 Quality control, 7–8, 21 Quality Control Materials (QCMs), 85 St Andr´ (Belgium) aquifer recharge project, e 346–347, 346 monitoring practice, 347 Salinity, 332 Sampling, 23–34,... Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 10, 12 Environmental quality standards (ESQs), 353 European Committee for Standardisation (CEN), 39 European Soil and Water Assessment Tool (ESWAT), 149–150 ‘European Testing and Comparability of On-line Sensors (ETACS)’, 49–50 ISO/CD 15839, 49, 51 overview, 51 European Union guidelines for monitoring, 146 wastewater regulation, 2–10 legislation, 2, 8–9 results,... Spectrometry, 367 Spectrophotometry, 58, 59 and industrial wastewater, 269, 270, 271, 279 in sewage analysis, 115 Standard methodologies, 35–52 Standards defined, 36–38, 51 international organisations, 38–39 national organisations, 39, 40–41 off-line techniques, 51–52 on-line methods, 49–50 parameter measurement, 42–47 biological oxygen demand, 42–43 chemical oxygen demand, 43–44, 43 nitrogen, 46 phenols,... Modelling, 147–148, 289–309 and monitoring, 289–309 campaign guidelines, 307 uncertainties, 290 Monitoring, 7 automated see automated monitoring development, 55, 307 discharge, 284 and modelling, 147–148, 289–309 in rural areas, 145–159 Dender River, 148–155, 149 uncertainties, 148 Nanotechnology, 373–374 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), 11–12, 14, 15–21 compliance monitoring, 20–21 permitting... 20–21 permitting systems, 17–18 technology based, 17 water quality based, 17–18 pollutant control, 19–20 programme areas, 15–17 quality control, 21 standards, 18 wastewater types, 19 watershed-based permits, 18–19, 21–22 Nitrates, 221 analysis, 227–228 automated, 228 hydrazine reduction, 228 eutrophication, 277 flow analysis, 234, 235–236 sample handling/preservation, 224 Nitrification inhibition, 211–212... Count= 0 Index Handheld devices, 60–61 Hazard Assessment and Critical Control Points (HACCP) method, 31–32, 268–269, 337 Hormones, 340 Hypoxia, 220 Immunoassays, 70, 79 Immunoglobulins, 70 In-line sensors, 173 Industrial Pollution Prevention and Control Regulations Directive (IPPC) (96/61/EEC), 35 Industrial wastewater, 265–272 accidental pollution, 270–272 characteristics, 266–268 monitoring, 268–269... ammonia, 277 biological monitoring, 280–284 biosensors, 280–282 chemical monitoring, 278–280 biosensors, 280 in-situ methods, 278 on-line methods, 279 parameters, 278 physico-chemical measurement, 279 colloids, 276 grain size distribution, 276 impact, 277 monitoring, 284 bioindicators, 285 early warning systems, 285 practical applications, 285 passive samplers, 284 pollutants, 278 quality survey, 275–287... on water quality characterisation, 382–383 in France, 378–379 institutes, 378–379 in New Zealand, 379 in North America, 379 on-line analysis, 383 students, 378 in UK, 379 Treatability evaluation, 179–202 and COD fractions, 182–184 influent composition, 181 metallic compounds, 198–199 nutrients, 196–198 organic aggregates, 181–192 organic micropollutants, 194–196 393 respirometry, 182, 184–189 and WWTPs... measurement, 29–30 importance, 23–24 and international standards, 29 location, 29 methods, 26–28, 51–52 automatic, 26, 27–28, 29, 33 grab sampling, 26, 27, 32 on-line, 30, 49–51, 52 remote, 33 nonoptimal, 300, 301 procedure, 54 limits, 54–55 sample handling, 30–31 site choice, 31 see also analytic processes Scale deposits, 333 Sensitive waters, 311–327 Sensors and battery technology, 366 in WWTPs, . 206, 213 215 algae bioassays, 214 bacterial bioassays, 214 215 bioluminescence, 214 215 biosensors, 215 fish bioassays, 213 214 invertebrate bioassays, 214 future of, 204 influent, 206, 209 213 , 216 bioluminescence,. 15 21 compliance monitoring, 20 21 permitting systems, 17–18 technology based, 17 water quality based, 17–18 pollutant control, 19–20 programme areas, 15–17 quality control, 21 standards, 18 wastewater. themanagement ofwater resources and public services, municipal treatments and networks (potable water and sewage) and the processing and decontamination of industrial wastewater. Finally, some companies