Advanced energy materials

Tai Lieu Chat Luong Advanced Energy Materials Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106 Advance Materials Series The Advance Materials Series provides recent advancements of the fascinating field of advanced materials science and technology, particularly in the area of structure, synthesis and processing, characterization, advanced-state properties, and applications The volumes will cover theoretical and experimental approaches of molecular device materials, biomimetic materials, hybrid-type composite materials, functionalized polymers, superamolecular systems, information- and energy-transfer materials, biobased and biodegradable or environmental friendly materials Each volume will be devoted to one broad subject and the multidisciplinary aspects will be drawn out in full Series Editor: Dr Ashutosh Tiwari Biosensors and Bioelectronics Centre Linkoping University SE-581 83 Linkoping Sweden E-mail: ashutosh.tiwari@liu.se Managing Editors: Swapneel Despande, Sudheesh K Shukla and Yashpal Sharma Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener(martin@scrivenerpublishing.com) Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com) Advanced Energy Materials Edited by Ashutosh Tiwari and Sergiy Valyukh Copyright © 2014 by Scrivener Publishing LLC All rights reserved Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at 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consequential, or other damages For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com For more information about Scrivener products please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com Cover design by Russell Richardson Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: ISBN 978-1-118-68629-4 Printed in the United States of America 10 Contents Preface Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat Kok-Keong Chong 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Principle of Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat (NIFH) 1.2.1 Primary Tracking (Global Movement for Heliostat Frame) 1.2.2 Secondary Tracking (Local Movement for Slave Mirrors) 1.3 Residual Aberration 1.3.1 Methodology 1.3.2 Optical Analysis of Residual Aberration 1.4 Optimization of Flux Distribution Pattern for Wide Range of Incident Angle 1.5 First Prototype of Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat (NIFH) 1.5.1 Heliostat Structure 1.5.2 Heliostat Arm 1.5.3 Pedestal 1.5.4 Mirror and Unit Frame 1.5.5 Hardware and Software Control System 1.5.6 Optical Alignment of Prototype Heliostat 1.5.7 High Temperature Solar Furnace System 1.6 Second Prototype of Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat (NIFH) 1.6.1 Introduction 1.6.2 Mechanical Design and Control System of Second Prototype xv 1 3 10 12 19 29 35 36 38 39 40 40 41 46 52 52 53 v vi Contents 1.6.3 High Temperature Potato Skin Vaporization Experiment 1.7 Conclusion Acknowledgement References State-of-the-Art of Nanostructures in Solar Energy Research Suresh Sagadevan 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Motivations for Solar Energy 2.2.1 Importance of Solar Energy 2.2.2 Solar Energy and Its Economy 2.2.3 Technologies Based on Solar Energy 2.2.4 Photovoltaic Systems 2.3 Nanostructures and Different Synthesis Techniques 2.3.1 Classification of Nanomaterials 2.3.2 Synthesis and Processing of Nanomaterials 2.4 Nanomaterials for Solar Cells Applications 2.4.1 CdTe, CdSe and CdS Thin-Film PV Devices 2.4.2 Nanoparticles/Quantum Dot Solar Cells and PV Devices 2.4.3 Iron Disulfide Pyrite, CuInS2 and Cu2ZnSnS4 2.4.4 Organic Solar Cells and Nanowire Solar Cells 2.4.5 Polycrystalline Thin-Film Solar Cells 2.5 Advanced Nanostructures for Technological Applications 2.5.1 Nanocones Used as Inexpensive Solar Cells 2.5.2 Core/Shell Nanoparticles towards PV Applications 2.5.3 Silicon PV Devices 2.5.4 III-V Semiconductors 2.6 Theory and Future Trends in Solar Cells 2.6.1 Theoretical Formulation of the Solar Cell 2.6.2 The Third Generation Solar Cells 2.7 Conclusion References 56 64 65 65 69 70 71 71 74 75 76 77 78 79 81 82 82 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 96 97 97 Contents vii Metal Oxide Semiconductors and Their Nanocomposites Application towards Photovoltaic and Photocatalytic 105 Sadia Ameen, M Shaheer Akhtar, Hyung-Kee Seo and Hyung Shik Shin 3.1 Introduction 106 3.2 Metal Oxide Nanostructures for Photovoltaic Applications 108 3.3 TiO2Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for the Application of DSSC and Heterostructure Devices 109 3.3.1 Fabrication of DSSCs with TiO2 Nanorods (NRs) Based Photoanode 109 3.3.2 Fabrication of DSSCs with TiO2 Nanocomposite Based Photoanode 116 3.3.3 TiO2 Nanocomposite for the Heterostructure Devices 118 3.4 ZnO Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for the Application of DSSC and Heterostructure Devices 121 3.4.1 Fabrication of DSSCs with ZnO Nanotubes (NTs) Based Photoanode 121 3.4.2 Fabrication of DSSCs with Nanospikes Decorated ZnO Sheets Based Photoanode 125 3.4.3 Fabrication of DSSCs with ZnO Nanorods (NRs) and Nanoballs (NBs) Nanomaterial Based Photoanode 129 3.4.4 Fabrication of DSSCs with Spindle Shaped Sn-Doped ZnO Nanostructures Based Photoanode 132 3.4.5 Fabrication of DSSCs with Vertically Aligned ZnO Nanorods (NRs) and Graphene Oxide Nanocomposite Based Photoanode 135 3.4.6 ZnO Nanocomposite for the Heterostructures Devices 139 3.4.7 Fabrication of Heterostructure Device with Doped ZnO Nanocomposite 141 3.8 Metal Oxide Nanostructures and Nanocomposites for Photocatalytic Application 144 3.8.1 ZnO Flower Nanostructures for Photocatalytic Degradation of Crystal Violet (Cv)Dye 144 3.8.2 Advanced ZnO-Graphene Oxide Nanohybrid for the Photocatalytic Degradation of Crystal Violet (Cv)Dye 147 viii Contents 3.8.3 Effective Nanocomposite of Polyaniline (PANI) and ZnO for the Photocatalytic Degradation of Methylene Blue (MB) Dye 3.8.4 Novel Poly(1-naphthylamine)/Zinc Oxide Nanocomposite for the Photocatalytic Degradation of Methylene Blue (MB) Dye 3.8.5 Nanocomposites of Poly(1-naphthylamine)/ SiO2 and Poly(1-Naphthylamine)/TiO2 for the Photocatalytic Degradation of Methylene Blue (MB) Dye 3.9 Conclusions 3.10 Future Directions References Superionic Solids in Energy Device Applications Angesh Chandra and Archana Chandra 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Classification of Superionic Solids 4.3 Ion Conduction in Superionic Solids 4.4 Important Models 4.4.1 Models for Crystalline/Polycrystalline Superionic Solids 4.4.2 Models for Glassy Superionic Solids 4.4.3 Models for Composite Superionic Solids 4.4.4 Models for Polymeric Superionic Solids 4.5 Applications 4.5.1 Solid-State Batteries 4.5.2 Fuel Cells 4.5.3 Super Capacitors 4.6 Conclusion References Polymer Nanocomposites: New Advanced Dielectric Materials for Energy Storage Applications Vijay Kumar Thakur and Michael R Kessler 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Dielectric Mechanism 5.2.1 Dielectric Permittivity, Loss and Breakdown 5.2.2 Polarization 150 152 155 157 158 159 167 167 170 171 173 173 178 186 194 199 200 201 202 203 204 207 208 209 209 212 Selected Catalytic Reactions 581 46 M.R Maurya, M Kumar, A Kumar, and J.C Pessoa, Dalton Transactions, Vol 263, p 4220, 2008 47 K.K Bania, D Bharali, B Viswanathan, and R.C 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259, 353 Advanced nanostructures for technological applications, 87 Aggregation of particles, 201–203 AlGaN, 345, 369 Alignment, 405 homeotropic, planar, AlN, 345, 372 Aluminosilicates, 555, 557 Anderson stuart model, 179 Anisotropy, 336, 338, 341 Annealing, 369 Antiferroelectric liquid crystal, 390 Antiferroelectric or Herringbone structure, 393, 402 Applications of metal nanoparticles, 531–532 Applications of metal NPs as potent catalyst in organic synthesis, 540–544 Arrhenius, 356 Arrhenius theory, 271–273 Astigmatism, Avogadro’s Number, 261 Barrier height, 370 Biodiesel, 435, 444 Birefringence (Δn), 424 Bombardment, 373 Breakdown strength, 211, 214–215, 218, 222, 236, 245, 247, 249 Bulk resistance, 270 Capacitance, 209–210 Capacitance-voltage, 368 Capacitor, 207–211, 214, 219–220, 236, 239–240, 248–251, 253, 256 Carbon, 218, 231, 233–234, 236, 241, 251, 253, 255–257 Carbon based electronics, 300 Carbon nanotube, 304 Carrier removal rate, 350 CdTe, CdSe and CdS Thin-Film PV Devices, 82 Cell calibration, 406 Cellular structure, 361 Ceramics, 208, 212–213, 218, 245, 249 Channel, 371, 373 Charge carriers, 359 Chiral smectic C sub phases, 416 Cholestric (N*), 392 Classical landau theory (SmA*-SmC* transition), 399 Classifi cation of Nanomaterials, 78 CNT devices, FET, 313 Interconnects, 314 Random Access Memory, 316 Sensor, 315 Cohesive energy, 333 Complex impedance plot, 271 585 586 Index Composite SE, 259, 275 Compton profile, 336, 338 Computer simulation, 178 Conductivity, 236, 243, 250, 255–256, 270, 274–275 Configurational entropy model, 196 Control system, 40 Coordination Number, 264–265 Core/Shell Nanoparticles towards PV Applications, 89 Coulombian Force, 260 Coulombic Attraction, 261 Counter-ion model, 177 Coupling model, 177 Crystalline, 259 Current, 376 Deep level transient spectroscopy, 349, 374 Degree of Sulfonation, 445, 446, 453, 454 Depolarization current or switching current, 409 Dielectric anisotropy, 410 permittivity, 407 strength, 421, 414, 416 Dielectric constant, 208, 210, 214–219, 222–236, 238–240, 245–248, 250–251, 253, 255–257 Dielectric loss, 210, 215, 217–218, 222, 224, 234, 236, 238–240, 245, 247, 251 Dielectric Materials, 207–209, 211, 213–216, 243, 250 Dielectric properties, 208, 214–225, 231–234, 236–237, 240, 242, 246–249, 252–257 Dielectrics, 405 Diphenyl sulfone, 443 Dipole moment, 212–213 Dislocation density, 360 Disordered regions, 358 EBIC, 363 Effect of Annealing Temperature on M3–3x/2(VO4)2:xEu (x = 0.05 for M = Ca, x = 0.1 for M = Sr and x = 0.3 for M = Ba) Phosphors, Photoluminescence Properties of M3–3x/2(VO4)2:xEu, 488–494 Surface Morphology of M3–3x/2(VO4)2:xEu phosphor, 486–488 X-ray Diffraction Pattern of M3–3x/2(VO4)2:xEu, 484–486, 484 Electric field, 210, 249 Electric Potential, 278 Electric Work done, 285 Electrical, 209, 214–216, 231, 233–234, 236, 240, 245, 248–252, 254–256 Electrical properties, 372 Electrochemical Gas Sensors, 262 Electronic, 208–209, 212, 214, 248–250 Electronic structure, 327, 328 Electronic structure of graphene and CNT, 309 ELOG, 362 Energy, 282 Energy density, 207–209, 214, 216, 236 Energy storage, 207–209, 248, 250–251, 256 Entropy, 273–274 Epoxy, 217, 220, 231–232, 236, 239–240, 248, 252–255 Etch pit density(EPD), 364 Fast Ionic Conductors, 259, 262 Fermi level, 354 Index Ferroelectric, 208, 214–215, 218–219, 234, 249, 251, 253–254, 256–257 Ferroelectric liquid crystal, 393 First prototype, 35 Free volume model, 194 Frenkel and Schottkey, 265 Frequency, 208, 210, 212, 219, 221, 225, 227–228, 230, 232–235, 239, 242, 244, 246, 253, Fuel Cell, 433–464 alkaline fuel cell, 435, 436 anion exchange membrane fuel cell, 437, 442 direct methanol fuel cell, 435–438, 442, 456, enzymatic fuel cell, 436 hydroxide exchange membrane fuel cell, 448 membrane, 433, 437–439, 441–464 molten carbonate fuel cell, 435–436 phosphoric acid fuel cell, 435–436 polymer electrolyte fuel cell, 435–436 proton exchange membrane fuel cell, 437, 441–442, 449 solid oxide fuel cell, 435–436 Fuel cells, 201, 262 GaAs, 345 GaN, 345, 346, 348–361 Ge, 378 Generalized gradient approximation, 327 Gibbs equation, 279 Gibbs free energy, 283 Goldstone mode, 415, 416 Gossick, 358 Grain boundaries, 362 Graphene, 307 Green chemistry, 556, 572 587 Havriliak and Negami (HN) equation, 412 Heliostat arm, 38 Heliostat structure, 36 Helix axis, 392 Herringbone or antiferroelectric structure, 393, 402 Heterogeneous catalysis, 556, 572 Heterojunctions, 370 High electron mobility transistors, 346, 374, 375 High frequency dielectric constant, 327, 328 High frequency mode, 418 Hole traps, 352 Hot spot, 57 Hump area, 419 Hydrogen, 348 III-V Semiconductors, 91 Impedance Spectroscopy, 269 Impedence spectroscopy, 405 InAlN, 355 InN, 366 Inorganic fi llers, 209, 215–217 Insulator, 209, 236 Interface, 209, 215, 217, 234, 247–249, 252, 255, Inter-grain, 270 Internal Energy, 279 Interstitials, 349, 351, 353 Intra-grain, 270 Ion exchange capacity, 451, 454 Ionic Bond, 260 Ionic conductivity, 446, 452, 457, 266–267, 271, 275 Ionic Radii, 264 Ionic Transport, 268 Iron Disulfi de Pyrite, CuInS2 and Cu2ZnSnS4, 84 Irradiation, 354 Issues with carbon based Electronics, 319 Jump-relaxation model, 176 588 Index Landau expansion cofficients, 399 Laser diodes, 346 Lattice gas model, 175 LCAO method, 327, 328, 340 Light-emitting diodes, 346, 376 Limitation of silicon based technlogy, 299 Liquid crystal, 391 Liquid-phase hydroxylation of phenol, 564, 565–571 Liquid-phase oxidation of cyclohexane, 564, 571–576 Loss tangent, 210, 214, 225, 227–228, 230 Low frequency mode, 416, 418 Lyotropic, 391 Madelung constant, 263–264 Magnetosphere, 344 Mass Action, 274 Matrix, 208–209, 215–217, 219, 221–222, 224–225, 228–229, 231–232, 234–236, 238–247, 250, 255 Measurement of, dielectric permittivity, 407 loss, 407 Mechanical properties, 208, 239–240, 250, 255 Mechanism, 567–568, 572 Metal oxide nanostructures and nanocomposites for photocatalytic applications, 144 advanced ZnO-graphene oxide nanohyrid for the photocatalytic degradation of crystal violet, 147 degradation of MB dye, effective nanocomposite of polyaniline and ZnO for the photocatalytic degradation of, 150 MB dye, nanocomposites of poly (1-napthylamine)/SiO2 and poly(1-naphthylamine)/TiO2 for the photocatalytic, 155 novel poly (1-naphthylamine)/ zinc oxide nanocomposite for the photocatlytic degradation, 152 ofMB dye, ZnO flower nanostructures for photocatalytic degradation of crystal violet (Cv) dye, 144 Metal oxide nanostructures for photovoltaic applications, 108 Methanol crossover, 445- 446, 452–457, 459 Methanol permeability, 445–448, 454–459 Methodology, 559–561 flexible ligand method (FL), 559–560 template synthesis method, 560 zeolite synthesis method (ZS), 559 Mg, 346 Microcathodoluminescence, 345 Mobility, 266–267, 270 Mobility enhancement model, 192 Molecular dyanamic, 178 Molecular structure and phse transition temperature, 403 Momentum density, 328, 329 Monto carlo method, 178 Moore's Law, 298 Multifunctional, 217, 219, 254 Nafion, 445, 448, 452–453, 456–457, 459 Nanocomposites, 207–209, 211, 213, 215–223, 225, 227–229, 231–257 Nanocones used as inexpensive solar cells, 88 Index Nanomaterials for solar cells applications, 81 Nanoparticle, 208, 216, 218–221, 228, 229, 231, 235–236, 238–239, 248, 251, 253–255 Nanoparticles/quantum dot solar cells and PV devices, 82 Nanostructures and different synthesis techniques, 77 Nanotube, 231, 240, 241, 243–244, 251, 253, 255, 257 Nematic, 391 Nernst equation, 283–284, 285, 288, 291 Neutron damage, 359, 372 Non-crystalline, 259 Non-imaging focusing heliostat, Non-linear least square (NLS), 270 Optical alignment, 41 Optical analysis, 19 Optical deep level transient spectroscopy, 350 Optically detected electron paramagnetic resonance, 354 Order parameter (S), 391 Organic solar cells and nanowire solar cells, 85 Orthoconic AFLC, 422, 425 Osmatic pressure, 285 Particle size, 208, 219, 231, 248, 250, 252–253 Pedestal, 39 Percolation model, 192, 196 Permittivity, 209–210, 212–213, 215–216, 218–219, 221–223, 228, 230, 231–233, 235–236, 241, 243–244, 250–251, 253–254, 256–257 Phase sequence (antiferroelectric phase), 402 589 Phenomenonligical model, 175 Photoluminescence, 352 Photovoltaic systems, 76 Pikin and Zeks method, 398 PMMA, 214, 219, 222–224, 229, 252, 254 Polar, 209–210, 212–214, 218, 221, 249 Polarization, 212–213, 249, 267–268 Polycrystalline thin-film solar cells, 86 Polyetheretherketone, 435–436 Polymer, 207–209, 211, 213–219, 221–223, 225, 227–229, 231, 233–241, 243–257 Polymer composites, 214, 215, 218, 235–236, 240, 248, 251, 253, 256 Polymer nanocomposites, 207, 209, 211, 213, 215–219, 221, 223, 225, 227–229, 231, 233, 235, 237, 239–241, 245–247, 249, 251 Potential differences, 278–279 Potential energy, 261 Primary tracking, Properties of carbon nanotube, 305 Proton conductivity, 433, 445–446, 448, 452–460 Proton exchange membrane, 437, 441–442, 445–449, 453, 460 Proton irradiation, 364 Pulse power, 208, 250 PVDF, 219–223, 226, 228, 231, 235, 241–246, 248, 253–255 Quantum wells, 368, 373 Radiation damage, 344, 346, 351 Radiation defects, 344, 346–348, 356, 360 Radiation technology, 376 Random site model, 183 Recovery, 367 590 Index Relaxation frequency, 414, 416 mode, 411 process (SmCa* phase,Chiral smectic C sub phase), 411 time, 412, 414 Residual aberration, 10 Resistivity, 346, 348 Resistor network model, 191 Results and discussion of M3–3x/2(VO4)2:xEu (0.01 ≤ x ≤ 0.09 for M = Ca and ≤ x ≤ 0.3 for M = Sr,Ba) Phosphors, 470 Photoluminescence Properties of M3–3x/2(VO4)2:, 476–483 Surface morphology of M3–3x/2(VO4)2:xEu phosphor, 473–476 X-ray diffraction pattern of M3–3x/2(VO4)2:xEu, 470–473 Rutherford backscattering, 348, 353 Schematic grain boundary, 277 Schottky diodes, 373376 Second prototype, 52 Secondary tracking, sensors, 284 kinetics, 286 thermodynamics, 286 Shape of particles, 532–533 Si, 366 Silicon PV devices, 90 Silver sulphate, 276 Smectic, 391 Chiral SmC phase, 394 SmA phase, 392, 398 SmC phase, 392, 398 SmC* phase, 395, 396 SmCa* phase, 393, 395 SO2 gas sensors, 277 solar concentration ratio, 57 Solar energy and Its economy, 74 Solar energy material, 327 Solar flux distribution, 32–33 solar furnace system, 46 Solid electrolytes, 259, 262, 265, 267, 280 Solid solubility, 275 Solid state batteries, 200, 262, 280 Solid-state ionics, 262, 275 Solution pressure, 285 Space charge layer, 277 Space charge model, 188 Spontaneous polarization (Ps), 409, 419 Stability against oxidation, 534–535 Stabilization of metal nanoparticles in ionic, 535–539 Sub-lattice, 354 Substrate, 358 Sulphonated Polyetheretherketone, 453–454 Super Ionic Conductors, 259 Supercapacitors, 202 Supionic solids, applications, 199–203 classification, 170 frenkel defect, 171 ion conduction, 171 schottky defect, 171 Switching process (SmCa* phase), 397 current or depolarization current, 409 mechanism of AFLCs, 407 time, 419 Symmetric distribution parameter, 412 Synthesis and processing of nanomaterials, 79 Synthesis of CNT, 311 Synthesis of metal nanoparticles, 533–534 Technologies based on solar energy, 75 The third generation solar cells, 96 Index Theoretical formulation of the solar cell, 93 Theory and future trends in solar cells, 92 Thermal neutrons, 353 Thermal stability, 208, 222 Thermodynamics, 278 Thermotropics, 391 Threshold displacement energy, 377 Threshold voltage, 421, 347 Tilt angle, 392 TiO2 nanomaterials and nanocomposites, fabrication of DSSCs with nanospikes decorated ZnO sheets, 125 fabrication of DSSCs with spindle shaped Sn-doped ZnO nanostructures, 132 fabrication of DSSCs with TiO2 nanocomposites based photoanode, 116 fabrication of DSSCs with TiO2 nanorods(NRs) based photoanode, 109 fabrication of DSSCs with vertically aligned ZnO nanorods (NRs), 135 fabrication of DSSCs with ZnO nanorods (NRs) and nanoballs (NBs), 129 591 fabrication of DSSCs with ZnO nanotubes (NTs) based photoanode, 121 fabrication of hetrostructure device with doped ZnO nanocomposite, 141 graphene oxide nanocomposite based photoanode, 137 TiO2 Nanocomposite for the heterostructure devices, 118 ZnO nanocomposite for the heterostructures devices, 139 Transport number, 268 Traps, 370 Tristate switching, 397 Tunneling, 365 Two dimensional electron gas, 347, 372 Unit frame, 40 UV photodetectors, 374 Vanadate phosphors, 466–468 Vaporization, 60 Volume fraction, 220, 222–223, 225–228, 230, 233, 235, 240, 243–244 Water uptake, 446, 448, 450–451, 454, 456, 458 Weak electrolyte model, 182 Zeolites, 557–559 Also of Interest Check out these published and forthcoming related titles from Scrivener Publishing Advanced Energy Materials Edited by Ashutosh Tiwari and Sergiy Valyukh Forthcoming February 2014 ISBN 978-1-118-68629-4 Advanced Carbon Materials and Technology Edited by Ashutosh Tiwari and S.K Shukla Published 2014 ISBN 978-1-118-68623-2 Responsive Materials and Methods State-of-the-Art Stimuli-Responsive Materials and Their Applications Edited by Ashutosh 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