Tai Lieu Chat Luong THIRD EDITION © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC THIRD EDITION EDITED BY Leo M L Nollet L e e n S P D e G e l d e r Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Version Date: 20130614 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-8966-4 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface ix Editors xi Contributors xiii Section I Sampling and Data Treatment Methods Sampling Methods in Surface Waters Munro Mortimer, Jochen F Müller, and Matthias Liess Methods of Treatment of Data 47 Riccardo Leardi Section II Radioanalytical Analysis Radioanalytical Methodology for Water Analysis 79 Jorge S Alvarado Section III Organoleptical Analysis Organoleptical Methodology .101 Abdul Moheman, Md Musawwer Khan, and K S Siddiqi Section IV Analysis of Biological Parameters Bacteriological Analysis of Water .115 Paulinus Chigbu and Salina Parveen Marine Toxins Analysis .153 Luis M Botana, A Alfonso, M R Vieytes, N Vilariño, A M Botana, C. Louzao, and C. Vale Algal Analysis .163 Leonardo Rubi Rörig Section V Halogens, N-Compounds, and Phosphates Halogens 189 Géza Nagy and Livia Nagy Analysis of Sulfur Compounds in Water 233 Leo M L Nollet v © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC vi Contents 10 Determination of Ammonia in Water Samples 249 Juliana Antunes Galvão, Alexandre Matthiensen, Marília Oetterer, Y Moliner-Martínez, R. A. Gonzalez-Fuenzalida, M Moz-Orto, R Herráez-Hernández, J Verdú-Andrés, C. Molins-Legua, and P Campíns Falcó 11 Nitrites and Nitrates 283 Adnan Aydın 12 Phosphates in Aquatic Systems 327 Alexandre Matthiensen, Juliana Antunes Galvão, and Marília Oetterer Section VI Cyanides, Asbestos, Metals, and Si-Compounds 13 Cyanides 365 Leo M L Nollet 14 Asbestos in Water 379 James S Webber 15 Heavy Metals, Major Metals, Trace Elements 385 Jorge E Marcovecchio, Sandra E Botté, Claudia E Domini, and Rubén H Freije 16 Determination of Silicon and Silicates .435 Salah M Sultan Section VII Organic Parameters 17 Main Parameters and Assays Involved with the Organic Pollution of Water 459 Lorena Vidal, Claudia E Domini, and Antonio Canals 18 Determination of Organic Nitrogen in the Aquatic Environment 493 Juliana Antunes Galvão, Alexandre Matthiensen, and Marília Oetterer 19 Determination of Urea in Aquatic Samples .511 Juliana Antunes Galvão, Alexandre Matthiensen, and Marília Oetterer 20 Organic Acids .521 Mercedes Gallego Fernández, Evaristo Ballesteros Tribaldo, and Beatriz Jurado Sánchez 21 Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in Water 549 Iván P Román Falcó and Marta Nogueroles Moya Section VIII Phenolic and Humic Compounds 22 Determination of Phenolic Compounds in Water .613 Leo M L Nollet 23 Characterization of Humic Matter 647 Leo M L Nollet © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Contents vii Section IX Residues of Pesticides 24 Determination of Pesticides in Water 665 Evaristo Ballesteros Tribaldo 25 Analysis of Herbicide and Fungicide Residues in Waters 697 N Sridhara Chary, Maria Jose Gómez Ramos, and Amadeo R Fernández-Alba Section X Residues of PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFS, and PAHs 26 Analysis of PCBs in Waters 765 L Bartolomé, O Zuloaga, and N Etxebarria 27 PCDDs and PCDFs 789 Luigi Turrio-Baldassarri, Paola Pettine, and Laura Achene 28 Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons 807 Chimezie Anyakora Section XI Surfactants and Petroleum Hydrocarbon Analysis 29 Surfactants 825 Eva Pocurull and Rosa Maria Marcé 30 Petroleum Hydrocarbon Analysis 845 Iván P Román Falcó Section XII EDCs and Residues of Plastics 31 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals, and Personal Care Products 871 Dimitra A Lambropoulou and Eleni Evgenidou 32 Residues of Plastics 917 Dimitra A Lambropoulou and Eleni Evgenidou Index 943 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Preface The Handbook of Water Analysis, Third Edition, strives to provide the most comprehensive text a vailable in terms of the physicochemical and biological properties and analysis techniques of all types of water Organized in sections, most chapters cover the physical, chemical, and other relevant properties of a particular subset of water components, followed by a description of sampling, cleanup, extraction, and derivatization procedures, and concluding with detection methods Earlier techniques that are still frequently in use are compared to recently developed protocols, and an outlook is provided on future trends Figures are incorporated to provide procedure flow charts and schematics concerning sampling or analytical devices Numerous tables categorizing methods according to type of component, origin of the water sample, parameters and procedures used, and application range, facilitate the search for further references Section I of the book lays out two crucial aspects besides the actual analysis procedures Sound scientific investigation starts with a sampling strategy designed to capture the real-world situation as closely as possible, and ends with an adequate chemometrical and statistical treatment of the acquired data Section II summarizes health and environmental problems due to radionuclides in water and presents new techniques for their determination Section III regarding organoleptical analysis of water acknowledges that ultimately the consumers of drinking water have the final vote over its quality regarding odor, flavor, and color Water houses many organisms, of which the smallest may cause illness and produce toxic substances Section IV discusses bacteriological and algal analysis, as well as the occurrence and detection of marine toxins Sections V through XII encompass harmful or toxic components originating from domestic, agricultural, or industrial sources that can be found in different waters Inorganic substances include nitrogen, sulfur, phosphate, silica, and halogenated compounds, cyanides, (heavy) metals, and asbestos Organic compounds comprise organic nitrogen and acids, volatile and phenolic compounds, and humic matter The main groups of anthropogenic polluting compounds are discussed: pesticides, PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFS, PAHs, petroleum hydrocarbons, and surfactants Specific chapters in these sections are also dedicated to the challenging category of micropollutants, such as endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceutical and personal care products and plastic residues This book aims to be a reference work for anybody learning about or carrying out water analysis, from undergraduate and graduate students to scientific researchers and technicians in academic, governmental, industrial, or nonprofit sectors All contributors are international experts in their field of water analysis, whom we would like to thank cordially for all their efforts This book is dedicated to three granddaughters, Fara, Fleur, and Kato, and two grandsons Naut and Roel and two daughters, Hanne and Mona, for whom we wish that they can always enjoy fresh, clean water in their lifetime It is far more impressive when others discover your good qualities without your help — Judith Martin ix © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Index combustion, 500–501 detection, 503–504 electrophoresis-based methods, 496 filtration, 495 future trends, 504 gel electrophoresis, 503 Kjeldahl method, 497–499 NMR spectrometry, 503–504 photo-oxidation, 499–500 sample collection and preservation, 495 sample preparation, 495–496 in water, 494–495, 493–494 in water quality control, 494 x-ray spectrometry, 504 Organic nitrogen detector (OND), 658 Organic pollution of water, 459; see also Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD); Chemical oxygen demand (COD); Total organic carbon (TOC); Total organic halide (TOX) Organic sulfur compounds (OSCs), 234 Organisation for Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), 244 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OEDC), 874 Organochlorine (OC), 7, 735, 748 Organoleptic, 102 problems in, 104–105 properties, 102–103 Organoleptic test, 105, 110 aldehyde determination, 105 apparatus for assessment of odor and smell, 107 closed-loop stripping analysis, 105 color determination, 105 flowchart of taste and odor determination, 108 Headspace SPME, 105 odor determination, 105 odor triangle, 109 relationship between instrument and sensory methods, 109 Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs), 735, 748 OSCs, see Organic sulfur compounds (OSCs) Outlier detection, 65 OWE, see Oil-in-water emulsion (OWE or O/W emulsion) O/W emulsion, see Oil-in-water emulsion (OWE or O/W emulsion) Oxidized multiwalled carbon nanotubes (O-MWCNT), 836 Oxygen and temperature variation in lake, 17 Oxygen-deficient environment, 459 Oysters (Crassostrea virginicus), 155 Ozonation, 109 Ozone, 480–481 P PA, see Polyacrilate (PA) Pac, see Phenoxy acetic acid (Pac) PAEs, see Phthalates (PAEs) PAH chromatographic separation, 814; see also Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) gas chromatography, 815 HPLC, 815–816 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 965 micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography, 816–817 supercritical fluid chromatography, 817 PAHP, see Particulate acid-hydrolysable phosphorus (PAHP) PAHs, see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) PAHs analysis, 812; see also PAH chromatographic separation; Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) PAH extraction, 812 quality assurance and control, 813 recovery studies, 813–814 sample cleanup, 812–813 Paired emitter–detector diode (PEDD), 346, 351 P-aminophenol (PAP), 622 PAN, see 1-(2-Pyridylazo)-2-naphthol (PAN); Pesticide Action Network (PAN) PANI, see Polyaniline (PANI) PAP, see P-aminophenol (PAP) Paper chromatography (PC), 270 PAR, see Piridylazo resorcinol (PAR) PARAFAC analysis, see Parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC analysis) Paraffins, see Saturates Parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC analysis), 654 Paralytic shellfish poison (PSP), 153 Paraquat, see N-N′-Dimethyl-4-4′-bipyridinum dichloride (Paraquat) Partial least squares regression (PLS or PLSR), 72 Particulate acid-hydrolysable phosphorus (PAHP), 351 Particulate organic carbon (POC), 648 Particulate organic matter (POM), 648 Particulate organic nitrogen (PON), 503 Particulate organic phosphorus (POP), 352 Particulate reactive phosphorus (PRP), 352 Part per million (ppm), 494 Parts-per-billion (ppb), 386, 809 Parts-per-trillion (ppt), 386 Passive sampler, 35; see also Kinetic sampler Chemcatcher, 38 DET, 38, 39 DGT, 38 diffusive and resin gel, 37 equilibrium sampler, 35 kinetic, 37 sampler–water partition coefficient, 35 time-integrating passive sampling techniques, 36 Passive sampling, 796–797 methods, 878 Pattern recognition techniques, 861 cluster analysis, 863 SOM, 863 supervised multivariate methods, 863–864 PB, see Prussian Blue (PB) PBBs, see Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) PBDEs, see Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) PBS, see Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) PBT, see Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) PC, see Paper chromatography (PC); Phytochelatins (PC); Polycarbonate (PC) 966 PCA, see Plate count agar (PCA); Principal component analysis (PCA) PCB, see Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) PCDDs, see Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) PCDFs, see Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) PC-HFM, see Polymer-coated hollow fiber microextraction (PC-HFM) PCNs, see Polychlorinated naphthalene (PCNs) PCP, see Pentachlorophenol (PCP) PCPs, see Personal care products (PCPs) PCR, see Postcolumn reagent (PCR); Principal component regression (PCR) PCs, see Principal components (PCs) PDMS, see Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) PDMS-DVB, see Polydimethylsiloxanedivinylbenzene (PDMS-DVB) Pectenotoxin2 (PTX2), 154 PEDD, see Paired emitter–detector diode (PEDD) PEGs, see Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) PEN, see Polyethylene naphthalene (PEN) Pentachlorophenol (PCP), 20, 613 Pentafluorobenzyl bromide (PFBBr), 685 for derivatization processes, 735 for silylation and acetylation, 921 o-(2,3,4,5,6-Pentafluorobenzyl) hydroxylamine hydrochloride (PFBHA), 105 2-(Pentafluorophenoxy) ethyl-2-(piperidino)ethanesulfonate (PFPES), 374 Perfluorinated surfactants (PFS), 826 Perfluoroalkoxy fluorocarbon (PFA fluorocarbon), Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), 828 Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 828 Performance reference compounds (PRC), 767 Periphyton, see Microphytobenthos Peroxidase (POD), 352 Peroxidative chemiluminescence (POCL), 816 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 765 Personal care products (PCPs), 873 classification, 873 measured concentration in surface water, 908 Pertraction (permeation-extraction), 593 Perylene-d12, 814 PEs, see Phthalate esters (PEs) Pesticide Action Network (PAN), 703, 748 Pesticides, 665, 697; see also Fungicides; Herbicides capillary electrophoresis, 687 CL, 688 classification of, 667–671 derivatization, 685 determination methods, 673–682, 685 disadvantages, 698 electrochemical methods, 688 expenditure and amounts used, 698 extraction, 672 future trends, 688–689 gas chromatography, 685–686 immunochemical methods, 687–688 IMS, 688 liquid chromatography, 686 LLE, 672, 683 LPME, 683 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Index nerve targets, 666 properties and degradation of, 666 regulations, 671, 703 sample preparation, 672 sampling and preservation, 671–672 solid-phase microextraction, 684 solvent-based extraction, 672 sorbent-based extraction, 683 SPE, 683–684 stir bar sorptive extraction, 684 toxicity of, 666 TPs, 698 voltammetry, 688 PET, see Polythene terephthalate (PET) Petroleum, 845; see also Tiered petroleum hydrocarbon fingerprinting alkenes, 847 analysis, 848–849 aromatic hydrocarbons, 847 biomarkers analysis, 863 chemical components of, 847 chemometrics, 861–864 cluster analysis, 863 compositions of, 848 GC × GC chromatogram, 862 multidimensional chromatography, 860–861 oil spill identification, 850 PAHs, 847 PCA, 863 polar compounds, 847 sampling and storage, 849 saturates, 847 self-organizing maps, 863 SIMPLISMA, 863 spill disasters, 845, 846 weathering, 846, 858 pF, see Negative logarithm of fluoride concentration of standards (pF) PFA fluorocarbon, see Perfluoroalkoxy fluorocarbon (PFA fluorocarbon) PFBBr, see Pentafluorobenzyl bromide (PFBBr) PFBHA, see o-(2,3,4,5,6-Pentafluorobenzyl) hydroxylamine hydrochloride (PFBHA) PFGE, see Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) Pfizer selective enterococcus agar (PSE agar), 142 PFOA, see Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) PFOS, see Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) PFPES, see 2-(Pentafluorophenoxy) ethyl-2-(piperidino)ethanesulfonate (PFPES) PFS, see Perfluorinated surfactants (PFS) Pharmaceuticals, 872 classification, 872 in environment, 873 excretion, 873 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), 21, 871, 908–909; see also Personal care products (PCPs); Pharmaceuticals in aqueous matrices, 898–906 chromatographic techniques, 893–895 detection techniques, 893 determination in water samples, 892 Index distribution in environment, 876 endocrine disruption, 875 in environment, 872 as environmental contaminants, 876, 896–897, 907–908 environmental fate of, 877 with estrogenic activity, 897 membrane based techniques, 883–884, 889 quality control and assurance, 896 sample preparation, 878–879, 890–893 sampling, 877–878 solvent based techniques, 882–883, 887–888 sorbents, 890 sorptive extraction methods, 880–882, 885–886 Phenanthrene, 808; see also Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Phenanthrene-d10, 814 Phenolic compound determination, 614; see also Liquid chromatography (LC); Liquid–liquid extraction; Solid-phase extraction (SPE); Solid-phase microextraction alternative separation techniques, 622–623 detectors, 621 electrochemical detection procedures, 618 EPA methods, 614–616 fluorescence detection, 619 gas chromatographic determination, 621–622 liquid-phase microextraction, 632–633 LLLME, 636 nonchromatographic techniques, 623 official methods for, 614 sample preparation procedures, 624 SBSE, 635, 636 SFE, 635 SLM extraction, 633–635 solid-phase extraction, 625–630 Phenolic compounds, 613 analysis in water, 614 classification, 614 determination, 618 EPA priority pollutant phenols, 615 Phenolphthalein method, 371 Phenoxy acetic acid (Pac), 748 PHNCo, see Potassium hexanitrocobaltate (PHNCo) Phosphate analysis, 335; see also Total phosphorus (TP) atomic spectrometry, 342 automated techniques, 345, 347 brackish and estuarine waters, 349 capillary electrophoresis, 344–345 chemical preservation, 332 colorimetry and spectrophotometry, 335 combustion and fusion, 334 digestion, 334, 333, 335 direct photometry, 335 electrochemical techniques, 342–343 filtration, 331 flow injection and sequential injection analysis, 346 freezing, 332 FRP analysis, 346 HPLC, 345 in situ analysis system, 350 interferences in photometric techniques, 341 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 967 ion chromatography, 343–344 liquid waveguide capillary cell, 345 marine waters, 350 phosphate detection, 340 photoluminescence techniques, 341–342 potable waters, 347 preconcentration, 332–333 preservation and storage, 328, 330, 332 pretreatment, 330, 331 segmented continuous flow analysis, 345 solvent extraction, 340–341 thermal digestion methods, 334 TP and TFP analysis, 346 TP concentrations and lake productivity levels, 347 UV photooxidation, 334–335 wastewaters, 349 wet chemical digestion methods, 334 Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), 748 Phosphates in aquatic systems, 328; see also Phosphate analysis; Total phosphorus (TP) forms of phosphorus, 329 FRP determination methods, 348 future trends, 350–351 operational classification phosphorus, 333 phosphorus determination methods, 336–339 Phosphomolybdate (PM), 340, 351 Phosphomolybdenium blue (PMB), 340, 352 Photo ionization detector (PID), 556 Photoluminescence procedures, 411 for phosphate detection, 341–342 Photons, see Gamma rays (Photons) Photo-oxidation method, 499–500 PHS, see Priority Hazardous Substance (PHS) Phthalate esters (PEs), 776 Phthalates (PAEs), 918; see also Bisphenol A (BPA) in aquatic environment, 924–926 contamination issues in, 921 endocrine disruptive potency, 919 history, 919 strategies for measuring, 920–921, 922–923 Phycotoxins, 153 Phytochelatins (PC), 165 Phytoplankton taxonomic groups (PTG), 180 PI, see Positive ion (PI) PicoTAX TXRF spectrometer, 412 PID, see Photo ionization detector (PID) Pielou equitability, 172, 173 Piezoelectric quartz crystal (PQC), 374 PIME, see Pulse introduction membrane extraction (PIME) Piridylazo resorcinol (PAR), 394 Placopectin magellanicus, see Scallops (Placopectin magellanicus) Plankton classification, 164 Plasma spectrometric techniques, 475 Plastic, 917; see also Plastic residues global production, 917, 918 industrial development, 917 Plastic residues, 918; see also Acrylamide (AA); Bisphenol A (BPA); Epichlorohydrin (ECH); Phthalates (PAEs); Styrene; Vinyl chloride (VC) future trends and recommendations, 934–935 968 Plasticizers, 918; see also Bisphenol A (BPA); Phthalates (PAEs) Plate count agar (PCA), 133 PLE, see Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) PLOT, see Porous layer open tubular (PLOT) PLS, see Partial least squares regression (PLS or PLSR) PLSR, see Partial least squares regression (PLS or PLSR) PM, see Phosphomolybdate (PM) PMB, see Phosphomolybdenium blue (PMB) PMTDS, see Poly (methyl tetra decylsiloxane) (PMTDS) PN, see Pneumatic nebulization (PN) Pneumatic nebulization (PN), 84 PNIPAA, see Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) ammonium acetate (PNIPAA) p-Nitrophenol (PNP), 622 PNN, see Probabilistic neural network (PNN) PNP, see p-Nitrophenol (PNP) POC, see Particulate organic carbon (POC); Purgeable Organic Carbon (POC) POCIS, see Polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS) POCL, see Peroxidative chemiluminescence (POCL) POD, see Peroxidase (POD) Polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS), 672, 878 Polar pesticides, 20 Polarized sensory positioning (PSP), 110 Polarography, 738 silicate determination, 452 Polyacrilate (PA), 590, 772, 892 analyte extraction from aqueous samples, 631 for fiber coatings, 591 for polar compound analysis, 592 Polyaniline (PANI), 772 Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), 776 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 776 Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT), 917 Polycarbonate (PC), 382 PC-HFM, 776 plastics, 920 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), 765, 781–782, 798 common extraction and analysis methodologies, 769–771 congeners, 766 DLLME, 774–774 extraction, 767 general structure of, 766 liquid–liquid extraction, 768 LLME, 774 MEPS, 773–774 method 508A, 777 MLPME, 775–776 novel extraction techniques, 772 sampling, 767 separation and detection, 776–781 solid-phase extraction, 768 SPME and SBSE, 772–773 uses, 765 Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), 789, 790; see also Dioxins © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Index Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), 789, 790; see also Dioxins Polychlorinated naphthalene (PCNs), 780 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 243; see also Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) analysis methods, 853 as by-product of petroleum, 853 diagnostic ratio, 854–855 and oil spill studies, 854 as petroleum hydrocarbons, 847 Polycyclic aromatic sulfur heterocyclic compounds, 243 Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), 238, 891 as fiber coating, 591, 631, 729 microfluidic device, 366 octanol-water partition coefficient, 592 stir bar reproducibility, 243 Polydimethylsiloxanedivinylbenzene (PDMS-DVB), 108 Polyethylene, 917 Polyethylene glycols (PEGs), 656, 892 Polyethylene naphthalene (PEN), 110 Polymer-coated hollow fiber microextraction (PC-HFM), 776 Poly(methyl tetra decylsiloxane) (PMTDS), 748 Poly(methyl tetradecylsiloxane) (PTDMS), 748 Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) ammonium acetate (PNIPAA), 748 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 807; see also PAHs analysis; PAH chromatographic separation biomarkers, 811–812 carcinogenicity, 810–811 chemical structures of, 808, 810, 811 chromosomal alterations, 810 genotoxicity, 810 occurrence, 809 sources of, 808–809 surrogate compounds, 814 toxicity, 809–810 Polyoximethylene (POM), 796 Polyphenol oxidase (PPO), 373 biosensor for phenolic compounds, 624 cyanide detection, 373 Polypropylene (PP), 389 as porous hydrophobic membranes, 775 Polystyrene (PS), 931; see also Styrene Poly(styrene–divinylbenzene) (PSDVB), 625, 748 copolymer, 773 Polystyrene sulfonates (PSS), 656 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 8, 352 distribution coefficient, for extraction and preconcentration of ammonia, 259 as filter membrane, 262 in opened reflux method, 466 for sample storage, 285 snow samples storage, 527–528 sorption affinity, volatile HCN permeation, 369 Polythene terephthalate (PET), 110, 917 Polyurethane (PUR), 917 Polyurethane foam (PUF), 795 Polyurethane foam plugs (PUFP), 795 969 Index Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 352, 917, 918 Polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), 655 Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), 8, 775 POM, see Particulate organic matter (POM); Polyoximethylene (POM) PON, see Particulate organic nitrogen (PON) POP, see Particulate organic phosphorus (POP) POPs, see Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) Porous layer open tubular (PLOT), 930 Positive ion (PI), 894 Postcolumn reagent (PCR), 223 Potassium hexanitrocobaltate (PHNCo), 87 Potentiometric stripping analysis (PSA), 409 Potentiometric techniques, 409 cyanide determination, 372 ET, 410 ISEs, 409 MWCNT application, 409 PSA, 409 silicate determination, 451–452 of sulfur compound s, 241 Potentiostat, 738 Pour-plate technique, 130 POX, see Purgeable organic halide (POX) PP, see Polypropylene (PP) ppb, see Parts-per-billion (ppb) PPCPs, see Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) ppm, see Part per million (ppm) PPO, see Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) ppt, see Parts-per-trillion (ppt) PPy-DS, see Dodecylsulfate-doped polypyrrole (PPy-DS) PQC, see Piezoelectric quartz crystal (PQC) PRC, see Performance reference compounds (PRC) Preservation efficiency, 330 Pressured column chromatographic system, 798 Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), 798 Principal component analysis (PCA), 50; see also Sample classification computation, 72 data reconstruction by PCA model, 52 goal of, 51 from mathematical point of view, 52 in multivariate process monitoring, 64 three-way, 65–66, 68, 69 Principal component regression (PCR), 72 Principal components (PCs), 51 PLS, 72 Priority Hazardous Substance (PHS), 920 Priority Substance, see Priority Hazardous Substance (PHS) Probabilistic neural network (PNN), 863 Process monitoring and quality control, 63 automatic detection of outlier, 65 multivariate process monitoring, 64 Programmed temperature vaporizer (PTV), 740, 773, 891 ProP, see Protoporphyrin (ProP) 2-Propenamide, see Acrylamide (AA) Proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometer (PTRMS), 593 Protoporphyrin (ProP), 816 Protozoans, pathogenic, 117 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC PRP, see Particulate reactive phosphorus (PRP) Prussian Blue (PB), 264 PS, see Polystyrene (PS) PSA, see Potentiometric stripping analysis (PSA) PSDVB, see Poly(styrene–divinylbenzene) (PSDVB) PSE agar, see Pfizer selective enterococcus agar (PSE agar) PSP, see Paralytic shellfish poison (PSP); Polarized sensory positioning (PSP) PSS, see Polystyrene sulfonates (PSS) PTDMS, see Poly (methyl tetradecylsiloxane) (PTDMS) PTFE, see Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) PTFE membrane filter and mediated micelle extraction (Mixed-MME), 259 PTG, see Phytoplankton taxonomic groups (PTG) PTRMS, see Proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometer (PTRMS) PTV, see Programmed temperature vaporizer (PTV) PTX2, see Pectenotoxin2 (PTX2) PUF, see Polyurethane foam (PUF) PUFP, see Polyurethane foam plugs (PUFP) Pulse introduction membrane extraction (PIME), 593 Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), 124 PUR, see Polyurethane (PUR) Purge and trap (P&T), 581, 928; see also Humic substance extraction desorption, 586, 588 factors affecting, 583 limitations and advantages, 588 online system, 583 processes, 581 purge efficiency, 583 sorbents for, 584–586 sweeping, 584 technology, 259 trapping adsorbent materials, 585 trapping efficiency, 584 traps used for P&T extraction, 587 Purge efficiency, 583 Purgeable Organic Carbon (POC), 473 Purgeable organic halide (POX), 478 P&T, see Purge and trap (P&T) PVC, see Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) PVDF, see Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) PVP, see Polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) Pyrene, 808; see also Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 1-(2-Pyridylazo)-2-naphthol (PAN), 399 Q Q, see Quadrupole (Q) QA, see Quality assurance (QA) QAMDHB, see 2-(2-Quinolinil-azo)-4-methyl-1,3dihydroxidobenzene (QAMDHB) QC, see Quality control (QC) QCM, see Quartz crystal microbalances (QCM) QDA, see Quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA) QDs, see Quantum dots (QDs) QIT, see Quadrupole ion trap (QIT) QMS, see Quadrupole mass spectrometry (QMS) qPCR, see Quantitative PCR (qPCR) 970 QqLIT, see Quadrupole linear ion trap (QqLIT) QqQ, see Triple quadrupole (QqQ) QqQ-MS, see Triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (QqQ-MS) QTOF, see Quadrupole-time-of-flight (QTOF) Quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA), 66, 70 Quadrupole (Q), 894 Quadrupole ion trap (QIT), 894 Quadrupole linear ion trap (QqLIT), 894 Quadrupole mass spectrometry (QMS), 748, 779, 815 Quadrupole-time-of-flight (QTOF), 687 Qualitative sampling, 166, 167 Quality assurance (QA), 896 Quality control (QC), 896 Quantitative PCR (qPCR), 132 Quantitative sampling, 166, 167, 170 Quantity-proportional sampling, Quantum dots (QDs), 368 Quartz crystal microbalances (QCM), 109 Quinine hydrochloride method, 449–450 2-(2-Quinolinil-azo)-4-methyl-1,3-dihydroxidobenzene (QAMDHB), 401 R R, see Richness (R) Rad-disk technology, 90; see also Radioanalytical methodology for bismuth and polonium, 92 for radium, 90 for strontium, 90 for technetium-99, 91 Radiation Cerenkov, 83 effect in body, 79 measurement in drinking water, 87 Radiation detectors, 82; see also Radionuclides; Rad-disk technology alpha detectors, 83 background reduction, 82 band gap, 82 beta detectors, 83 Cerenkov radiation, 83 decay counting and ICP-MS, 84 effective dose equivalent, 83 electrothermal vaporization, 84 gamma detectors, 82–83 lithium-drifted germanium detectors, 82 mass spectrometers, 84 photoelectric compton phenomena, 82 pneumatic nebulization, 84 scintillation detectors, 82 sodium iodide scintillator, 82 thermal ionization mass spectrometers, 84 Radioanalytical methodology, 79; see also Disequilibrium measurement; Raddisk technology; Radiation detectors; Radionuclides crown ethers, 85–86 extraction chromatography, 87–88 isotope determination, 85 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Index with of ICP-MS, 88–90 radioactivity measurement in drinking water, 87 resins for environmental analysis, 86 solid-phase extraction disks, 86 with solvent extraction method, 87 Tc-99 analysis comparison, 86 technetium-99 in water, 90 thorium-232 in water, 89 TRU-Resin, 87 uranium-238 in water, 89 Radio frequency (RF), 405 Radioimmunoassay (RIA), 895 Radionuclides; see also Radiation detectors actinium series, 80–81 carbon isotopes, 92 decay, 82 detection limits, 85 in environment, 8081 hazard, 79 due to human activity, 80 isotopes determination, 85–86 man-made radioactive elements, 81 naturally occurring, 80, 81 nitrogen isotopes, 92 stable isotopes, 92 sulfur isotopes, 92 thorium series, 80 transformations of, 80 uranium series, 80 Radium disk, 90–91 RAMs, see Restricted access materials (RAMs) Rapid data acquisition, 27 Rapid resolution liquid chromatograph (RRLC), 729, 748 Rapid underway monitoring, 27 data captured by, 29 rapid data acquisition, 27 schematic diagram, 28 3D underway monitoring, 28 RB, see Rhodamin B (RB) RC, see Reagent concentration (RC) Reactive silica, 435 Readycult Enterococci broth, 143 Reagent concentration (RC), 398 Recreational water quality standards, 128, 129 Reduced sulfur substances (RSS), 244 Refractive index (RI), 349, 352 Relative pollution (RP), 176 Relative quality (RQ), 176 Relative response factor (RRF), 800 Relative standard deviation (RSD), 201 REP, see Repetitive extragenic palindromic (REP) Repetitive extragenic palindromic (REP), 125 Resins, 847 compositions of, 848 for environmental analysis, 86 Respirometry, 461; see also Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Response surface methodology (RSM), 515 Restricted access materials (RAMs), 892 Restriction endonucleases, 124 Index Retention time locking tool (RTL tool), 778 Reverse flow injection analysis (rFIA), 345 Reverse phase (RP), 748 Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-LC), 774 Reverse-phase SPE (RP-SPE), 768 RF, see Radio frequency (RF) rFIA, see Reverse flow injection analysis (rFIA) Rhodamin B (RB), 439 RI, see Refractive index (RI) RIA, see Radioimmunoassay (RIA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 200 Riboprinter, 124 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 124 Ribotyping (RT), 124 Richness (R), 173 RMSEC, see Root mean square error in calibration (RMSEC) RMSEP, see Root mean square error in prediction (RMSEP) RNA, see Ribonucleic acid (RNA) Room temperature phosphorescence (RTP), 368 Root mean square error in calibration (RMSEC), 72 Root mean square error in prediction (RMSEP), 72 RP, see Relative pollution (RP); Reverse phase (RP) RP-LC, see Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-LC) RP-SPE, see Reverse-phase SPE (RP-SPE) RQ, see Relative quality (RQ) RRF, see Relative response factor (RRF) RRLC, see Rapid resolution liquid chromatograph (RRLC) rRNA, see Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) RSD, see Relative standard deviation (RSD) RSM, see Response surface methodology (RSM) RSS, see Reduced sulfur substances (RSS) RT, see Ribotyping (RT) RTL tool, see Retention time locking tool (RTL tool) RTP, see Room temperature phosphorescence (RTP) Runoff sampling apparatus, 31 triggered sampling methods, 19 Ruttner, 25 S S, see Similarity (S) SAC, see Standard addition calibration (SAC) Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 551 SALDI, see Surface-assisted laser desorption ionization (SALDI) Salmonella spp., 117, 139 Salting-out effect, 580 Sample, adsorption on glass, bottles with telescopic device, 20 contamination, 7–8, 19 deterioration, 31 enrichment methods, 928 filtration, loss, © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 971 number, preparation, 920 quality control in water sampling, 16 sorption, 8–9 storage containers, 9–15 volume, 20 Sample classification, 66 ability, 67 goal, 67 LDA, 66, 70 matrix, 70 performance of, 70 and prediction, 67, 68 QDA, 66, 70 Sampler, 22; see also Automatic samplers; Contaminant concentration; Manual samplers; Suspended particle sampler (SPS) air resisting, 23 benthic deepwater sampling system, 26 benthic shallow water sampling system, 26 effect on concentrations of substances, 22 for large quantities, 22–23 for trace elements, 23 water partition coefficient, 35 Sampler for water and suspensions (SWS), 26, 27 Sampling, 877 average concentrations, 26 buoy, 26–27 at discrete depths, 24, 25 equipment, see Sampler Sampling point; see also Upstream sampling location in lake, 16 in stream, 17 upstream sampling location, 18 Sampling strategies, 16 event-controlled, 19 flow-weighted composite, 20 loading errors, 19 longitudinal profile of water quality, 18 nonpoint load values, 19 polar pesticides, 20 runoff-triggered, 19 sample bottles with telescopic device, 20 sample volume, 20 sampling point, 16, 17, 18 seasonal variation of oxygen and temperature, 17 using sediments to integrate over time, 19 spatial and temporal variability of estuaries, 20 storm water monitoring, 20–21 for storm water runoff, 20 surface-grab and cross-sectionally integrated techniques, 17 temporal changes of water quality, 18–19 in wastewater systems, 21–22 Sapphyrin, 213 Saprobes, 175 Saprobic, 175 communities, 177 Saprobic index (SI), 175 Saprobic levels, 175, 176 Saprobiotic, see Saprobic 972 SARA, see Saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes (SARA) Saturated calomel electrode (SCE), 516 Saturates, 847 compositions of, 848 Saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes (SARA), 851 Savannah River Site (SRS), 439 SAW, see Surface acoustic wave devices (SAW) SAX, see Strong anionic exchange (SAX) Saxitoxin (STX), 154, 155 SBD-F, see 7-Fluorobenzo-2-oxa-1, 3-diazole-4-sulfonate (SBD-F) SbF-CPE, see Antimony film carbon paste electrode (SbF-CPE) SBSE, see Stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) SBSE–GC–MS, see Sorptive extraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (SBSE–GC–MS) Scallops (Placopectin magellanicus), 155 Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 399 SCD, see Sulfur chemiluminescence detector (SCD) SCE, see Saturated calomel electrode (SCE) SCFA, see Segmented continuous flow analysis (SCFA) Scores, 52 Screen-printed electrodes (SPEs), 396, 408 Screening methods for Water data InFormation in support of the WFD (SWIFT-WFD), 853 SCX, see Strong cation exchanger (SCX) SD, see Standard deviation (SD) SDBD method, see Surfactant to dye-binding degree method (SDBD method) SDBS, see Sodium dodecybenzenesulfonate (SDBS) SDME, see Single-drop microextraction (SDME) SDS, see Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) SDS-PAGE, see Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) SDWA, see Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Seasonal variation in lake, 17 SEC, see Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) 2-sec-butyl-4, 6-Dinitrophenol (Dinoseb), 747 Sedgewick–Rafter chamber, 170 Sediments to integrate over time, 19 Segmented continuous flow analysis (SCFA), 352 for phosphate detection, 345 Selected ion monitoring mode (SIM mode), 921 Selective ion monitoring (SIM), 748 Self-organizing maps (SOM), 863 SEM, see Scanning electron microscope (SEM) Seminaphthorhodamine-1-dextran (SNARF-1-dextran), 516 Semipermeable membrane device (SPMD), 36, 37 in PAHs determination, 767 Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOC), 807 Sequential injection (SI), 352, 651 Sequential injection analysis (SIA), 240, 245, 274, 445 advantages of, 445 ammonium molybdate method, 446–448 FIA stopped-flow sequential-injection method, 449 for filterable molybdate determination, 350 for input data automation, 410 instrumentation differences, 446 instrumentation of, 446 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Index molybdenum blue method, 448–449 multipositional check valve, 274 SIA system, 446 Sequential injection lab-on-valve (SI-LOV), 402 SERS, see Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) Sewage treatment plant (STP), 748 Sewage treatment work (STW), 875 SFC, see Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) SFOD, see Solidification of floating organic drop (SFOD) SFS, see Synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy (SFS) SG, see Sol–gel (SG) Shallow water sampler, 22 Shannon diversity index (H), 172, 173 Shellfish harvesting water quality standards, 128, 129 Shigella, 120, 139 SI, see Saprobic index (SI); Sequential injection (SI) SIA, see Sequential injection analysis (SIA) Silica, 435; see also; Flow injection analysis (FIA); Sequential injection analysis (SIA); Spectrophotometry (SP) APHA standard method, 436–438 analytical methods, 436 chromatography, 451 conductometric method, 451 coprecipitation method, 450 determination in water, 435 electroanalytical, 451–452 heteropoly blue method, 436 ignition method, 450 infrared methods, 449 molybdosilicate method, 435–436 polarographic method, 452 potentiometric method, 451–452 quinine hydrochloride method, 449–450 sound velocity and density method, 452 thermogravimetry, 450 titrimetry and gravimetry, 449–450 voltammetric method, 452 Silica gel, 585 Silicate determination, 451 SI-LOV, see Sequential injection lab-on-valve (SI-LOV) Silylation, 685 SIM, see Selective ion monitoring (SIM) Similarity (S), 172–175 SIM mode, see Selected ion monitoring mode (SIM mode) Simple-to-use Interactive Self-Modelling Mixture Analysis (SIMPLISMA), 863 SIMPLISMA, see Simple-to-use Interactive SelfModelling Mixture Analysis (SIMPLISMA) Simpson diversity index (D), 172, 173 Single-drop microextraction (SDME), 259, 594; see also Solvent extraction techniques; SPME factors affecting, 595–596 GC–MS–SIM chromatograms obtained by, 634 of herbicides and fungicides, 733 limitations and advantages, 596, 887 process steps, 594 SDME–CE method, 270 for trace analysis of phenolic compounds, 633 VOC analysis, 571 Index Single reaction monitoring mode (SRM mode), 894 Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), 732 Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), 655 calibration, 656 DOC detectors, 656 NOM molecular size distribution assessment, 658 and OCD, 658 UV–Vis detection, 656 SLM, see Supported liquid membrane (SLM) SME, see Solvent microextraction (SME) SNARF-1-dextran, see Seminaphthorhodamine-1-dextran (SNARF-1-dextran) SNPs, see Sulfur nanoparticles (SNPs) Sodium cyanide (NaCN), 365; see also Cyanides Sodium dodecybenzenesulfonate (SDBS), 817 Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 243 Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), 496 Sodium hydroxide, 87 Sodium hypochloride, 191 Soft shell clams (Mya arenaria), 155 Sol–gel (SG), 748 Solidification of floating organic drop (SFOD), 597 Solidified floating organic drop microextraction (SFODME), 402 Solid matrices, 877 Solid-phase extraction (SPE), 32–35, 934; see also Extraction techniques advantages and disadvantages, 885 chromatograms, 627, 628, 629 configurations for water sampling, 34 contamination risk during field extraction, 33 disks, 86 filtration, 33 using floating complexing granules, 35 of herbicides and fungicides, 731–732 in-house synthesized polymeric sorbents, 630 method development in, 890 miniaturized SPE concepts, 891 MIPs, 626, 630 mixed hemimicelle, 630 online, 625 of organic acids, 530 using OSP-2, 620 of PCB, 768 for pesticides, 683–684 for phenolic compound, 625 simultaneous extraction of phenolic compounds, 628 sorbents, 35, 890 sulfur, 234, 238 XAD-4 resin accumulative sampling method, 32 XAD polymer, 33–34 Solid-phase membrane tip extraction (SPMTE), 732, 748 Solid-phase microextraction (SPME), 588, 878; see also Sorptive extraction absorption and desorption steps, 630 absorption process, 589 advantages and disadvantages, 886 of CPs, 631 desorption, 590 of ECH, 929 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 973 extraction, 589, 891 fiber coating, 591, 630, 631 of herbicides and fungicides, 729–730 and HPLC, 631 in-tube, 891 limitations and advantages, 592 membrane, 891 parameters affecting desorption, 591–592 parameters affecting extraction, 589–590 of PCB, 772 for pesticides, 684 for phenolic compounds, 630–632 sulfur, 238 Soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), 331 Solvent bar microextraction (SBME), 530 Solvent extraction techniques, 594; see also Liquid-phase microextraction; Single-drop microextraction advantages and disadvantages, 887–888 dispersive liquid-liquid microextractions, 597 liquid-liquid extraction, 594 silicate determination, 451 Solvent microextraction (SME), 748 of herbicides and fungicides, 732 of organic acids, 529–530 SOM, see Self-organizing maps (SOM) Sorbents, 35 Sørensen index, 174, 176 Sorption-based microextraction, 538 Sorptive extraction, 588; see also Solid-phase microextraction; Stir bar sorptive extraction advantages and disadvantages, 885–886 VOCs analysis, 566–569 Sorptive extraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (SBSE–GC–MS), 109 Soxhlet extraction, 797–798 SP, see Spectrophotometry (SP) Spatial and temporal variability of estuaries, 20 Spatial variation, SPCs, see Sulfophenyl carboxylic acids (SPCs) SPE, see Solid-phase extraction (SPE); Screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) Specific ultraviolet absorbance (SUVA), 651 Spectrophotometry (SP), 394, 436, 738–739; see also Flow injection analysis (FIA); Sequential injection analysis (SIA) application, 836 for cyanide determination, 367 for metal determination, 392, 394–396 molybdate spectrophotometric method, 438–441 of sulfur compound, 241 SPI, see Sulfophthalimide (SPI) SPMD, see Semipermeable membrane device (SPMD) SPME, see Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) SPMTE, see Solid-phase membrane tip extraction (SPMTE) Spot sampling, 877 SPR, see Strategic petroleum reserve (SPR); Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) Spread-plate technique, 130 SPS, see Suspended particle sampler (SPS) SRM, see Standard reference material (SRM) 974 SRM mode, see Single reaction monitoring mode (SRM mode) SRP, see Soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) SRS, see Savannah River Site (SRS) SSs, see Surrogate standards (SSs) Stable isotopes, 92 Standard addition calibration (SAC), 629 Standard deviation (SD), 438 Standard reference material (SRM), 405 Staphylococcus aureus, 142 MF enumeration, 143 MPN method, 143–144 Stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE), 243, 592; see also Sorptive extraction advantages and limitations, 592–593, 886 extraction principle, 891 of herbicides and fungicides, 730–731 of PCB, 772 for pesticides, 684 for phenolic compounds, 635 Storm water analysis requirements, 21 monitoring, 20–21 runoff, 20 STP, see Sewage treatment plant (STP) Strata-X, 890 Strategic petroleum reserve (SPR), 846 Streptococcus, 123 Strong anionic exchange (SAX), 831 Strong cation exchanger (SCX), 773, 831 Strontium Rad-Disk, 90 STW, see Sewage treatment work (STW) STX, see Saxitoxin (STX) Styrene, 931 analytical techniques, 931–932 Sulfate speciation, 244, 245 Sulfides and polysulfides determination, 242–243 Sulfite speciation, 244, 245 Sulfophenyl carboxylic acids (SPCs), 837 Sulfophthalimide (SPI), 239 Sulfur, 233; see also Sulfur compound analysis in water derivatization, 238 in environment, 234 extraction, 234, 238 sample preparation, 234 Sulfur chemiluminescence detector (SCD), 861 Sulfur compound analysis in water, 238–237 amperometric detection, 241 aromatic sulfonates, 243 capillary electrophoresis methods, 240 cathodic stripping voltammetry, 240 chemical warfare agents, 243–244 chromatography methods, 238–239 detection by stripping chronopotentiometry, 242 flow and sequential injection analysis, 240 fluorescence detection, 241 gas chromatography, 239 HPLC, 239–240 ICP–AES, 242 iodometric back-titration method, 241 ion chromatography, 239 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Index liquid chromatography, 239 mass spectrometry, 241–242 polycyclic aromatic sulfur heterocyclic compounds, 243 pulsed flame photometric detection, 241 recent methods, 242 spectrophotometric detection, 241 sulfate speciation, 244, 245 sulfides and polysulfides determination, 242–243 sulfite speciation, 244, 245 thiols and thioamides, 244 thiosulfate speciation, 244 Sulfur isotopes, 92 Sulfur nanoparticles (SNPs), 400 Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC), 814 in PAH analysis, 817 for phenolic compounds, 622, 635 Support vector machines (SVM), 863 Supported liquid membrane (SLM), 633 advantages and disadvantages, 889 chromatogram after phenol determination, 635 extraction for phenolic compounds, 633 Supra molecular solvent-based microextraction (SUSME), 732 of herbicides and fungicides, 734 Surface acoustic wave devices (SAW), 109 Surface plasmon resonance (SPR), 157 Surface water sampling, 4; see also Sample; Sampler; Sampling strategies composite sample, discontinuous sampling, erroneous results, event-controlled sampling, initial considerations, number of samples, quantity-proportional sampling, sample volume, spatial variation, temporal aspects, water analysis issues, 4–5 Surface-active agents, see Surfactants (Surface-active agents) Surface-assisted laser desorption ionization (SALDI), 748 Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), 244 sensor system, 854 Surface-grab and cross-sectionally integrated techniques, 17 Surfactants (Surface-active agents), 825 analytical methods, 830–831 anionic, 826, 828 applications of, 825 cationic, 828 chemical structures of, 827 chromatographic methods, 833–835 determination of, 829, 832 in different types of water, 838–840 extraction methods, 829–832 future trends, 841 matrix effect, 834 nonchromatographic methods, 835–836 nonionic, 829 occurrence of, 836–840 Index removal in conventional STP, 837 types of, 826 uses, 825 zwitterionic, 828 Surfactant to dye-binding degree method (SDBD method), 835 Surrogate analyte, 704 Surrogate standards (SSs), 793 SUSME, see Supra molecular solvent-based microextraction (SUSME) Suspended particle sampler (SPS), 39 grain-size-specific retention, 40 parathion-ethyl in suspended particle, 41 retention by SPS, 40–41 Suspended-particle sampler, 39 SUVA, see Specific ultraviolet absorbance (SUVA) SUVF, see Synchronous Ultra Violet Fluorescence spectra (SUVF) SVM, see Support vector machines (SVM) SVOC, see Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOC) SWCNTs, see Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) SWIFT-WFD, see Screening methods for Water data InFormation in support of the WFD (SWIFT-WFD) SWS, see Sampler for water and suspensions (SWS) Sylvite (KCl), 190 Synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy (SFS), 653 Synchronous Ultra Violet Fluorescence spectra (SUVF), 863 Synoptic sampling, 39 Syringe standards, see Internal sensitivity standards T 2,4,5-T, see 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4,5-T) TAHP, see Total acid-hydrolysable phosphorus (TAHP) TAME, see Tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME) TAN, see Total ammoniac nitrogen (TAN) Tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), 108, 894 Taste and odor threshold, 106–107 Tastes and odor wheel, 103 TBA, see Tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) TBA–HSO4, see Tetrabutylammonium hydrogen sulfate (TBA–HSO4) TBAB, see Tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB) TBP, see Tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP) TC, see Total carbon (TC) TCA, see Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) Tc-99 analysis methods, 86 TCD, see Thermal conductivity detector (TCD) TCIL-DLPME, see Temperature-controlled ionic liquid dispersive liquid-phase microextraction (TCIL-DLPME) 2,4,6-TCP, see 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP) TCPO, see bis(2,4,6-Trichlorophenyl) oxalate (TCPO) TD, see Thermal desorption (TD) TDG, see Thiodiglycol (TDG) TD–GC–MS, see Thermal desorption–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (TD–GC–MS) © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 975 TDN, see Total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) TDS, see Total dissolved solids (TDS) TDU, see Thermal desorption unit (TDU) Technetium-99 in water, 90 TEFs, see Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) TEM, see Transmission electron microscope (TEM) Temperature-controlled ionic liquid dispersive liquidphase microextraction (TCIL-DLPME), 597 Templated resin (TPR), 892 Tenax, 585–586 TEP, see Tetraethylenepentaamine (TEP) TEQs, see Toxicity equivalents (TEQs) Terpenoids, 855 classification of, 856 Tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME), 551, 855 Tert-butyl alcohol (TBA), 551, 855 Tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB), 831 Tetrabutylammonium hydrogen sulfate (TBA–HSO4), 540 2-tertbutyl-4,6-Dinitrophenol (Dinoterb), 747 Tetraethylenepentaamine (TEP), 374 Tetrahydrofuran (THF), 370 Tetrahydrofuran-2,3,4,5-tetracarboxylic acid (THFTCA), 88 Tetraoctylammonium bromide (TOAB), 817 Tetraphenylporphinetetrasulfonic (TPPS), 835 TFMAA, see 2-(Trifluoromethyl) acrylic acid (TFMAA) TFP, see Total filterable phosphorus (TFP) TG, see Thermogravimetry (TG) 2-Thenoyltrifluoroacetone (TTA), 87, 406 Theoretical chemical oxygen demand (ThOD), 467 Thermal conductivity detector (TCD), 650 Thermal desorption (TD), 748 Thermal desorption–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (TD–GC–MS), 244 Thermal desorption unit (TDU), 773 Thermal ionization mass spectrometers (TIMS), 84 Thermal membrane desorption (TMD), 593 Thermal stratification, 16 Thermogravimetry (TG), 449 differential analysis, 450 Thermospray (TSP), 619 THF, see Tetrahydrofuran (THF) THFTCA, see Tetrahydrofuran-2,3,4,5-tetracarboxylic acid (THFTCA) Thin layer chromatography (TLC), 814 for metal determination, 410 Thin mercury film (TMF), 407 Thiodiglycol (TDG), 244 Thiols, 244 Thiosulfate speciation, 244 THM, see Trihalomethane (THM) THMFP, see Trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP) ThOD, see Theoretical chemical oxygen demand (ThOD) Thorium series, 80 Thorium-232 in water, 89 3D underway monitoring, 28 Three-way PCA, 65–66 data sets for, 69 results of, 68, 69 TIC, see Total inorganic carbon (TIC) 976 Tiered petroleum hydrocarbon fingerprinting, 851; see also Petroleum BTEX and alkylated benzenes, 852–853 compounds containing heteroatoms, 855 fuel oxygenates and biofuels, 855 nonspecific and screening methods, 851–852 PAHs and alkylated homologues, 853–855 petroleum biomarkers, 855–858 specific substance analysis, 852 TPH, 851–852 Time of flight (TOF), 748, 815 Time-integrating passive sampling techniques, 36 Time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS), 934 TIMS, see Thermal ionization mass spectrometers (TIMS) TiOA, see Triisooctylamine (TiOA) TKN, see Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) TLC, see Thin layer chromatography (TLC) TMCS, see Tubular membrane capacitance sensor (TMCS) TMD, see Thermal membrane desorption (TMD) TMF, see Thin mercury film (TMF) TMSDMC, see Trimethylsilyl-N,N-dimethylcarbamate (TMSDMC) TnOA, see Tri-n-octylamine (TnOA) TOAB, see Tetraoctylammonium bromide (TOAB) TOBr, see Total organic bromine (TOBr) TOC, see Total organic carbon (TOC) TOCl, see Total organic chlorine (TOCl) TOF, see Time of flight (TOF) TOF-MS, see Time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS) TOI, see Total organic iodine (TOI) TOM, see Total organic matter (TOM) TOP, see Total organic phosphorus (TOP) TOPO, see Tri-n-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO) Total acid-hydrolysable phosphorus (TAHP), 352 Total active chlorine, 191 Total ammoniac nitrogen (TAN), 259 Total bacteria, 175 Total carbon (TC), 650 fractions of, 473 Total coliform, 134; see also Fecal coliform enumeration, 136 MPN test, 134–136 presence/absence test for, 138 selective media, 135, 137 Total dissolved nitrogen (TDN), 496 Total dissolved solids (TDS), 52, 435 Total filterable phosphorus (TFP), 328 analysis of, 346 Total inorganic carbon (TIC), 475 Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), 257–258 Total organic bromine (TOBr), 478 Total organic carbon (TOC), 170, 460, 472 determination, 473 high-temperature combustion methods, 474 interferences, 476–477 low-temperature oxidation methods, 474–475 plasma spectrometric techniques, 475 recent advances, 475–476 Total organic chlorine (TOCl), 478 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Index Total organic halide (TOX), 460, 477 adsorption–pyrolysis–titrimetric method, 477–479 direct measurement of absorbance, 479 as part of disinfection by-products, 479–481 value, 477 Total organic iodine (TOI), 478 Total organic matter (TOM), 648 Total organic phosphorus (TOP), 352 Total particulate phosphorus (TPP), 352 Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), 851–852 Total phosphorus (TP), 330; see also Phosphates in aquatic systems analysis of, 346 digestion TP measurement methods, 349 in estuarine and marine waters, 350 lake productivity, 347 Total reactive phosphorus (TRP), 328, 352 Total reflection x-ray fluorescence spectrometer (TXRF), 412 TOX, see Total organic halide (TOX) Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs), 791 Toxicity equivalents (TEQs), 791 TP, see Total phosphorus (TP) TPH, see Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) TPP, see Total particulate phosphorus (TPP) TPPS, see Tetraphenylporphinetetrasulfonic (TPPS) TPR, see Templated resin (TPR) TPs, see Transformation products (TPs) Trace elements, 386; see also Electrothermal atomic absorption spectroscopy (ETAAS); Flow injection analysis (FIA); Inductively coupled plasma (ICP); Potentiometric techniques; Voltammetry analytical methods, 392 biosorption procedure, 398 chromatographic techniques, 410–411 classical methods, 392 concentrations of, 387–388 detection limits, 393 electrochemical methods, 407 ion chromatography, 410 luminescence, 411–412 neutron activation analysis, 413 sample digestion, 391–392 sample pretreatment, 390–391 sampling, 386, 389 spectrophotometric method, 392, 394–396 storage and preservation, 389–390 x-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 412–413 Transformation products (TPs), 698 Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 399 Trap-and-release membrane introduction mass spectrometry (T&R-MIMS), 624 Tremolite asbestos, 379; see also Asbestos Tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP), 87 Trichloroacetic acid (TCA), 496 Trichloromethane, 648 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol [2,4,6-TCP], 615 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4,5-T), 747 2-(2,4,5-trichloro Phenoxypropanoic acid) (Fenoprop), 747 977 Index Bis(2,4,6-Trichlorophenyl) oxalate (TCPO), 257, 258 Triclosan, 741 2-(Trifluoromethyl) acrylic acid (TFMAA), 731 Trihalomethane (THM), 550, 649 Trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP), 649 Triisooctylamine (TiOA), 87 Trimethylsilyl-N,N-dimethylcarbamate (TMSDMC), 622 Tri-n-octylamine (TnOA), 87 Tri-n-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO), 87 Triple quadrupole (QqQ), 686, 894 Triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (QqQ-MS), 736 Tritium, 92 T&R-MIMS, see Trap-and-release membrane introduction mass spectrometry (T&R-MIMS) Trophic state index (TSI), 177 based on microalgae composition, 179 Nygaard’s trophic state indexes, 178 plankton of oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes, 178 for temperate lakes, 179 trophic state of water body, 177 in water bodies, 178 Trophic state index based on chlorophyll-a (TSI (Chl)), 178 Trophic state index based on Secchi disk transparency (TSI (SD)), 178 Trophic state index based on total phosphorus (TSI (TP)), 178 TRP, see Total reactive phosphorus (TRP) TRU-Resin, 87 TSI (Chl), see Trophic state index based on chlorophyll-a (TSI (Chl)) TSI (SD), see Trophic state index based on Secchi disk transparency (TSI (SD)) TSI (TP), see Trophic state index based on total phosphorus (TSI (TP)) TSI, see Trophic state index (TSI) TSI Ny, see Compound index (TSI Ny) TSI Ny, see Nygaard’s trophic state indexes (TSI Ny) TSP, see Thermospray (TSP) TTA, see 2-Thenoyltrifluoroacetone (TTA) Tubular membrane capacitance sensor (TMCS), 476 Two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC), 860, 861, 893 Two-dimensional polyacrylamide (2D-PAGE), 503 TXRF, see Total reflection x-ray fluorescence spectrometer (TXRF) U UCM, see Unresolved complex mixtures (UCM) UHLPC, see Ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatograph (UHLPC) Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), 481 EDCs/PPCPs identification at trace concentrations, 893 fungicide and herbicide determination, 736 separation efficiency, 894 Ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatograph (UHLPC), 748 Ultrasound-assisted digestion (USD), 470 Ultrasound-assisted emulsification microextraction (USAEME), 108, 734 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC of herbicides and fungicides, 734 to promote analyte phase transfer, 774 Ultrasound-assisted emulsification solidified floating organic drop microextraction (USAESFODME), 399 Ultrasound-assisted liquid–liquid microextraction (USLLME), 597 Ultraviolet (UV), 73 advantages of UV detector, 817 bromide ion deduction, 218 CE with conventional UV detection, 344 cyanide digestion, 370 CZE detectors, 738 destruction of biological and OC, in FI–CL method, 472 filters, 873 in fluorescence microscopes, 175 and fluorogenic media, 138–139 HPLC–UV, 243, 301, 623 hydroxyl radical removal, 109 indirect UV detection of nitrate, 300 liquid chromatography with, 616 mineralization, 501 nitrite and nitrate quantification, 287 OC convertion, 472, 650 PAHs detector, 816 photooxidation, 335, 499–500 spectrometer, 197 SPME–HPLC–UV–ECD, 631 UV–thermal system for TP, 346 UV–Vis detection for amino acids, 268 UV–Vis detector, 241 UV–Vis spectrophotometry, 255, 259, 262, 651 Ultraviolet–visible method (UV–Vis method), 651–652 UN, see United Nations (UN) United Nations (UN), 933 United States Geological Survey (USGS), 897 Unresolved complex mixtures (UCM), 861 UPLC, see Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) Upstream sampling location, 18 Uranium-238 in water, 89 Uranium series, 80 Urea, 511 analytical methods, 513 applications, 512 chemical formula and structure of, 512 chromatography, 515–516 determination, 514–515 enzymatic methods, 514–515 future trends, 516–517 hydrolysis of, 514 measurements in water samples, 512 nitrification model, 514 nonenzymatic methods, 513–514 sample collection and preservation, 513 sample preparation, 513 Urease, 514 USAEME, see Ultrasound-assisted emulsification microextraction (USAEME) 978 USAE-SFODME, see Ultrasound-assisted emulsification solidified floating organic drop microextraction (USAE-SFODME) USD, see Ultrasound-assisted digestion (USD) U.S Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 4, 83, 202, 807 MCL for AA, 933 priority pollutant phenols, 615 priority pollutants, 808 USEPA, see U.S Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) USGS, see United States Geological Survey (USGS) USLLME, see Ultrasound-assisted liquid–liquid microextraction (USLLME) UV, see Ultraviolet (UV) UV–Vis method, see Ultraviolet–visible method (UV–Vis method) V VALLME, see Vortex-assisted liquid–liquid microextraction (VALLME) Variable selection, 73 feature selection, 73 noisy variable removal, 73 sequential approaches, 74 VC, see Vinyl chloride (VC) VCM, see VC monomer (VCM) VC monomer (VCM), 930 VHOCs, see Volatile halogenated organic compounds (VHOCs) Vibrio, 120 alginolyticus, 123 cholerae, 123, 117 parahaemolyticus, 117, 123 vulnificus, 117, 123 Vinyl chloride (VC), 930 analytical techniques, 930–931 4-Vinylpyridine (4-VP), 626 Poly(Vinylpyrrolididone–divinylbenzene) (VPDB), 636 N-vinyl-pyrrolidonepolymer (VPP), 748 VIP system, see Voltammetric in situ profiling system (VIP system) Vocarb, 584 VOCs, see Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Volatile halogenated organic compounds (VHOCs), 551 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 550, 598; see also Humic substance extraction; Purge and trap (P&T); Solid-phase microextraction; Solvent extraction techniques; Sorptive extraction; Stir bar sorptive extraction in agricultural products, 550 analysis by HS extraction, 557–565 analysis by membrane extraction, 570 analysis by solvent extraction, 571–578 analysis by sorptive extraction, 566–569 analytical methods, 555–556 analytical process, 555 anthropogenic sources of, 550 columns, 556 detectors, 556 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Index gas chromatography conditions, 556 membrane extractions, 593–594 physicochemical, toxicological, and ecological aspects, 551 regulations, 551, 554–555 sampling and sample preservation, 555 standardized methods for analysis, 582 volatility, 552–554 Volatile organic sulfur compounds (VOSCs), 550, 551 Volatile sulfonated compounds (VSCs), 234 Volatilization, 550 Voltammetric in situ profiling system (VIP system), 408 Voltammetry, 738 advantages, 407 ASV trace detection, 407 cadmium determination, 408 direct simultaneous determination, 409 mercury determination, 408 for metal determination, 407 phosphate detection by, 343 silicate determination, 452 simultaneous electrochemical determination, 408–409 VIP method, 408 voltammetric scans, 408 Vortex-assisted liquid–liquid microextraction (VALLME), 774, 879 VOSCs, see Volatile organic sulfur compounds (VOSCs) 4-VP, see 4-Vinylpyridine (4-VP) VPDB, see poly(Vinylpyrrolididone–divinylbenzene) (VPDB) VPP, see N-vinyl-pyrrolidonepolymer (VPP) VSCs, see Volatile sulfonated compounds (VSCs) W Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), 740, 872 Wastewaters (WWs), 616 systems, 21–22 Water, 101, 516; see also Drinking water age determination of, 92 analysis issues, 4–5 chemical characteristics acquisition, 511 color index, 105 sample containers, 9–15 sample filtration, sampling quality control, 16 silica of, 435 temporal changes of quality, 18–19 Waterborne pathogens, 117, 118; see also Bacteriological analysis of water; Indicator bacteria Water sampler, 25; see also Automatic samplers; Manual samplers; Sampler Weathering, 846; see also Petroleum biodegradation 859 categories, 858 degree and rate of, 858 dissolution, 858–859 effects on petroleum chemical composition, 858 emulsification, 859 evaporation, 858 LUSTs, 859 979 Index photooxidation, 859 processes involved in, 859, 860 sedimentation, 859 Wet oxidation method, 650 WFD, see European Water Framework Directive (WFD) WHO, see World Health Organization (WHO) World Health Organization (WHO), 352 WWs, see Wastewaters (WWs) WWTPs, see Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) X XAD polymer, 33–34 XAD-4 resin accumulative sampling method, 32 Xanthine oxidase (XOD), 352 XGAL, see 5-Bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-βd-galactopyranoside (XGAL) XGLUC, see 5-Bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-βd-glucuronide (XGLUC) XOD, see Xanthine oxidase (XOD) XPS, see X-ray photo electron spectroscopy (XPS) X-ray diffractometer (XRD), 399 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRFS), 412 arsenic determination, 413 heavy metal preconcentration, 413 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC mercury determination, 412–413 PicoTAX TXRF spectrometer, 412 TXRF, 412 X-ray photo electron spectroscopy (XPS), 406 X-ray spectrometry, 504 XRD, see X-ray diffractometer (XRD) XRFS, see X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRFS) Y YEA, see Yeast extract agar (YEA) Yeast extract agar (YEA), 133 Yessotoxin (YTX), 154 Y-GLC, see Indoxyl-β-d-glucoside (Y-GLC) YTX, see Yessotoxin (YTX) Z Zinc ethylene-1,2-bisdithio carbamate (Zineb), 748 Zinc-bisdimethyldithiocarbamate (Ziram), 748 Zineb, see Zinc ethylene-1,2-bisdithio carbamate (Zineb) Ziram, see Zinc-bisdimethyldithiocarbamate (Ziram) Zwitterionic surfactants, 828; see also Surfactants (Surface-active agents)