Bioadhesion and biomimetics from nature to applications

Tai Lieu Chat Luong Bioadhesion and Biomimetics 1BO
4UBOGPSE
4FSJFT
PO
3FOFXBCMF
&OFSHZ
‰
7PMVNF
 Bioadhesion and Biomimetics From Nature to Applications editors Preben Maegaard edited by Anna Krenz Wolfgang Palz Havazelet Bianco-Peled Maya Davidovich-Pinhas The Rise of Modern Wind Energy Wind Power for the World CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Version Date: 20150218 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-981-4463-99-7 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface Section I  Introduction Principles of Bioadhesion John D Smart 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Principles of Adhesion 1.2.1 Theories of Adhesion 1.2.2 Forming the Adhesive Joint 1.2.2.1 Contact stage 1.2.2.2 The consolidation stage 1.3 Examples of Bioadhesion 1.3.1 Cell-to-Cell Adhesion 1.3.1.1 Cadherins 1.3.1.2 Immunoglobulins 1.3.1.3 Selectins 1.3.1.4 Integrins 1.3.2 Mucoadhesion 1.3.3 Other Medical Bioadhesives 1.3.3.1 Skin adhesives 1.3.3.2 Tissue sealants 1.3.3.3 Dental adhesives and cements 1.3.3.4 Bone cements and bone graft substitutes 1.4 Other Bioadhesives 1.5 Conclusion xiii 4 7 8 9 10 10 14 14 14 15 16 16 17 vi Contents Characterization of Bioadhesion Thakur Raghu Raj Singh, David S Jones, Gavin P Andrews, and Ravi Sheshala 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Methods of Bio-/Mucoadhesion Characterization 2.2.1 In vitro Testing 2.2.1.1 Methods measuring the force of detachment 2.2.1.2 Rheological measurement of mucoadhesion 2.2.1.3 Flow-through or falling liquid film method 2.2.1.4 Imaging techniques 2.2.1.5 Other in vitro tests 2.2.2 In vivo studies 2.3 Conclusion Section II  Natural Adhesives Mussel Adhesives Hongbo Zeng, Qingye Lu, Bin Yan, Jun Huang, Lin Li, and Zhi Liao 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Mussel Adhesive System 3.2.1 Mussel Byssus 3.2.2 Biochemistry of Mussel Byssus 3.3 Understanding Interactions of Mussel Foot Proteins 3.3.1 Techniques for Studying Molecular Interactions of Mussel Foot Proteins 3.3.1.1 General surface analytical techniques 3.3.1.2 Atomic force microscopy 3.3.1.3 Surface forces apparatus 3.3.2 Protein–Substratum Interactions 23 24 25 26 26 31 34 35 37 41 42 49 49 50 50 52 54 54 55 56 57 60 Contents 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.3.2.1 Interaction between mussel foot proteins and mica 3.3.2.2 Interaction between mussel foot proteins and silica 3.3.2.3 Interaction between mussel foot proteins and TiO2/metal 3.3.2.4 Interaction between mussel foot proteins and polymers Protein–Protein Interactions in Byssal Plaque 3.4.1 The Interaction of Mussel Foot Protein (mfp-1) in the Cuticle 3.4.1.1 Interactions between foot proteins in the plaque Mussel-Inspired Materials Adhesive/Sealants Functional Coating Conclusions Gecko Adhesion Joseph C Cremaldi, Kejia Jin, and Noshir S Pesika 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Gecko Pad 4.2.1 Hierarchical Tiers 4.2.2 Van der Waals Forces 4.2.3 Roughness Considerations 4.2.4 Force Generation and the Autumn Experiment 4.2.5 Force Results 4.2.6 Comparison with Whole Pad and Single Spatula Measurements 4.3 Attachment and Detachment 4.3.1 The Peel-Zone Model 4.3.2 Peel Modes 4.4 Self-Cleaning Mechanism 4.5 Non-Adhesive Unloaded State and Non-Self-Adherence 60 62 62 63 64 64 66 68 69 72 73 85 86 87 87 88 90 91 91 93 93 95 97 98 100 vii viii Contents 4.6 Substrates and the Environment 4.7 Conclusion From Sand Tube to Test Tube: The Adhesive Secretion from Sabellariid Tubeworms Elise Hennebert, Barbara Maldonado, Cécile Van De Weerdt, Mélanie Demeuldre, Katharina Richter, Klaus Rischka, Patrick Flammang 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Characterization of the Natural Adhesive System 5.2.1 Morphology of the Adhesive Cells 5.2.2 Morphology and Mechanics of the Cement 5.2.3 Cement Composition and Formation 5.3 Bio-Inspired Adhesive Polymers: Production, Characterization and Applications 5.3.1 Recombinant Proteins 5.3.2 Synthetic Peptides 5.3.3 Polymers Section III  Biomimetic Adhesives Adhesives and Coatings Inspired by Mussel Adhesive Proteins Hao Meng, Yuan Liu, Morgan M Cencer, and Bruce P Lee 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Chemistry of DOPA Side Chain 6.2.1 Reversible Interactions 6.2.2 Covalent Bond Formation 6.3 Architectures of Synthetic Adhesive Polymers 6.3.1 Main Chain Functionalization 6.3.2 End Group Functionalization 6.4 Bioinspired Synthetic Adhesives 6.4.1 Injectable Tissue Adhesive 6.4.2 Nanocomposite Adhesive Hydrogel 6.4.3 Thin-Film Adhesive 101 103 109 110 111 111 113 115 118 119 120 122 131 131 133 134 135 136 136 137 138 138 140 142 Contents 6.4.4 Hybrid Gecko- and Mussel-Inspired Adhesive 6.5 Mussel-Inspired Antifouling Coatings 6.5.1 Graft-to Coating Method 6.5.2 Graft-From Coating Method 6.6 Polydopamine as a Versatile Multifunctional Anchoring Group 6.6.1 Polydopamine-Mediated Surface Modification 6.6.2 Metallization and Metal Ion Reduction 6.6.3 Polydopamine Capsule 6.7 Summary and Future Outlook Algal Glue Mimetics Ronit Bitton 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Algal Glue 7.2.1 Green Algae 7.2.2 Brown Algae 7.3 Biomimetic Algal Glue Bio-Inspired Surfaces with Directional Adhesion Luciano Afferrante 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Energy Release Rate 8.2.1 Detachment Occurring Perpendicularly to the Microwalls 8.2.2 Detachment Occurring Obliquely to the Microwalls 8.3 The Critical Moment for Detachment 8.3.1 Detachment Occurring Perpendicularly to the Microwalls 8.3.2 Detachment Occurring Obliquely to the Microwalls 8.4 Conclusions 143 144 145 146 147 149 150 150 151 167 167 168 168 169 172 181 181 186 186 190 190 190 194 195 ix Strategies to Prevent Adhesion on Medical Devices Selenium NPs were able to inhibit bacterial growth of S aureus In this study, they also compared the efficiency of selenium and silver NPs on PVC substrates and verified that selenium was the most effective Lellouche and coworkers (2012) showed in their study that yttrium fluoride (YF3) nanoparticles exhibited antibacterial activity against E coli and S aureus and this was dependent on NP size having the smaller size a higher antibacterial effect than larger NPs [56] The modification of catheter surfaces with these NPs prevented the adhesion and consequent colonization by these two common bacterial pathogens Once again, these results highlight the promising use of these metal fluoride NPs as novel antimicrobial and antibiofilm agents and as medical devices coatings taking advantage of their low solubility and providing extended protection [56] Chifiriuc et al (2012) tested Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil coated NPs pelliculised on the surface of catheter pieces [14] Using this strategy, these authors studied the combined action of NPs and a natural compound known for its antimicrobial properties This nanobiosystem exhibited high efficiency in inhibiting C albicans and C tropicalis adhesion and biofilm accumulation These results reinforced the potentialities of the use of nanoparticles in the medical field Furthermore, the combination of anti-adhesion strategies can potentiate an improvement in the resistance to microbial colonization and biofilm formation opening new directions for the design of film-coated surfaces 11.3.2.7  Bacteriophages For a long time, phage therapy has attracted attention of several groups of investigation, but nowadays there is a renewed interest in this therapy namely in the control of adhesion and biofilm formation [29] Bacteriophages are viruses that infect, replicate within the host, and kill bacteria [13] Therefore, in the first stage called “penetration,” the virus injects its genome into the host and begins to replicate and multiply inside the bacterial cell At the end of their life cycle, phages promote bacterial lyse releasing newly formed phage particles that are free to infect other cells [73] Kutateladze and Adamia (2010) demonstrated that these viruses are anti-infectives in humans and animals [55] and Fischetti (2010) also demonstrated that some lytic phages can be used as 281 282 Preventing Adhesion on Medical Devices antimicrobials against pathogenic bacteria [32] Since they are harmless to humans [8], they gained a significant importance especially in clinical use Their emergence arose from the necessity of new alternatives to antibiotics in order to overcome the problem of resistance One example of phages studied as potential alternative to antibiotics and presenting anti-biofilm properties are phages specific to S epidermidis These phages were able to destroy biofilm by extracellular material degradation In fact, some phages produce depolymerases, whose target is the exopolysacharide (EPS), which hydrolyses and degrades the extracellular polymeric matrix of biofilms [29,41] The use of phages has several advantages such as the strong antibacterial activity, the absence of adverse effect after phage therapy [4,40,87], and rapid, simple, and inexpensive phage production [4] However, this approach has also some disadvantages, namely the narrow lytic spectrum and the low probability of finding a specific phage with high lytic action and expressing relevant exopolymeric degrading enzymes [4] To circumvent this problem, a phage cocktail can be a solution, consisting of the combination of several phages aiming to create an optimal mixture with broad activity against host cells Another alternative are engineered phages that are able to degrade medical biofilms and alter their host range in order to make them able to infect a wide range of host bacterial strains and species Moreover, their manipulation also consists of the introduction of new genes aiming the induction of the production of specific enzymes essential for the degradation of the biofilm matrix, facilitating their entrance into the biofilm Taking into consideration their capacity to avoid biofilm accumulation on medical devices, their possible use as therapeutic strategy gained importance mainly in the area of catheter coatings [73] Some researchers investigated the in vitro use of phages by incorporating these microorganisms into a hydrogel used to coat medical devices Curtin and Donlan (2006) treated silicone catheter using phage 456 with and without supplemental divalent cations [21] They obtained a reduction in S epidermidis biofilm viable cells of 4.47 and 2.34 log CFU/cm2, respectively On the other hand, Fu et al (2010) tested a hydrogel impregnated with a cocktail of phages in Foley catheters and studied their effect in adhesion and biofilm formation of P aeruginosa [34] They observed a Strategies to Prevent Adhesion on Medical Devices significant mitigation of biofilm formation by these clinical relevant bacteria Overall, this pre-treatment coating was able to attenuate adhesion and reduce the biofilm formation of S epidermidis and P aeruginosa [21,34] Carson et al (2010) also studied the effect of phage-coating onto Foley catheter biomaterials on E coli and Proteus mirabilis adhesion and biofilm formation [10] Once again, this pre-treatment was able to prevent biofilm formation and reduce the number of viable cells on the surface of circa of 90% in both E coli and P mirabilis On the other hand, Fenton et al (2013) showed the efficacy of CHAPK, a bacteriophage-derived peptidase, as biocidal agent for prevention and treatment of biofilm-associated staphylococcal infections namely S epidermidis and all known clonal types of Methicillin-resistant S aureus [31] Therefore, they suggested their utilization as a coating agent on medical implants for prevention of infections caused by the aforementioned species Thus, phages can be used as a prophylactic measure in the pre-treatment of medical devices and decrease the incidence of catheter-associated infections [31,84] 11.3.2.8  Natural compounds Natural compounds used as coating surfaces of medical devices and presenting anti-adherence characteristics are urgently needed in the medical field In recent years, several researchers suggested the possible use of broad-range natural antimicrobial agents in clinical setting as a potential alternative to conventional antibiotics For example, heparin, a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan, immobilized on plastic surfaces was shown to reduce bacterial adherence in vitro and in vivo [3,90] On the other hand, essential oils of Boswellia spp., effectively inhibit the development of biofilms of medically relevant species, namely S aureus, S epidermidis, and C albicans [78] Another essential oil was studied by Cavalcanti et al (2011), who demonstrated that the essential oil of R officinalis (Rosemary) has anti-adherent activity against C albicans [11] Further, a study involving M piperita essential oil reported the anti-adhesive properties of this natural substance when used as coating of prosthetic devices [1] In addition to present antiadherence properties against S aureus, a microbicidal effect was also observed This effect results from the stabilization, decrease 283 284 Preventing Adhesion on Medical Devices of volatility, and controlled release of the essential oil from the core/shell nanostructure Taking into account these results, these authors suggested this kind of strategies as good candidates for the design of novel material surfaces used for prosthetic devices Cinnamaldehyde and carvacrol also exhibited a significant antimicrobial activity and consequently an anti-biofilm effect against E coli, P aeruginosa and S aureus When incorporated into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) polymer films, these natural antimicrobial compounds were able to mitigate biofilm formation of S aureus and E coli In conclusion, they proposed the use of these two natural compounds as plant-based coating for indwelling devices to safely prevent adhesion and consequent accumulation by pathogenic bacteria [100] Nowatzki et al (2012) developed a new strategy to impede bacterial adhesion and biofilm growth on synthetic materials [64] This approach is based in the controlled salicylic acid release from a polymeric coating This kind of coating was effectively inhibitory against E coli and P aeruginosa When mimicking the physiological urine flow, urinary catheters coated with the salicylic acid-polymer exhibited a significant reduction of biofilm formation by E coli 11.3.2.9  Electrical methods Electrical approaches have been used either to release antimicrobials from device surfaces and thus prevent biofilm formation or to drive antimicrobials through established biofilms This last method, the bioelectric effect, consists of the concurrent application of antibiotics and a weak electric field to kill bacteria According to Costerton and co-authors (1994), with the application of direct current electric fields between 1.5 and 20 V/cm, the concentrations of antibiotics needed to be effective against biofilm bacteria fell from approximately 5000 times to times greater than those necessary for planktonic bacteria in the absence of electricity [19] However, in a work that aimed to study the in vitro bioelectric effect on the activities of 11 antimicrobial agents representing a variety of different classes against P aeruginosa, MRSA, and S epidermidis, it was observed that the enhancement of the activity of antimicrobial agents against biofilm organisms by electrical current is not a generalizable phenomenon across microorganisms and antimicrobial agents [24] It has been suggested Acknowledgment that the mechanism of antibacterial activity of electrical current results from the oxidation of enzymes and coenzymes, membrane damage leading to the leakage of essential cytoplasmic constituents, toxic substances (e.g., H2O2, oxidizing radicals, and chlorine molecules) produced as a result of electrolysis, and/or a decreased bacterial respiratory rate [24] It must be noted that this method is more a therapeutic one rather than a preventive measure 11.4  Conclusions A serious health problem is represented by the high occurrence of medical device infections, the colonization of these surfaces by microorganisms and biofilm formation being the major cause of this kind of infections This issue was aggravated by the emergence of antibiotic resistance that prompted the search of novel agents able to inhibit bacterial adhesion and biofilm growth In recent years, further efforts have been made by several groups of researchers aiming to develop new approaches for the design of sterile surface coatings that may be useful for various medical applications Biomaterial surface properties including hydrophobicity and roughness must be taken into consideration since they control adhesion and growth of infecting bacteria Here we mentioned several of these novel anti-biofilm strategies and several of them demonstrated promising applicability in medical environment since they exhibited great ability to counteract microbial adhesion and biofilm formation on medical devices surfaces However, researchers are always looking for new and most effective strategies aiming the successful reduction or the total eradication of the infections focused here To achieve this, more studies will be necessary, preferentially in vivo, to better understand the mechanisms of bacterial adhesion and biomaterials infection Acknowledgment P Teixeira and F Gomes acknowledge the financial support of the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology through the grants SFRH/BPD/86732/2012 and SFRH/BPD/84488/2012, respectively 285 286 Preventing Adhesion on Medical Devices References Anghel, I., and Grumezescu, A M (2013) Hybrid nanostructured coating for increased resistance of prosthetic devices to staphylococcal colonization, Nanoscale Res Lett., 8, Anguita-Alonso, P., Giacometti, A., Cirioni, O., Ghiselli, R., Orlndo, F., Saba, V., Scalise, G., Sevo, M., Tuzova, M., Patel, R., and Balaban, N (2007) RNAIII-Inhibiting-peptide-loaded polymethylmethacrylate prevents in vivo Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 51, 2594–2596 Appelgren, P., Ransjo, U., Bindslev, L., Espersen, F., and Larm, O (1996) Surface heparinization of central venous catheters reduces microbial colonization in vitro and in vivo: Results from a prospective, randomized trial, Crit Care Med., 24, 1482–1489 Azeredo, J., and Sutherland, I W (2008) The use of phages for the removal of infectious biofilms, Curr Pharm Biotechnol., 9, 261–266 Batoni, G., Maisetta, G., Brancatisano, F L., Esin, S., and Campa, M (2011) Use of antimicrobial peptides against microbial biofilms: Advantages and limits, Curr Med Chem., 18, 256–279 Bearman, G M L., Munro, C., Sessler, C N., and Wenzel, R P (2006) Infection control and the prevention of nosocomical infections in the intensive care unit, Sem Resp Crit Care Med., 27, 310–324 Borkow G., and Gabbay, J (2004) Putting copper into action: copperimpregnated products with potent biocidal activities, FASEB J., 18, 1728–1730 Bruttin, A., and Brussow, H (2005) Human volunteers receiving Escherichia coli phage T4 orally: a safety test of phage therapy Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 49, 2874–2878 Bryers, J D (2008) Medical biofilms, Biotechnol Bioeng., 100, 1–18 10 Carson, L., Gorman, S P., and Gilmore, B F (2010) The use of lytic bacteriophages in the prevention and eradication of biofilms of Proteus mirabilis and Escherichia coli, FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol., 59, 447–455 11 Cavalcanti, Y W., Almeida, L F D., and Padilha, W W N (2011) Antiadherent activity of Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil on Candida albicans: An SEM analysis, Rev Odonto Cienc., 26, 139–144 12 Ceri, H., Olson, M., Stremick, C., Read, R R., Morck, D., and Buret, A (1999) The Calgary biofilm device: New technology for rapid determination of antibiotic susceptibilities of bacterial biofilms, J Clin Microbiol., 37, 1771–1776 References 13 Chibani-Chennoufi, S., Dillmann, M L., Marvin-Guy, L., Rami-Shojaei, S., and Brussow, H (2004) Lactobacillus plantarum bacteriophage LP65: A new member of the SPO1-like genus of the family Myoviridae, J Bacteriol., 186, 7069–7083 14 Chifiriuc, C., Vgrumezescu, V., Grumezescu, A M., Saviuc, C., Lazăr, V., and Andronescu, E (2012) Hybrid magnetite nanoparticles/ Rosmarius officinalis essential oil nanobiosystem with antibiofilm activity, Nanoscale Res Lett., 7, 209 15 Cirioni, O., Ghiselli, R., Minardi, D., Orlando, F., Mocchegiani, F., Silvestri, C., Muzzonigro, G., Saba, V., Scalise, G., Balaban, N., and Giacometti, A 2007 RNAIII-inhibiting peptide affects biofilm formation in a rat model of staphylococcal ureteral stent infection, Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 51, 4518–4520 16 Cirioni, O., Giacometti, A., Ghisell,i R., Bergnach, C., Orlando, F., Mocchegiani, F., Slivestri, C., Licci, A., Skerlavaj, B., Zanetti, M., Saba, V., and Scalise, G (2006) Pre-treatment of central venous catheters with the cathelicidin BMAP-28 enhances the efficacy of antistaphylococcal agents in the treatment of experimental catheter-related infection, Peptides, 27, 2104–2110 17 Cirioni, O., Giacometti, A., Ghiselli, R., Dell’Acqua, G., Orlando, F., Mocchegiani, F., Silvestri, C., Licci, A., Saba, V., Scalise, G., and Balaban, N (200) RNAIII-inhibiting peptide significantly reduces bacterial load and enhances the effect of antibiotics in the treatment of central venous catheter-associated Staphylococcus aureus infections, J Infect Dis., 193, 180–186 18 Costa, F., Carvalho, I F., Montelaro, R C., Gomes, P., and Martins, M C L (2011) Covalent immobilization of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) onto biomaterial surfaces, Acta Biomater., 7, 1431–1440 19 Costerton, J W., Ellis, B., Lam, K., Johnson, F., and Khoury, A E., (1994) Mechanism of electrical enhancement of efficacy of antibiotics in killing biofilm bacteria, Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 38, 2803–2809 20 Costerton, J W., Stewar,t P S., and Greenberg, E P (1999) Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections, Science, 284, 1318–1322 21 Curtin, J J., and Donlan, R M (2006) Using bacteriophages to reduce formation of catheter-associated biofilms by Staphylococcus epidermidis, Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 50, 1268–1275 22 Darouiche, R O (1999) Anti-infective efficacy of silver-coated medical prostheses, Clin Infect Dis., 29, 1371–1377 287 288 Preventing Adhesion on Medical Devices 23 Darouiche, R O., Raad, I I., Heard, S O., Thornby, J I., Wenker, O C., Gabrielli, A., Berg, J., Khardori, N., Hanna, H., Hachem, R., Harris, R L., and Mayhall, G (1999) A comparison of two anti-microbialimpregnated central venous catheters, New Eng J Med., 340, 1–8 24 Del Pozo, J L., Rouse, M S., Mandreka, R J N., Sampedro, M F., Steckelberg, J M., and Patel, R (2009) Effect of electrical current on the activities of antimicrobial agents against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms, Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 53, 35–40 25 Dell’ Acqua, G., Giacometti, A., Cirioni, O., Ghiselli, R., Saba, V., Scalise, G., Gov, Y., and Balaban, N (2004) Suppression of drug-resistant staphylococcal infections by the quorum-sensing inhibitor RNAIIIinhibiting peptide, J Infect Dis., 190, 318–320 26 Dhruva, S S., Bero, L A., and Redberg, R F (2009) Strength of study evidence examined by the FDA in premarket approval of cardiovascular devices, JAMA, 302, 2679–2685 27 Díaz, C., Cortizo, M C., Schilardi, P L., Saraiva, S G G., and Mele, M A F L (2007) Influence of the nano-micro structure of the surface on bacterial adhesion, Mat Res., 10, 11–14 28 Diekema, D J., Pfaller, M A., and Schmitz F J (2001) Survey of infections due to staphylococcus species: Frequency of occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates collected in the United States, Canada, Latin America, Europe and the Pacific region for the Sentry antimicrobial surveillance program, 1997–1999, Clin Infect Dis., 32, 114–132 29 Donlan, R M (2009) Preventing biofilms of clinically relevant organisms using bacteriophage, Trends Microbiol., 17, 66–72 30 Falagas, M E., Fragoulis, K., Bliziotis, I A., Chatzinikolaou, I (2007) Rifampicin-impregnated central venous catheters: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, J Antimicrob Chemother., 59, 359–369 31 Fenton, M., Keary, R., McAuliffe, O., Ross, R P., O’Mahony, J., and Coffey, A (2013) Bacteriophage-derived peptidase CHAPK eliminates and prevents staphylococcal biofilms, Int J Microbiol., (doi: 10.1155/2013/625341) 32 Fischetti, V A (2010) Bacteriophage endolysins: A novel antiinfective to control Gram-positive pathogens, Int J Med Microbiol., 300, 357–362 33 Francolini, I., and Donelli, G (2010) Prevention and control of biofilm-based medical-device-related infections, FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol., 59, 227–238 References 34 Fu, W., Forster, T., Mayer, O., Curtin, J J., Lehman, S M., and Donlan, R M (2010) Bacteriophage cocktail for the prevention of biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa on catheters in an in vitro model system, Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 54, 397–404 35 Fujimoto, H., Yoshizako, S., Kato, K., and Iwata, H (2006) Fabrication of cell-based arrays using micropatterned alkanethiol monolayers for the parallel silencing of specific genes by small interfering RNA, Bioconjug Chem., 17, 1404–1410 36 Geesink, R., de Groot, K., and Klein, C P (1988) Bonding of bone to apatite-coated implants, J Bone Joint Surg Br., 70, 17–22 37 Gline,l K., Thebault, P., Humblo, V., Pradier, C M., and Jouenne, T (2012) Antibacterial surfaces developed from bio-inspired approaches, Acta Biomater, 8, 1670–1684 38 Gong, P., Li, H., He, X., Wang, K., Hu, J., Zhang, S., and Yang, X (2007) Preparation and antibacterial activity of Fe3O4@Ag nanoparticles, Nanotechnology, 18, 604–611 39 Gould, C V., Umscheid, C A., Agarwal, R K., Kuntz, G., and Pegues, D A (2010) Healthcare infection control practices advisory committee Guideline for prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infections 2009, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol., 31, 319–326 40 Gutiérrez, D., Martínez, B., Rodríguez, A., and García, P (2010) Isolation and characterization of bacteriophages infecting Staphylococcus epidermidis, Curr Microbiol., 61, 601–608 41 Gutiérrez, D., Martínez, B., Rodríguez, A., and García, P (2012) Genomic characterization of two Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteriophages with anti-biofilm potential, BMC Genomics, 13, 228 42 Hall-Stoodley, L., Costerton, J W., and Stoodley, P (2004) Bacterial biofilms: From the natural environment to infectious diseases, Nat Rev Microbiol., 2, 95–108 43 Hasan, J., Crawford, R J., and Ivanova E P (2013), Antibacterial surfaces: The quest for a new generation of biomaterials, Trends Biotechnol., 31, 295–304 44 Heijkants, R G J C (2006) Nanotechnology delivers microcoatings, Med Device Technol., 17, 14–16 45 Helmus, M N., Gibbons, D F., and Cebon, D (2008) Biocompatibility: meeting a key functional requirement of next-generation medical devices, Toxicol Pathol., 36, 70–80 46 Hetrick, E M., and Schoenfisch, M H (2006) Reducing implant-related infections: Active release strategies, Chem Soc Rev., 5, 780–789 289 290 Preventing Adhesion on Medical Devices 47 Hsu, S H., Tseng H J., and Lin, Y C (2010) The biocompatibility and antibacterial properties of waterborne polyur-ethane-silver nanocomposites Biomaterials, 31, 6796–6808 48 Ivanova, E P., Hasan, J., Truong, V K., Wang, J Y., Raveggi, M., and Fluke, C., and Crawford, R J (2011) The influence of nanoscopically thin silver films on bacterial viability and attachment, Appl Microbiol Biotechnol., 91, 1149–1157 49 Jaeblon, T (2010) Polymethylmethacrylate: Properties and contemporary uses in orthopaedics, J Am Acad Otrhop Surg., 18, 297–305 50 Kaali, P., Strömberg, E., and Karlsson S (2011) Prevention of Biofilm Associated Infections and Degradation of Polymeric Materials Used in Biomedical Applications, in Biomedical Engineering, Trends in Materials Science (Anthony Laskovski, ed.), ISBN: 978-953- 307-513-6 51 Katsikogianni, M., and Missirlis, Y F (2004) Concise review of mechanisms of bacterial adhesion to biomaterials and of techniques used in estimating bacteria-material interactions, Eur Cell Mater., 8, 37–57 52 Kaur, H., Kumar, P., Ray, P., Kaur, J., and Chakraborti A (2009) Biofilm formation in clinical isolates of group B streptococci from north India, Microb Pathog., 46, 321–327 53 Knetsch, M L W., and Koole, L H (2011) New strategies in the development of antimicrobial coatings: the example of increasing usage of silver and silver nanoparticles Polymers, 3, 340–366 54 Kokare, C R., Chakraborty, S., Khopade, A N., and Mahadik, K R (2009) Biofilm: Importance and applications, Ind J Biotechnol., 8, 159–168 55 Kutateladze, M., and, Adamia, R (2010) Bacteriophages as potential new therapeutics to replace or supplement antibiotics, Trends Biotechnol., 28, 591–595 56 Lellouche, J., Friedman, A., Gedanken, A., and Banin, E (2012) Antibacterial and antibiofilm properties of yttrium fluoride nanoparticles, Int J Nanomedicine, 7, 5611–5624 57 Lönn-Stensrud, J., Landin, M A., Benneche, T., Petersen, F C., and Scheie, A A (2009) Furanones, potential agents for preventing Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm infections? J Antimicrob Chemother., 63, 309–316 58 Manefield, M., Rasmussen, T B., Henzter, M., Andersen, J B., Steinberg, P., Kjelleberg S., and Givskov, M (2002) Halogenated furanones inhibit quorum sensing through accelerated LuxR turnover, Microbiology, 148, 1119–1127 References 59 McLean, R J., Hussain, A A., Sayer M., Vincent, P J., Hughes, D J., and Smith, T J N (1993) Antibacterial activity of multilayer silver-copper surface films on catheter material, Can J Microbiol., 39, 895–899 60 Mitick-Dineva, N., Wang, J., Truong, V K., Stoddart, P., Malherbe, F., Crawford, R J., and Ivanova E P (2009) Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus attachment patterns on glass surfaces with nanoscale roughness, Curr Microbiol., 58, 268–273 61 Murata, H., Koepsel, R R., Matyjaszewski, K., and Russell A J (2007) Permanent, non-leaching antibacterial surfaces–2: how high density cationic surfaces kill bacterial cells, Biomaterials, 28, 4870–4879 62 Nomura, S., Lundberg, F., Stollenwerk, M., Nakamura, K., and Ljungh, A (1997) Adhesion of staphylococci to polymers with and without immobilized heparin in cerebrospinal fluid, J Biomed Mater Res., 38, 35–42 63 Norowski, P A., and Bumgardner, J D (2009) Biomaterial and antibiotic strategies for peri-implants, J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater., 88B, 530–543 64 Nowatzki, P J., Koepsel, R R., Stoodley, P., Min, K., Harper, A., Murata, H., Donfack, J., Hortelano, E R., Ehrlich, G D., and Russell A J (2012) Salicylic acid-releasing polyurethane acrylate polymers as antibiofilm urological catheter coatings, Acta Biomater., 8, 1869–1880 65 O’Grady, N P., Alexander, M., Burns, L A., Dellinger, E P., Garland, J., Heard, S O., Lipsett, P A., Masur, H., Mermel, L A., Pearson, M L., Raad, I I., Randolph, A G., Rupp, M E., and Saint, S (2011) Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections, Clin Infect Dis., 52, 162–193 66 Otto, M (2009) Staphylococcus epidermidis, the “accidental” pathogen, Nat Rev Microbiol., 7, 555–567 67 Pavesio, A., Renier, D., Cassinelli, C., and Morra, M (1997) Anti-adhesive surfaces through hyaluronan coatings Med Device Technol., 8(20–1), 24–27 68 Rai, M., Yadav, A., and Gade, A (2009) Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials, Biotechnol Adv., 27, 76–83 69 Ren, D., Bedzyk, L A., Ye, R W., Thomas, S M., and Wood, T K (2004) Differential gene expression shows natural brominated furanones interfere with the autoinducer-2 bacterial signaling system of Escherichia coli, Biotechnol Bioeng., 88, 630–642 70 Roe, D., Karandika, B., Bonn-Savage, N., Gibbin, B., and Roullet, J B (2008) Antimicrobial surface functionalization of plastic catheters by silver nanoparticles, J Antimicrob Chemother., 61, 869–876 291 292 Preventing Adhesion on Medical Devices 71 Roosjen, A., van der Mei, H C., Busscher, H J., and Norde, W (2004) Microbial adhesion to poly(ethyle oxide) brushes: Influence of polymer chain length and temperature, Langmuir, 20, 10949–10955 72 Rosenthal, V D., Maki, D G., and Graves, N (2008) The international nosocomical infection control consortium (INICC): Goals and objectives, description of surveillance methods, and operational activities, Am J Infect Control., 36, 1–12 73 Ryan, E M., Gorman, S P., Donnelly, R F., and Gilmore, B F (2011) Recent advances in bacteriophage therapy: How delivery routes, formulation, concentration and timing influence the success of phage therapy, J Pharm Pharmacol., 63, 1253–1264 74 Samuel, U., and Guggenbichle, J P (2004) Prevention of catheterrelated infections: The potential of a new nano-silver impregnated catheter, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 23, 75–78 75 Satishkumar, R., Sankar, S., Yurko, Y., Lincourt, A., Shipp, J., Heniford, B T., and Vertegel, A (2011) Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of lysostaphin-coated hernia repair meshes, Antimicrob Agent Chemother., 55, 4379–4385 76 Scheuerman, T R., Camper., A K., and Hamilton, M A (1998) Effects of substratum topography on bacterial adhesion, J Colloid Interf Sci., 208, 23–33 77 Schierholz, J M., and Beuth J (2001) Implant Infections: A haven for opportunistic bacteria, J Hosp Infect., 49, 87–93 78 Schillaci, D., Arizza, V., Dayton, T., Camarda, L., and Di Stefano, D (2008) In vitro anti-biofilm activity of Boswellia spp oleogum resin essential oils, Lett Appl Microbiol., 47, 433–438 79 Schreiber, F (2000) Structure and growth of self-assembling monolayers, Prog Surf Sci., 65, 151–256 80 Senaratne, W., Andruzzi, L., and Ober, C K (2005) Self-assembled monolayers and polymer brushes in biotechnology: Current applications and future perspectives, Biomacromol, 6, 2427–2448 81 Shah, N J., Hong, J., Hyder, N., and Hammond, P T (2012) Osteophilic multilayer coatings for accelerated bone tissue growth, Adv Mater., 24, 1445–1450 82 Shintani, H (2004) Modification of medical device surface to attain anti-infection, Trends Biomater Artif Organs, 18, 1–8 83 Sioshansi, P (1994) New processes for surface treatment of catheters, Artif Organs, 18, 266–271 References 84 Sousa, C., Henriques, M., and Oliveira, R (2011) Mini-review: Antimicrobial central venous catheters: Recent advances and strategies, Biofouling, 27, 609–620 85 Sousa, C., Henriques, M., Teixeira, P., and Oliveira, R (2009) Reduction of Staphylococcus epidermidis adhesion to indwelling medical devices: a simple procedure, Br J Biomed Sci., 65, 184–190 86 Sousa, C., Teixeira, P., Bordeira, S., Fonseca, J., and Oliveira, R (2008) Staphylococcus epidermidis adhesion to modified polycarbonate surfaces: Gold and SAMs coated, J Adhes Sci Technol., 22, 675–686 87 Sulakvelidze, A., and, Kutter, E (2005) Bacteriophage therapy in humans In Bacteriophages: Biology and Application (Kutter, E., Sulakvelidze, A., ed.), pp 381–436 Boca Raton, CRC Press 88 Takenaka, S., Tonoki, T., Taira, K., Murakami, S., and Aoki, K (2007) Adaptation of Pseudomonas sp strain 7-6 to quaternary ammonium compounds and their degradation via dual pathways, Appl Environ Microbiol., 73, 1797–1802 89 Tegoulia, V A., and Cooper, S L (2002) Staphylococcus aureus adhesion to self-assembled monolayers: Effect of surface chemistry and fibrinogen presence, Colloids Surf B Biointerf., 24, 217–228 90 Tenke, P., Riedl, C R., Jones, G L., Williams, G J., Stickler, D., and Nagy, E (2004) Bacterial biofilm formation on urologic devices and heparin coating as preventive strategy, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 23, 67–74 91 Tiller, J C., Liao, C H., Lewis, K., and Klibanov, A M (2001) Designing surfaces that kill bacteria on contact, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A., 98, 5981–5985 92 Tran, P A., and Webster, T J (2013) Antimicrobial selenium nanoparticle coatings on polymeric medical devices, Nanotechnology, 24, 155101 93 Tsai, P W., Yang, C Y., Chang, H T., and Lan, C Y (2011) Human antimicrobial peptide LL-37 inhibits adhesion of Candida albicans by interacting with yeast cell-wall carbohydrates, PLoS ONE, 6, e17755 94 Ulman, A (1996) Formation and structure of self-assembled monolayers, Chem Rev., 96, 1533–1554 95 Wang, Q., and Webster, T J (2012) Nanostructured selenium for preventing biofilm formation on polycarbonate medical devices, J Biomed Mater Res., 100A, 3205–3210 293 294 Preventing Adhesion on Medical Devices 96 Webb, J C J., and Spencer, R F (2007) The role of polymethylmethacrylate bone cement in modern orthopaedic surgery, J Bone Joint Surg., 89-B, 851–857 97 Willcox, M D., Hume, E B., Aliwarga, Y., Kumar, N., and Cole, N (2008) A novel cationic-peptide coating for the prevention of microbial colonization on contact lenses, J Appl Microbiol., 105, 1817–1825 98 Yue, I C., Poff, J., Cortes, M E., Sinisterra, R D., Faris, C B., Hildgen, P., Langer, R., and Shastri, V P (2004) A novel polymeric chlorhexidine delivery device for the treatment of periodontal disease, Biomaterial, 25, 3743–50 99 Zhao, L., Chu, P K., Zhang, Y., and Wu, Z (2009) Antibacterial coatings on titanium implants, J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater., 91B, 470–480 100 Zodrow, K R., Schiffman, J D., and Elimelech, M (2012) Biodegradable polymer (PLGA) coatings featuring cinnamaldehyde and carvacrol mitigate biofilm formation, Langmuir, 28, 13993–13999