Tai Lieu Chat Luong Changing Worlds A silent struggle was taking place between entrenched conservatism and the fragile new thinking “Hanoi Life under the Subsidy Economy, 1975–1986,” Museum of Ethnology, Hanoi, 2006–7 Changing Worlds Vietnam’s Transition From Cold War to Globalization David W P Elliott Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further Oxford University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Copyright © 2012 by Oxford University Press Published by Oxford University Press, Inc 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 www.oup.com Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Elliott, David W P Changing worlds : Vietnam’s transition from the Cold War to globalization / David W.P Elliott p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-19-538334-8 Vietnam—Politics and government—1975- Vietnam—Foreign relations Vietnam—Economic policy—1975- National security—Vietnam I Title DS559.912.E45 2012 959.704c4—dc23 2011052938 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper To Mai Who Shared the Journey With Love This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface ix Introduction On the Eve of Doi Moi Reform (1975–1986) 25 The Year of Living Dangerously (1989) 59 Changing Partners in a Changing World (1990–1991) 87 Wary Reconciliation (1992–1995) 125 Uncertain Transition (1996–1999) 157 Taking the Plunge (2000–2006) 189 A Strategy for the Twenty-First Century 231 Rhetoric and Reality 279 Notes Index 333 391 This page intentionally left blank Preface Although I wrote my graduate-school dissertation on the political system of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam), which focused largely on the decade between 1954 and 1964—that is from the division of Vietnam at the end of the First Indochina War to the escalation into direct US military action in the Second Indochina War—I would be the first to admit the limits of my understanding of the subject, even after extensive documentary research and interviews with a number of people who had lived in North Vietnam during this period So what led to the foolhardy decision to proceed with a second attempt to understand the notoriously secretive political system of communist Vietnam? In part, it was due to a gradual opening up of Vietnam to the outside world and the fascination of watching what amounted to a Vietnamese version of glasnost, as more and more veils of secrecy fell to the ground In addition, as the process unfolded, the expanded range of public issues, life choices, and diversity of opinion at all levels of society made the study of Vietnam infinitely more interesting Between my first visit to unified Vietnam in 1982, and my last substantial research trip, from December 2006 to January 2007, extraordinary change occurred My 1982 visit was to a country still paranoid about foreigners and external threats, and was marked by several tense encounters with the public security branch and police, despite my status as an official guest of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs On the street, I was routinely addressed as dong chi (comrade) because it was inconceivable to most Vietnamese at the time that a foreign visitor would not be from a fraternal socialist country Even those who suspected that I was something different were at a loss as to the ix 394 communism clash with capitalism, 53–54 Eastern Europe and Soviet Union, 61 Vietnam’s brand, 56 communist bloc, dissolution, Communist Party political system, 265 regime preservation strategy, 95–96 relationship with young generation, 384n83 secretive inner circle of leaders, 348n40 websites, 379n10 Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV), 310–311, 346n2 Communist Party of Vietnam’s Central Committee (CPVCC), 310 Communist Party of Yugoslavia, 71 communist world, 88–90 complex learning, Vietnam, comprehensive security concept, 96–97, 246–247, 266, 271 Vietnam, 243–248, 273 Cong, Vo Chi, 45 cong khai, glastnost, 103 cong than, term, 46–47 conjuncture, term, 238 conservatism, 36 conservatives concerns about integration, 137–139 ideology and policy, 168–169 peaceful evolution, 137 political system, 10 conventional wisdom, reform, 35 corruption integration and, 324–326 power struggles, 370n117 cosmopolitanism, growth of, 311–318 Council of Ministers’ resolution, 339n59 counternarratives, reform, 32–38 Cuba, 89, 90 Cultural Revolution, 97, 383n66 culture, society, politics, and, 318–323 Cumming-Bruce, Nick, 161 Dang, Ha, 94 Eighth Party Congress, 181, 182 socialism and capitalism, 228–230 workable socialism, 228–229 Dang, Nguyen Van, 65, 224–225, 227–228 Dang, Tran Bach, 76, 102, 290 Index Darkness at Noon, Hien, 179, 298 decadent culture, 336n9 Dem Giua Ban Ngay, Hien, 179, 298 democracy calling for party, 66 talk of, in Vietnam, 67–68 democracy advocacy group, Que Me, 361n74 Democratic centralism, 23, 93 democratic equality, 381n32 Democratic Republic of Korea, 90, 168 Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DVR), 240 Demsetz, Harold, 370n137 Deng Xiaoping Theory, 184–185 dependency, concept, 84–85 dep loan, crushing the rebellion, 43–46 deviation, 281 deviationism, 281 de Vylder, Stefan, 5, 7, 15, 27, 72 Dezhi, Yang , 91 Diem, Nguyen Khoa, 284 Dien, Phan, 207 Dien, Tran, 143 Dien Bien Phu battle, 175 Dieu, Phan Dinh, 282, 295 capitalism and communism, 53–54 dissident, 53 humanity, 382n52 ideology, 300–301 information technology, 52–53, 242 political turmoil, 118 reality, 297–298 socialism, 55, 301 To Quoc, 53 Dinh, Do Duc, reform economics, 181 diplomacy “beauty queen” theme, 127–128 Cam, 129–131 new thinking about international system, 128–133 objectives, 231–232 Vietnam-China, 255–258 Vietnam-United States, 157–160, 255–256 diversification, 122, 231–232 Do, Tran internet communication, 284 memoirs, 282 revolutionary struggle, 30–32 Tet Offensive, 178 Index Doanh, Le Dang expanded trade relations, 206 internet, 282 market economy, 216 reform economist, 18–19 telling truth, 290–291 “doctor’s plot,” 311 Doi Moi big-bang metaphor, 72 Binh in party newspaper, 103 conservative opposition, 192–193 ideology, 203, 205 launching , 27 Mai Chi Tho, 36 reforms, 79, 160, 187–188 Vietnam relationships, 78 Doi Moi (Renovation), 18 Domination, United States and big countries, 238–239 Dong, Pham Van, 46 Cambodian problem, 113, 114 “Chairman of pigs,” 34 Chengdu meeting , 117 party assessment, 309 politburo, 45 reformer, 38 United Nations diplomacy, 113 Vietnam and Soviet Union, 78–79 dot pha, breaking out, 44 Duan, Le See Le Duan Dung, Hanh, 270–271 Dung, Nguyen Tan, 185, 309 expanded trade relations, 205–206 Politburo Standing Committee, 173 state’s control of media, 284 Tenth Party Congress, 307 Duong, Pham Duc, 154–155 Eastern Europe collapse of socialism, 28 communism, 61 generation gap and collapse of, 94 Vietnam and, 78 East Germany, 76–77, 280 economic autonomy, Vietnam’s quest, 15–16 economic crisis Asian financial crisis, 182–183 Cambodia, 68–69 idea-change during “year of living dangerously,” 81–85 395 leadership uncertainty, 65–67 severity and pervasiveness, 37–38 Vietnam, 13, 82 economic development balance between cooperation and self-interest, 136–137 fear of falling behind, 10–11, 16, 21, 81, 95, 97–99 goal, 80–81 impact of integration, 223–230 twenty-first century, 248–252 Vietnam joining WTO, 210–214, 214–217 Vietnam-U.S diplomacy, 157–160 economic model, Vietnam, economic power, single world system, 133–134 economic reform balance act in slowdown of, 180–182 collectivization and command economy, 43–46 conceptual limits of pre-reform period, 48–49 concerns about integration, 137–139 early challenges to orthodoxy, 29–32 narratives and counter-narratives, 32–38 personification of, 33–34 Politburo, 116–119 political reform with, 101–102 political retrenchment and accelerated, 70–72 rethinking , 26–29, 160–161 revenge of South, 40–43 unlikely reformers, 38–40 Vietnam, 8–9, 17, 25–26, 100–101 economic security grand strategy, 275 military security and strategy, 269–270 economic stagnation, Vietnamese Communist Party, economic system, 67, 328 economy, USSR , 351n28 education, Vietnam, 21–22 egalitarian society, 168 Eighth Party Congress (1996) ambiguous outcome of, 170–172 deferred transition, 166–170 end of crisis, 191 four dangers, 182 partial leadership transition, 183–184 slowdown of reform, 180–182 enemies, post-Cold War world, 100–101 Engels, Friedrich, 293, 311, 381n32 England, 241 396 Index English Constitution, 381n32 Enterprise University Relations for Boeing , 317 Erlanger, Steven, 41, 65, 68, 70, 71, 116, 147 erroneous viewpoints, 30 Europe, relations with Vietnam, 260–261 European investors, 369n88 European Union (EU), relations with Vietnam, 260–261 Evans, Paul, 316 external shock, 12, 13 falling behind, fear of, 10–11, 16, 21, 81, 95, 97–99, 226, 249, 270, 330 familism, resurgence, 321–323, 328 Far Eastern Economic Review, 347n25 Federal Republic of Germany, 77 “feeling one’s way,” China, 203 fence breaking , 8, 282, 338n48 China and Soviet Union, 49 cracking down on, 39 people’s right to engage in, 103 term, 43, 48 Fforde, Adam, 5, 7, 15, 27, 72 state business, 195 state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 220–222, 225 Fifth Party Congress (1982), 30, 32, 45 Financial Times, global economy, 217–218 First Indochina War, Fisher, Richard, 200 Fisheries, Vietnam, 355n90 Five Year Plans, 5, 324, 356–357n2 food crisis, famine, 66–67 Foodstuff Corporation, rice, 42 foreign and security policies, Vietnam, 9, 11–12 foreign economic policy, reorientation of Vietnam’s, 100–101 foreign policy ideological transition, 78–81 sacrificial lamb, 20–21 Soviet Union collapse, 121–122 Vietnam and neighbors, 262–264 Foster, Tony, 216 Fourth Party Congress (1976), 32, 47 France, 126, 143, 234, 241 Friedman, Thomas, 303 friends See also diplomacy diplomacy, 231–232, 241–242, 276 post–Cold War world, 100–101 FULRO movement, 138 future, vision for, 323–331 Gainsborough, Martin generational change, 307 Ho Chi Minh City economy, 33–34 State-owned enterprises (SOEs), 220, 221, 224, 225 General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT), 212 Geneva Conference, Laos, 345n77 Geneva Conference (1954), 213 German Democratic Republic (GDR), 77 Germany, 106–107, 234 Giang, Nguyen Thanh, 284 Giap, Nguyen Hoang , 255 Giap, Vo Nguyen, 91, 175, 179, 309 Gillespie, John, 326, 329 glastnost, 103 global engagement, laying foundations for, 193–195 globalization, 53–54, 374n48 absolute sovereignty, 246 concept, 84 Eighth Party Congress, 172 international relations, 234–235, 250 localization and, 318–323, 329 military force and security, 264–271 post-Cold War, 99–100 Tenth Plenum, 195–199 Vietnam, 5, 190 global market international division of cooperation, 202–203 scientific-technological revolution, 16 Goldstein, Avery, 272–274 Gorbachev, Mikhail S civilization, 312–313 dissolution of Soviet Communist Party, 122–123 international identity, 240 Malta summit, 106 perestroika, 16–17, 28 reforms, 14, 16, 76 tolerance of reformers, 169–170 “two worlds” concept, 73 Vietnamese leaders with, 105 Vladivostok speech, 106, 107 grand strategy China, 272–274 Index Goldstein, 272–274 military and, 378n132 Vietnam, 274–275 Grant, Jeremy, 173, 174 Great Patriotic War, 265 great powers, definitions, 234 Greenspan, Alan, rational market, 13 Guan, Cheng, Vietnam-China connection, 258 Haas, Peter, 313 Hang, Trung , 264 Hanoi ambivalence of leaders, division of labor, 15 unification of Vietnam, war against imperialism, 18 Hanoi Life under the Subsidy Economy 1975–1986, exhibition, 17 Hanoi Radio, Ho Chi Minh City, 51 Hanoi School of Business (HSB), 387n125 Harvard University, 317 Ha Si Phu, 368–369n87 Hip-hop culture, 388n145 Ho, Nguyen opposition to socialism, 98–99 Worker’s House of Culture, 97–98 Hoa Binh hydroelectric dam, 118 Ho Chi Mausoleum, 118 Ho Chi Minh, 19, 309 independence movement, 241 party membership, 384n83 revolution leader, 22, 120 statues, 322 suspicion, 299 Vietnamese diplomacy, 109 Ho Chi Minh City black-market trade, 138 Cat framing Vietnam’s options, 135–136 Council of Ministers’ resolution, 339n59 crushing rebellion, 43, 45 economy, 229 Hanoi Radio, 51 reforms, 181 socialism, 36–37 Ho Chi Minh Higher Party School, 299 Ho Chi Minh National Political Academy, 238, 250, 315, 386n119 Ho Chi Minh Political Academy, 303 hoi nhap, 29 397 Hon, Nguyen Van, breaking out, 44 Hong Kong , 358n13 humanity, 382n52 human rights, bilateral trade agreement, 366n46 Hung, Nguyen Manh, 188, 260 Hung, Nguyen Sinh, 222–223 Hung, Pham, 27, 45, 339n59 Hung, Xuan, 203 Hungarian revolt of 1956, 97 Hungary, goulash communism, 67 Huong, Duong Thu, 52 Huy, Nguyen Van, 17, 328 ideological discourse, Nguyen Duc Binh, 54–55 ideological hegemony, 15 ideological solidarity, Vietnam and China, 109–112 ideology crisis of belief, 298 foreign policy during transition, 78–81 last stand of ideological orthodoxy, 299–306 political reality and, 279–281 Vietnam, Vietnam’s strategy, 107–108 Ilyich, Vladimir, 351n28 Imperialism, war against, 18, 27 Independence, Vietnam, 6–7 India, 126, 151, 259 Indochina, ASEAN and, 141 information technology, Dieu, 52–53 Institute for the Study of China, Vietnam, 163 Institute of International Relations (IIR), 255, 315–316 Institute of Sociology, 89, 346n2 Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ISIS), 353n63 integration ASEAN membership and global, 152–155 assimilation or, into world system, 99–100, 142–143 commitment from Ninth to Tenth Part Congress, 207–210 foundation for global engagement, 193–195 state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 217–223 symbiosis of, and corruption, 324–326 Vietnamese politics, society and economy, 223–230 Vietnam’s, into Asian region and global system, 189–193 398 interdependence international relations, 94–95 Soviet concept, 84 international community great-power relations, 254 Vietnam’s identity, 243 Vietnam’s objectives, 231–232 International Control Commission (ICC), 345n77 international cooperation, 372n13 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 143 International Organization, Haas, 313, 314 international relations, 6, 386n119, 387n122 doctrinal concept, 82–83 isolation or integration, 134–136 neorealist, 9–10 realist school, shift, 3–4 single world system, 133–134 International Republican Institute, 209 international system Linh reverting to “old thinking,” 72–78 “new thinking,” 128–133 Vietnam’s integration, 190 internet Communist Party websites, 379n10 hip-hop culture, 388n145 impact on political communication, 282–287 technologies, 380n16 young person’s medium, 285 intra-elite discourse complexity, 281–282 internet, 286–287 open debate, 287–289 Iraq, U.S occupation, 256 Jackson–Vanik law, 211 Japan, 151, 241 ASEAN, 353n56 relations with Vietnam, 143, 260, 261 Vietnam’s ASEAN membership, 148–149 world powers, 234 Jayakumar, S., 150 Jingji Ribao, economic newspaper, 185 John F Kennedy School of Government, 317 Johnston, Ian, China’s grand strategy, 274 Kampuchean revolution, 164 Kampuchean–Thai border, 164 Index Kazmin, Amy, 218 Khai, Phan Van, 33–34, 199 Harvard and MIT visit, 317 military intelligence, 179 Tenth Party Congress, 307 Khanh, Nguyen Nam military, 265–266 struggle, 287 Vietnamese politics, 178–179 Khmer Rouge, 69, 111, 115, 170 Khoa, Tran Ba, 162 Khoan, Vu ASEAN, 150 bilateral trade agreement (BTA), 200 closure option, 138 competition, 207 globalization, 172 integration, 208 integration into economy, 216–217 international relations, 133–134, 137 state–owned enterprises (SOEs), 218–219 visit to U.S., 257 khong khoi sung, defeating enemy “without gun smoke,” 163 Khrushchev, Nikita, 351n23 Khue, Doan, 175 Kiet, Vo Van, 33, 34, 199 ASEAN membership, 145, 148 breaking out, 44 communication, 282 economic intelligence, 318 Eighth Party Congress, 166–170, 183–184 epitaph on communist world, 89–90 facing the truth, 291 integration, 208–210 international relations, 251 military intelligence, 179 old vs new thinking , 295–296 Politburo Standing Committee, 173, 186 reform, 46–47, 56, 127, 189, 367–368n68 Seventh Congress, 119 Sixth Congress, 49 socialism to nationalism, 300 softening hard edges of Le Duan, 36 state power, 292 Tenth Party Congress, 202 uncertainty in crisis, 65–67 Kissinger, Henry, 30, 33, 111 knowledge networks global, 327, 329 Index international communities, 314–315 universities, 315–318 Kwon, Heonik, 319–321 Lamb, David, 4, 278 land disputes, 65–66 Lansdale, Edward, 343n33 Laos ASEAN, 145, 147 Cambodian question, 106 economic ties, 79 foreign policy of Vietnam and, 262–264 Geneva Conference, 345n77 Vietnamese dominance, 164 Larson–Chevchenko analysis, 14 Latin America, leftist movement, 239–240 Le, Phan Huy, 335n35 leadership shift in Vietnam, 14–15 uncertainty in face of crisis, 65–67 learners, label, 10 Le Duan blame, 38, 47 critics, 35 economic reform, 31–32 hard edges of leadership, 36 historical picture of, 336–337n20 ideological orthodoxy, 280 polemical tracts, 97 resignation, 297 Vietnamese party leader, 4, 8, 29–32 leftist movement, Latin America, 239–240 Legro, Jeffrey, 17 collective mindset, 25, 28, 191, 330 international relations, 129 policy and ideational change, 119 Rethinking the World, 11–12, 335n1 socialism, 41–42 LeMay, Curtis, Lenin, Vladimir, 135, 293, 311 Levy, Jack, 9–11 Liem, Dinh Nho, 130, 136 Lincoln, Abraham, 40 Linh, Nguyen Van bold reformer, 35–36, 38, 45, 336n18 Chengdu meetings, 113 China’s relations, 112 comprehensive security, 244 “convince the brothers,” 340n74 399 election, 48 India visit, 126 land disputes, 65–66 Marxism and capitalism, 75–76 military force, 79–80 party secretary general, 32, 33 political debate, 60–61, 281–282 press interview, 104 reaffirming party’s leading role, 70 “red solution,” 110 reform, 46–47, 51–52 resistance to economic reforms, 55 reverting to “old thinking,” 72–78 threat to Vietnam’s political system, 59–60 The Lives of Others, movie, 280 Localization, globalization and, 318–323 Loi, Ho Quang , 151–152 Loi, Luu Van, 84, 345n77 lonely hearts club, China, Vietnam, North Korea, and Cuba, 89 Long, Truong Giang , 153 Luong, Hy Van, 319, 321 Luong, Nguyen Dinh, 206, 212 Ly Luan Chinh Tri, journal, 251 Mainichi report, Linh, 104 Malaysia, 126, 145 Man, Tran Cong , 69, 102, 122 Manh, Nong Duc, 198, 228, 230, 309 comprehensive security, 245 Laos and Vietnam, 263 peaceful evolution, 207 truth, 291 Vietnam and India, 259 Maoism, 334n12 Mao period, world of the party, 127 market economy, 50, 171 market socialism concept, 204 Vietnam, 201–205, 248–249 Marr, David, 241, 283 Marx, Karl, 293, 311 Marxism, 154 deviation from, 281 Linh on, and capitalism, 75–76 old thinking , 297 Vietnam, 60, 167, 275 400 Index Marxism–Leninism, 4, 5, 74, 83, 89, 292, 326, 383n66, 383n70 Binh, 300, 305 China defending , 110 Linh, 75–76 mixed messages in party documents, 161 peaceful evolution, 166 regime preservation strategy, 95–96 rejection, 84, 302 suspicion, 299 transition, 120–121 Vietnam, 27, 105 Marxist central-planning model, 12 ideology, 361n65 public opinion, 291–292 Marxist People’s Revolutionary Party, 89 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 317 military globalization, 264–271 leadership and relations, 255–256 new thinking about, 79–80 role in Vietnam, 96–97 role in Vietnamese politics, 172–175 strategy, 271–278 military intelligence, anti-“peaceful evolution,” 179 Military Intelligence Directorate, 165 military journal, Tap Chi Quoc Phong Toan Dan, 246 Minh, Ho Ngoc, 152 Minh, Pham Quang , 237, 315 Ministry of Public Security, 357n8 Mitterand, Franỗois, 143 Moltz, James, 26 Moore, Mike, 201 multilateralization, term, 122 multiparty democracy, Cambodian reforms, 89 multi-party system, 360–361n62 multipolarity, world order, 236, 240 Muoi, Do, 56 ASEAN diplomacy, 146 “beauty queen” theme, 127–128 Cambodian problem, 113, 114 Eastern Europe, 60 economic relations, 78–79 Eighth Party Congress, 180, 183, 183–184 globalization, 115 international image, 241 internet, 286, 287 military strength, 96–97 national security, 139 opposing reform, 29 Politburo Standing Committee, 173 power transition, 119 rice, 42 security, 64 socialist transformation, 89, 118–119 Soviet Union, 60, 103–104, 106 visiting other countries, 126 Nam, Nguyen Manh, 388n145 Nam, Phan Doan comprehensive security, 245 Democratic Republic of Vietnam, 240 international relations, 130–131, 253 narratives, reform, 32–38 The Nation, 76 National Assembly Kiet, 65 legislation by Vietnam’s, 215–216 National Defense and Security committee, 139–140 Trong , 302 national capitalist countries, phrase, 90 national defense, military, 264–271 National Defense and Security committee, 139–140 national interest comprehensive security, 245–246 falling behind, 226 Vietnam’s strategy, 107–108 falling behind, 226 National IT Program Steering Committee (NITSC), 340n85 National Liberation Front, 37 national security, decision making , 139–141 National University of Vietnam, 83 Naughton, Barry, 225 neorealist, international relations, 9–10 new thinking erosion of old thinking , 295–299 international system (1991–1995), 128–133 reform, 227 Sixth Party Congress (1986), 49–51 term, 31, 335n4 Vietnam, 14, 25–26 Index New Zealand, 126 Nghi, Le Thanh, 241 Nghien, Nguyen Khac, 257 Nghien Cuu Quoc Te, journal, 129 Ngoan, Vu Huu, 76 Ngoc, Kim, 31 Nguyen Ai Quoc Higher Party School, 282 Nguyen Ai Quoc Institute, 346n1 Nguyen Co Thach See Thach, Nguyen Co Nguyen Quang A, 303–305, 307, 314 Nham, Tran, 39, 120 Nhan Dan Binh, 288, 299 end of Soviet Union, 103, 103–104 Linh, 77 party newspaper, 293, 294 solidarity with Soviet Union, 78 Year of the Horse in Tet issue, 92–94 Nien, Nguyen Dy, 277, 310 Nien, Vu Thu, 179 Ninh, Bao, 52 Ninh, Vu Duong , 315, 316 Ninth Party Congress (2001), 54, 171 civilized culture, 312 external policy, 232 Five-year Plan, 356–357n2 integration, 204 international relations, 306 market economy, 171 military role in politics, 172–175 proactive integration, 191, 195 North American free trade area (NAFTA), 353n56 North Korea, 346n11 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, 90, 168 lonely hearts club, 89 relation with Vietnam, 143 North Vietnamese, 352n37 Nye, Joseph, 162, 234–235 “oases in the desert,” Vietnam, 46–48 orthodoxy early challenges to, 29–32 North–South differences, 34 Painter, Martin, 220–221 Palmujoki, Eero, 83–84, 345n79, 345n82 Paradise of the Blind, Huong , 52 Paribatra, Sukhumband, 145–146 Party Central Commission for Ideology and Culture, 284 Party Organization Department, 32 party policy erosion of old thinking , 295–299 public opinion and, 291–295 patriotism, old guard in Vietnam, 61 peaceful coexistence, America, 358n21 peaceful environment, 209 peaceful evolution, 7, 30, 75, 114, 118, 137, 281 anti-, campaign, 179 Asian Communist term, 182 campaign, 161 Cold War term, 358n16 concept of the threat of, 268 “decadent culture” before, 336n9 de-emphasizing , 367–368n68 denunciations, 196–197 development of concept, 162–163 military promoting , 176 relations with U.S and China, 163–166 strategy, 249, 357n9 People’s Army of Vietnam, 265 People’s Republic of China, 357n11 People’s Security University, 357n11 Peregrine Capital, 166 perestroika emergence of, 16–17 Gorbachev and, 28 Soviet Union, 104 Vietnamese translation of, 84 performance-based legitimacy, 10 Permanent Normal Trade Relations (PNTR), 243 personification, reform, 33–34 Petofi Club, 97 Ph.D degree holders, Vietnam, 21–22 Phieu, Le Kha, 140, 160, 247, 360n56 bureaucratic politics, 175–179 China card, 192–193, 257 China policy, 187 concerns about peaceful evolution, 180 Eighth Party Congress, 180, 183–184 fraternal talks, 176 military role, 173–174 mission to China, 185 transitional leader, 308 Phillips, Kevin, 40–41 Phnom Penh, 112, 115 401 402 Index Phong, Dang , 40, 295 breakouts, 44 incremental strategy, 60–61 reform, 41–43, 48 Phu, Ha Si, 368–369n87 Phuc, Than Trong , 328 physics, 20 Planck, Max, 20 pluralistic socialist camp, 102–103 politburo economic reforms, 116–119 Kiet, 167 Resolution 32, 62–63 revolutionary members, 45–46 Politburo Standing Committee bureaucratic politics, 175–179 military role, 172–173 political commissar system, 377n110 political communication, impact of internet, 282–287 political dilemma, peaceful evolution, 161 political discourse, complexity of, 281–282 political elite collective mindset, 25, 27 size and composition changes, 22–23 Vietnam, 10 Political Military Academy, Vietnam, 236, 270 political pluralism, 360–361n62 political reform impact of integration, 223–230 with economic reform, 101–102 political retrenchment, economic reform, 70–72 political stability communist party, 360–361n62 U.S.-Vietnam, 160 Political Theory, 253 politics bureaucratic, or factional models, 175–179 role of military in Vietnamese, 172–175 society, culture and, 318–323 Pol Pot, 28, 105, 111, 115, 170 population growth, Vietnam, 22 Porter, Gareth, post–Cold War friends, enemies and strategic allies, 100–101 global system, 99–100 power, nationalist reformer, 98 power structure, twenty-first century world, 252–261 POW–MIA issue, 143 Prestowitz, Clyde, 235 production, relations of, 39–40 progressive humanity, 168 property rights, economy, 370n137 Prussians of the Orient, Vietnam, 273 public opinion constitutional, 381n32 party policy, 291–295 spread of open debate, 287–289 Putin, Vladimir, 239, 260 Qinghong, Zeng , 186–187, 269 Quan Doi Nhan Dan (Army People’s Daily), 69, 75, 79, 151, 364n4 Quang, Le Chi, 284 quantum physics, 20 Quat, Dao Duy, 174, 198, 285 Que Me, 361n74 Quinn–Judge, Sophie, 48, 52 Quoc Phong Toan Dan, journal, 267 Quynh, Tran struggle, 287 underground memoir, 336–337n20 Radio Vietnam, 101 rational market, 13 realism, Vietnam’s strategy, 107–108 reality See rhetoric and reality “red solution” “play the China card,” 186 Vietnam’s solidarity with China, 109–112, 114, 116, 318 refamilization, Vietnamese society, 324 reformers See also Kiet, Vo Van ideology and policy, 168–169 label, 10 reforms, campaigns X1 and X2, 37 reform story, overpersonalizing , 34–35 regime preservation strategy, 95–96 regionalism, concept of, 345n86 relations of production, 39–40 Renovation See Doi Moi Republican Party, United States, 40–41 Resolution 13, 12, 62, 63, 83, 237, 248, 268, 323 Resolution 24/TW (Third Party Congress), 339n63 Resolution 32, 62–63, 105, 248 Resolution 51/NQ–TW, 265 Index Resolution Eight, 237 “respond to ten thousand changes,” phrase, 109–110 rethinking of the world, Vietnam, 12 Rethinking the World, Legro, 11–12 revisionism, 44, 79 revolutionary solidarity, 32–33 revolutionary Vietnam, 4–5, 18, 44–45 rhetoric and reality collective idea change, 279–281 complexity of intra-elite discourse, 281–282 conflict, 289–291 cosmopolitanism, 311–318 erosion of old thinking , 295–299 facing facts, 289–291 globalization and localization, 318–323 internet and elite politics, 282–287 knowledge networks, 311–318 last stand of ideological orthodoxy, 299–306 new elite, 307–311 public opinion and the party, 291–295 society, culture and politics, 318–323 spread of open debate, 287–289 vision for future, 323–331 rice, 40, 42, 50 Richburg, Kenneth, 55–56, 61, 102 Roman Catholics, 352n38 “rootless cosmopolitanism,” Stalin term, 311 Ruihan, Li, 184 Russia, 151 economy, 351n28 global role, 235 relations with Vietnam, 260 strategic activism, 239 world powers, 234 Russian Federation, economics, 376n89 sacrificial lamb, Thach, 20–21 Saigon government, 352n38 Saigon reformers, 45 Salzman, Anthony, 366n43 Sam, Do Quoc, 148 Samuelson, Paul, 132 Sang, Nguyen Quang , 343n33 scientific-technological revolution, global market, 16 Scown, Michael J., 181 Second Indochina War, 7, 25 403 security Asian issues, 329–330 comprehensive, 96–97, 243–248 concept in Vietnam, 63–64 domination by “big countries,” 238–239 military force and, in globalization, 264–271 Ministry of Public Security, 357n8 twenty-first century, 248–252 self-engendered evolution, 298–299 self-image, “beauty queen” theme, 127–128 Sen, Hun, 111, 114, 115 Seventh Party Congress (1991) Dieu, 297–298 holding operation, 116–119 limited reform, 183 Soviet Union collapse, 121–122 transition to socialism, 119–121 Shanghai Cooperation Organization, 239 Shek, Chiang Kai, 241 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 313, 342n12 Shimbun, Mainichi, 104 shocks collapse of socialism, 28 economic reform, 28 therapy, 203 Sidel, Mark, 159–160, 293 Sihanouk, Prince, 110, 111 Sim, Chea, 89 Singapore, 98, 126, 149 Sino-Soviet split, Sino-Vietnamese border pacts, 185 Sirivudh, Prince Norodom, 147 Sixth Party Congress (1986), 27–28, 29, 31–32 breaking barriers to new thinking , 49–51 Cambodian question, 105–106 Congress of Reform, 39 delayed reaction to, 51–57 failure of command economy, 51 reform mindset, 49 resistance to reform, 56 Resolution 13, 62, 63 resolutions, 46, 47, 70 rhetoric and reality, 289, 294–295 Smith Richardson Foundation, 356n1 soccer games, Vietnam’s mania, 325 404 Index socialism, 381n32 absolute superiority, 105 antagonism with capitalism, 5–6, 253 Binh, 300 collapse in Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, 28 collapse of, 253 decay of ideology, 338n41 Dieu, 55 Ho Chi Minh City, 36–37 ideology, 62 imposing Northern model on South, 40–43 old thinking , 296–297 open opposition to, 98–99 restoring confidence, 98–99 revolution and building , 18 struggle for soul of Vietnamese, 70 Vietnam defining socialist future, 94–95 wartime debate of orthodoxy, 338n35 workable, 371n141 socialist camp, 102–103, 135 socialist commercial accounting , 50 socialist market economy, 204, 214–217 socialist orientation, 301 Socialist Party, To Quoc, 53 Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV) anxiety syndrome, 137 assimilation or integration, 142–143 peaceful evolution, 165 socialist transformation, 38, 42, 56, 352n37 soft power, Nye, 162 solidarity Cambodia–Vietnam, 358n20 revolutionary, 32–33 Vietnam’s ideological, with China, 109–112 Son, Nguyen, 215 Song, Kim Il, North Korea, 91 Sorrows of War, Ninh, 52 Southeast Asia four tigers, 98 U.S involvement in, 256 Vietnam and, 259–260 Vietnam leaders visiting , 126–127 Southeast Asia Institute, 151 Southernization, America and Vietnam, 41 South Korea, 98, 143 South Vietnamese, 352n37, 352n38 sovereignty, Vietnam, 6–7 Soviet Communist Party de-ideologization, 100 dissolution, 122–123 Soviet Cultural Friendship Palace, 327 Soviet Party Congress (27th), 83, 84 Soviet Union, Afghanistan, 342n12 bulwark of socialism, 110, 114 China and, 73 collapse, 4, 12–14, 28, 87, 121–122, 128, 191, 233–234 color revolutions, 247 command-economy model, 70 communism, 61 economic assistance to Vietnam, end of, 103–105 facilitating Cambodia settlement, 64 fence breaking , 49 foreign policy, 14 generation gap and collapse of, 94 international relations, 82–83 loss of confidence and belief, 287 military strength, 244 Nhan Dan and solidarity with, 78 old thinking , 296 reevaluation of Stalin, 104–105 re-thinking of foreign policy, 61–62 shame, 385n101 Vietnam and, 78 Stalin, Joseph cosmopolitanism, 311 Marxism to Vietnam, 60, 290 reevaluation in Soviet Union, 104–105 Stalinism, 198 state businesses, 195 state capitalism, 383–384n72 state enterprises, 195 state-owned enterprise (SOE) global integration, 217–223 symbols of socialism, 223–224 term, 195–196 Vietnam, 72 Steering Committee for Vietnam-China Cooperation, 378n119 Stern, Lewis military, 276–277 U.S.-Vietnam relations, 255–256 strategic allies, post-Cold War world, 100–101 strategy, term, 248 Index Strategy for Socio-Economic Development, 356–357n2 subjectivism, 281 subsidy ideology, 203 subsidy regime, prereform, 38 Summers, Lawrence H., 317 Sutter, Karen, 64 Switzerland, 213 symbolism, state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 223–224 Tai, Nguyen Van, 236, 270 Taiwan, 98, 353n56 Tap Chi Cong San, journal, 250, 253, 288, 304 Tap Chi Quoc Phong Toan Dan, military journal, 246 Templer, Robert military role, 173–174 political conflict, 166–167, 169–170 Tenth Congress Central Committee (2006), 21 Tenth Party Congress (2006), 21 briefing to politburo, 291 evaluations, 382n37 ideology, 202 integration, 191, 204, 207–210 national defense, 267 new elite, 307–311 party control, 306 peaceful environment, 252 public involvement, 298 Tenth Plenum party meeting , 195–199, 365n31 textile industry, 338n48 Thach, Nguyen Co, 103 ASEAN and Indochina, 141 Cold War analysis, 132–133 economy, 16 international situation, 117 reformer, 119 regionalism, 345n86 removal from power, 21 Vietnam and China, 114 Vietnamese diplomacy, 81, 85 world order change, 233–234 Thailand Muoi, 126 tiger in Southeast Asia, 98 Vietnam relations, 145–146 Thang Long bridge, 118 Thanh, Doan Duy, 219, 286, 287 405 Thanh, Pham Duc, 151, 155 Thanh, Phung Quang , 269 Thao, Nguyen Viet, 251, 253 Thayer, Carlyle changing world-view, 61–62 economic development, 270 “four typhoons,” 183–184 globalization, 195–199 reform process, 187–188 Vietnamese military, 174–175 think tanks, Vietnam, 21–22, 316 Third Indochina Conflict, 71 Third Indochina War, 164 Tho, Huu, 301–302 Tho, Le Duc, 35 biography, 337n33 ideological orthodoxy, 280 opponent of change, 119 Paris negotiations, 111 party discipline, 29–32 retirement, 56 sadness, 32–33 Tho, Mai Chi biography, 36, 337n21, 337n24 class struggle, 302 coercive arm of party, 36 enforcing controls, 42–43 erosion of old thinking , 296–297 French-style villa, 37 military intelligence, 179 socialism, 36–37, 337n21 Tho, Nguyen Huu, 37 Thong, Pham Huy, 315 Thuy, Tran Khai Thanh, 283–284 Tian An Men Square incident, 68, 71, 108, 109, 113, 116, 165 Tien, Le, literature promotion, 286 Tien Phong, liberal newspaper, 294 Tieu Thu Dac Biet (TTTB), 213 Tieying, Li, China connection, 185 tigers, Asia, 98, 169 Tilly, Charles, Tin, Bui, 116 Muoi’s accomplishments, 118–119 new thinking , 295 reevaluation of Stalin, 104 Vietnamese view of East Germany, 76–77 Year of the Horse, 92–94 tipping point, Vietnam’s integration, 190, 192 406 Index Tong, Goh Chock, 151 To Quoc, 53 Torode, Greg , 308 Tra, Pham Van, 196, 267 trade relations, Vietnam and expansion of, 205–207 training business management, 387n125 international relations, 386n119, 387n122 Triet, Nguyen Minh, 213–214 Trojan Horse, Chinese minority, 138 Trong, Nguyen Phu, 205, 249, 302 Truman, Harry, 165 Trung, Ly Chanh, 51, 52 Trung, Thai Quang , 51 Tse-tung, Mao, 105 Tu, Luong Van, 207, 211–212 Tuan, Hoang Anh, 144 Tuan, Nguyen, 298 tu ban dan toc, term, 90 Tung, Dao Duy, 50, 174 Tung, Hoang , 18, 50, 83, 84 Tuoi Tre fence breaking , 43 liberal newspaper, 294 Nguyen Quang A, 305 political stability, 167 reform, 67 striking out into big ocean, 363n2 Turley, William, 312 Tuyen, Truong Dinh bilateral trade agreement (BTA), 199–200, 368n79 land border agreement, 366n39 Twelfth National Assembly (2007), 310 twenty-first century “big countries” and “great powers,” 252–261 security and economic development, 248–252 two-world system command-economy model, 70–71 Linh reverting to “old thinking,” 72–78 unipolarity, global world, 235–236 United Kingdom, world powers, 234 United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 242 United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), 242 United Nations Human Rights Commission, 243 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), 242–243 United States, 28, 151 bilateral trade agreement (BTA) with, 191, 199–201, 205–207, 210–214 companies operating in Vietnam, 364n11 dominance, 238–239 embargo on Vietnam, 71 military diplomacy between Vietnam and, 269–270 normalizing relations with, 91 relations with Vietnam, 143 role of China in US-Vietnam relations, 258 Vietnam’s relations with, 157–160, 255–256 universities, knowledge networks, 315–318 Uy Ban Quoc Phong va An Ninh, 139 Vien, Nguyen Khac, 283, 335n35 Vietnam Anti-American resistance, ASEAN, 88, 141–142, 144–147 ASEAN membership and global integration, 152–155 ASEAN membership risks and benefits, 150–152, 158 assimilation, 99–100, 142–143 August 1945 revolution, 3, 109, 341n89, 373n28 Cambodia, 3, 8, 12, 56–57, 63–64, 87, 105–107 changing world–view, 61–63 China, 3, 8, 87–88, 88–90, 105–107, 109–112, 123 collective leadership, 19–20 defining socialist future, 94–95 diplomatic relations with United States, 157–160 economic reform, 8–9, 17, 25–26 experience with expanded trade relations, 205–207 failure of socialist solidarity, 90–91 fear of falling behind, 10–11, 16, 21, 81, 95, 97–99, 226, 249, 270, 330 foreign policy, 121–122, 262–264 globalization, idea shift, 14–15 integration, 99–100, 134–136, 142–143, 189–193 international relations, 82–83 isolation, 134–136 leaders exploring outside world, 126–127 leadership uncertainty, 65–67 Index lonely hearts club, 89 new thinking , 14, 25–26, 128–133 optimism and apprehension at start of year of horse (1990), 92–94 peaceful evolution, 163–166 population growth, 22 power structure of 21st-century world, 252–261 pressures for change, 67–68 realism, national interest and ideology, 107–108 relations with industrialized countries, 143 Resolution 32, 62–63 rethinking of the world, 12 revolutionary, 4–5 role of military force, 96–97 society, culture and politics, 318–323 Southernization, 41 sovereignty and independence, 6–7 Soviet Union, 121–122 Vietnam-China relations, 112–116 World Trade Organization (WTO), 164, 189, 210–214 Vietnam Airlines, 220 Vietnam-China free trade agreement, 211 Vietnam Communist Party, 232 Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology, 21 Vietnamese Academy of Social Sciences, 21 Vietnamese Communist Party, 305 control, 21–22 economic reform, international politics, 130, 154 leadership uncertainty in crisis, 65–67 legitimacy, 61 Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP), 185 Vietnamese National Assembly, 201 Vietnamese Navy, 355n90 Vietnamese Socialist Party, To Quoc, 53 Vietnam News Agency, 229 Vietnam’s leaders, mindset after military victory, 5–6 Vietnam Socialist Party, 341n89 Vietnam-Soviet Interministerial Council on Science and Technology, 103 Vietnam Studies Group Listserv, 313 Vietnam War, 4, 128, 209, 296 Vladivostok speech, Gorbachev, 106, 107 Voice of Vietnam (1994), peaceful evolution, 162 Voice of Vietnam station, 357n9 407 Vuong, Tran Quoc, 335n35 Vuving, Alexander, 185, 237, 257–258 Wallander, Celeste, 26 Waltz, Kenneth, wary reconciliation, 129, 140, 144–147 wealth nationalist reformer, 98 thinking , 15 Wolfers, Arnold, workable socialism, 228–229, 371n141 Worker’s House of Culture, 97–98 World Bank, 68, 143, 181, 220 The World is Flat, Friedman, 303 “world of the Party,” 350n4 world order complexities, 237–238 foreign policy decision, 237 globalization, 234–235 global role for Vietnam, 235–236 leftist movement in Latin America, 239–240 multipolarity, 236, 240 role of “big countries,” 234 security implications, 238–239 Vietnamese uncertainty, 233–234 Vietnam’s position in, 240–243 world politics, Vietnam’s pride, 241 world system integration or assimilation, 99–100 pluralistic, 102–103 World Trade Organization (WTO), 5, 16, 136 bilateral trade agreement (BTA) and entry into, 159 BTA with U.S., 191, 199–201 global engagement, 193–195 Vietnam’s acceptance, 164, 189, 210–214 Vietnam’s entry, 236, 242, 328 Vietnam “taking the plunge,” 214–217, 226 world-view, changing, in Vietnam, 61–63 World War II, 358n21 X1 campaign, reform, 37 X2 campaign, reform, 37 Xiaoping, Deng , 20, 113 criticisms, 110 ideology, 82, 167, 184–185 military, 268 reforms, 48, 120, 334n12 Xien, Nguyen, 341n89 408 “Yalta system,” post-Second World War, 165 Yanovsky, R G., 102 year of living dangerously (1989) changing world view, 61–63 defending Fatherland, 80 foreign policy and ideology, 78–81 fork in the road, 68–70 fundamental idea-change, 81–85 leadership uncertainty, 65–67 Linh reverting to “old thinking,” 72–78 looking forward, 92 political retrenchment, 70–72 pressures for change, 67–68 reassessing policies and doctrines, 60–61 Index security, 63–64 Vietnam’s withdrawal from Cambodia, 63–64 Year of the Horse (1990), 92–94 Yeltsin, Boris, 26 Yew, Lee Kuan, 149 Yong-nam, Kim, North Korea, 346n11 Yugoslavia Communist Party of, 71 denunciations of, 43–46, 67 Vietnam’s relations with, 70–71 Zedong, Mao, 60, 290 Zemin, Jiang , 113, 186, 187