georgetown university press biotechnology and the human good may 2007

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND T H E HUMAN GOOD 16334$ $$FM 03-23-07 13:33:31 PS PAGE i BIOTECHNOLOGY AND T H E HUMAN GOOD C Ben Mitchell, Edmund D Pellegrino, Jean Bethke Elshtain, John F Kilner, and Scott B Rae Georgetown University Press / Washington, D.C 16334$ $$FM 03-23-07 13:33:32 PS PAGE iii As of January 1, 2007, 13-digit ISBN numbers have replaced the 10-digit system 13-digit 10-digit Paperback: 978-1-58901-138-0 Paperback: 1-58901-138-4 Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C www.press.georgetown.edu ᭧2007 by Georgetown University Press All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Biotechnology and the human good / C Ben Mitchell [et al.] p ; cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 1-58901-138-4 (alk paper) Biotechnology—Moral and ethical aspects Medical ethics Values I Mitchell, C Ben [DNLM: Biotechnology—ethics Christianity Genetic Engineering—ethics TP 248.23 B615 2006] TP248.23.B566 2006 174Ј.96606—dc22 2006021475 ⅜ This book is printed on acid-free paper meeting the requirements ϱ of the American National Standard for Permanence in Paper for Printed Library Materials 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 First printing Printed in the United States of America 16334$ $$FM 03-23-07 13:33:32 PS PAGE iv Contents Preface vii Acknowledgments xiii ONE The Rapidly Changing World of Biotechnology TWO Humanity and the Technological Narrative 15 THREE Biotechnology and Competing Worldviews 32 FOUR Biotechnology and Human Dignity 58 FIVE Biotechnology and the Quest for Control 87 16334$ CNTS 03-23-07 13:33:39 PS PAGE v vi Contents SIX Biotechnology, Human Enhancement, and the Ends of Medicine 110 SEVEN Conclusion: Toward a Foundation for Biotechnology 137 Notes 159 Authors and Collaborators 193 Index 197 16334$ CNTS 03-23-07 13:33:39 PS PAGE vi Preface LISTENING to Kevin Warwick, a professor of cybernetics at the University of Reading in England, enthuse about his research is like listening to a prepubescent schoolboy describing his trip to Disney World Warwick claims to be the world’s first cyborg: part human, part machine On Monday, August 24, 1998, he had a silicon chip transponder surgically implanted in his forearm Once fitted with this new implant, he returned to his laboratory, where the doors opened automatically, lights turned on as he walked into rooms, and his computer greeted him every morning As thrilling as this was, it was only the beginning In March 2002, Warwick embarked on Project Cyborg 2.0 This time, surgeons at Oxford’s Radcliffe Infirmary implanted a 100-microelectrode array directly into the median nerve fibers of his left arm This new device allowed the professor’s nervous system, including his brain, to be connected directly to a computer As a result, Warwick was able to control a robotic arm in his lab, drive an electric wheelchair with minimal hand movement, and, through a secret Internet connection, control an articulated robotic arm on another continent He was both able to send signals across the ocean and receive them directly into his nervous system Warwick’s wife, Irena, volunteered to have a similar implant placed in her wrist, allowing husband and wife to ‘‘communicate’’ directly through the computer, thereby becoming the world’s first cyborg couple 16334$ PREF 03-23-07 13:33:44 PS PAGE vii viii Preface Warwick’s excitement about his experiments is almost overwhelming, and for good reason This new technology may one day be used to treat many types of neuromuscular disorders A robotic prosthesis may restore arms, legs, or other appendages lost through injury Eventually, says Warwick, the technology may allow us to communicate our emotional states directly to another person But the same technology may also be used to create armies of efficient cyborg killers With the computational power of a laptop computer and a rather basic knowledge of microbiology, one can now manipulate living organisms in one’s own basement lab, creating who knows what? Technology, including biotechnology, may be used for evil ends as easily as for good purposes, and this worries Warwick But what is one to do? Technology marches on If we understand technology to include any work-producing extension of the body of an individual, then the first person to use a stick to make a hole in which to plant a seed was a technologist In fact, tool making was one of the first human technological advances Human beings are by nature technologists Therefore, biotechnology is a fundamentally human endeavor Nevertheless, when the media announce a new biotechnological development—such as the possibility of human cloning or the creation of animal–human hybrids—there is a collective gasp How we account for what some might describe as our schizophrenic reactions to biotechnology? How we test our intuitions about emerging biotechnologies? The University of Montana philosopher of technology Albert Borgmann has wryly observed that reactions to emerging biotechnologies, including cybernetics and artificial intelligence, ‘‘are as divided as they are to carnival rides—they produce exhilaration in some people and vertigo in others’’ (‘‘On the Blessings of Calamity and the Burdens of Good Fortune,’’ Hedgehog Review [Fall 2002]: 7–24) Techno-exhilaration and techno-vertigo are intuitional responses to these new technologies Some technologies call on our adrenal glands to work overtime because of the breathtaking nature of new power within our grasp From biplanes, to space flight, to moon walks, the human heart races with anticipation at the next great achievement 16334$ PREF 03-23-07 13:33:44 PS PAGE viii Preface ix From blood transfusions, to the discovery of DNA, to gene therapy, the passion for knowledge pushes us into new frontiers At the same time, it seems, every power of mastery over nature also brings with it greater power for mastery over other human beings, and every inch closer to technological utopia seems to be another step toward technological oblivion This book is the effort of a multidisciplinary group of physicians, scientists, philosophers, ethicists, theologians, and a lawyer to grapple with these questions and to offer a way of thinking about technology— especially biotechnology—that we hope will make sense of some of our intuitions However, a warning is in order History has shown that some of our intuitions about biotechnology are wrong and should be questioned For instance, in the seventeenth century, blood transfusions were outlawed in France and England Now more than 39 million units of blood and blood products are transfused every year in the United States alone The intuition that it was wrong to transfer blood— the elixir of life, as it is sometimes called—has been revised over time (For an intriguing account of this history, see Pete Moore, Blood and Justice: The 17th Century Parisian Doctor Who Made Blood Transfusion History [San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002].) So part of the purpose of this book will be to test our intuitions about biotechnology Chapter surveys the rapidly expanding arena of human biotechnology Technologies such as genetic manipulation, cybernetics, robotics, and nanotechnology not only offer great hope for therapeutic interventions but also portend potentially devastating challenges to our understanding of what it means to be human and, in some instances, to our humanity itself Genetic enhancements, some argue, may lead human beings to a technologically achieved immortality But at what cost to our humanity? Chapter critiques several narrative philosophies that offer arguments for or against technological expansion Though by no means the only narrative, what the American studies professor David E Nye calls the ‘‘second-creation narrative’’ seems to be a dominant theme of the Western story of technological achievement Without modification, this narrative seems to be an insufficient ground for our biotechnological 16334$ PREF 03-23-07 13:33:44 PS PAGE ix 196 Authors and Collaborators and articles to books and periodicals His current research is on the nature of religious experience, eighteenth-century moral philosophy and theology, and the doctrine of God Paige Comstock Cunningham, J.D., M.A., is an attorney and educator Over the past twenty years, she has worked both in private practice and at a public interest law and education organization She is a member of the board of directors of Americans United for Life, Chicago, and was chair for five years She is a senior fellow of the Center for Bioethics and Human Dignity and serves on the board of trustees of Taylor University, Upland, Indiana, and the National Advisory Council of the Wheaton College Center for Applied Christian Ethics, Wheaton, Illinois Gilbert C Meilaender, Ph.D., is the Richard and Phyllis Duesenberg Professor of Christian Ethics at Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana He is an associate editor for the Journal of Religious Ethics He takes a special interest in bioethics and is a fellow of the Hastings Center, Garrison, New York His books include Body, Soul, and Bioethics (University of Notre Dame Press, 1996) and Bioethics: A Primer for Christians (Eerdmans, 1996) He is also a member of the President’s Council on Bioethics Stephen Williams, Ph.D., is professor of systematic theology at Union Theological College in Belfast He studied modern history at Oxford University and theology at Cambridge University before completing his Ph.D in theology at Yale University Over the years, he has taught courses in various parts of Central and Eastern Europe He has a longstanding interest in twentieth-century theology in general and Dietrich Bonhoeffer in particular 16334$ ATHR 03-23-07 13:34:19 PS PAGE 196 Index The Abolition of Man (Lewis), 1, 27 abortion choice and, 96 culture and, 179n9 disabled children and, 92, 96 violinist analogy for, 89–90, 178–79n4 accountability, 127, 155 Adleman, Leonard, 10 The Age of Spiritual Machines (Kurzweil), 42 aging, 77, 97–98 Alzheimer’s disease, America as Second Creation (Nye), 17–19 American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 142–43 androcentrism, 49–50 angels, 73 animal rights, 52 animals, nonhuman, 52, 62, 79 anthropocentrism, scientized, 103 anthropology, 25–27, 68, 131, 132 Aristotle, 116 artificial evolution, 41–42 artificial retinas, Artificial Vision for the Blind, 5–6 Ashby, W Ross, assisted reproductive technology, 140 athletic performance, 123 ATP, 9–10 16334$ INDX ‘‘At Woodward’s Garden’’ (Frost), 137 Aurelius, Marcus, 63 autonomy bioethics and, 131 cybernetics and, 13 enhancement technologies and, 126 human dignity and, 62, 64, 66, 67, 79–80 axe narrative, 18 Bailey, Britt, 49–50 beauty, 141–42, 183n41 beaver story, 22 benefits, 61, 127, 149, 156 Berger, Peter, 173n6 Beyleveld, Deryck, 64–65, 66 Beyond Cloning (Cole-Turner), 139–40 Beyond Therapy (President’s Council on Bioethics), 119 the Bible See also Christian theism; specific books of the Bible on creation and the creator, 51–52 on creation in God’s image, 69–74, 76 on embryos, 77–78 as a guide for life, 145–46 on human dignity, 69–76, 79, 80– 81, 86 03-23-07 13:34:18 PS PAGE 197 198 Index the Bible (continued ) on the material world, 53–54 on re-creation, 74–76 speciesism and, 79 on technology, 25–27 biocentric holism, 50 biocentric individualism, 50 biocentrism, environmental See environmental biocentrism biodiversity, 50, 51 bioethics See also ethics autonomy and, 131 of brain enhancement, 130 human dignity and, 59, 64–65, 82–86, 131 of neuroethics, 130 biofuel cells, 10 biological-inorganic interface, 10–11 biological machines, 128–29 biology, synthetic, 129 biotechnic period, 20–21 biotechnology See also enhancement technologies; genetic technologies; reengineering; technology choices about, 30–31 for the common good, 1–2 controversies in, 2, 32–35 culture and, 88–97 definition of, 1–2 for disease treatment, 120–21 economics of, 154 emerging, viii–ix environmental biocentrism and, 48–49, 57 ethics and, 100, 125–29 framework for, xi, 137, 145–47 history of, 1–2 human dignity and, x–xi intuitions about, ix medicine and, 111–12 optimism about, 38, 134 physician–patient relationship and, 129–31 as a qualified good, x 16334$ responsible stewardship for, 27–31, 138 worldviews and, x, 33–35, 57 birth in communion, 107–8 blindness, 5–6 blood transfusions, ix bodies Christian theology of, 133–34 complexity of embodiment, 97–103 control of, 87, 88–97, 107 ensouled, 103, 105–6 future-perfect, 97 harm to, 106 imperfect, 87, 97, 98–99, 101–3 mutilation of, 102 perfect, 91–92, 107, 142, 153, 179–80n11 resurrection of, 150 bodily integrity, 61–62 body parts, 97–98 Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, 89, 104–7, 108, 149 Boorse, Christopher, 114 Borgmann, Albert, viii, 15 brain enhancement, 130 brain implants, 6, 150 brain scans, 43, 130 Brock, Dan W., 119 Broderick, Damien, 42–43 Brownsword, Roger, 64–65, 66 bucky balls, 9, 128 Burton, Robert, 134 Calhoun, John C., 19 canals, 19 Caplan, Arthur L., 112, 113, 130 carbon nanowires, Carnegie Mellon University, 139 cells, 40 Center for Soldier Nanotechnologies (CSN), Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de, 190n3 Chicago Century of Progress World’s Fair, 143 INDX 03-23-07 13:34:18 PS PAGE 198 199 Index children choosing, 99 parent–child bond, 103 parenting, 140 special needs, 94–97 choice See also free will abortion and, 92, 96 biotechnology and, 30–31 disabled persons and, 94–97, 99 enhancement technologies and, 126 expanding, 94–97 genetic technologies and, 90 germline genetic intervention and, 85 philosophical naturalism and, 45–47 socioeconomic factors and, 146 technology and, 24, 27–29, 30 Christian communities, 107–9 Christianity See also Judeo-Christian worldview; the Bible anthropology of, 131, 132 biotechnology and, 34–35, 57 on the body, 133–34 constructive enhancement and, 150–54 correspondence view of truth and, 172n55 enhancement technologies and, 131–35 freedom and, 89–90, 178n3 on the natural, 103–7 perfection of, 151–52 technology and, 136 Christian theism on creation, 51–52, 53 on history, 57 on human beings, 44 on human dignity, 55–56 on human dominion, 51–52 on morality, 44 philosophical naturalism and, 44–45 worldview of, 34–35, 53–57 16334$ INDX Churchland, Paul M., 38 clinical medicine, 117–18, 129 Clinton, Bill, 100 cloning eugenics and, 101 flawed products from, 101–3, 183n38 human dignity and, 82–83, 85–86 limited ban on, 100 media on, 98, 101 Pontifical Academy for Life on, 101 sheep, 99–100 Clynes, Manfred, co-creation, 28–29 cognitive neurosciences, 42–43 Cohen, Eric, 32–33 Cole-Turner, Ronald, 28–29, 139–40 Collins, Francis S., 170n23 commercialization, 182n33 commodification, 139–40, 149 common good biotechnology for, 1–2 enhancement technologies and, 125 human dignity and, 65 individual’s rights and, 106–7 communication, 4, 5, 139 communion, 107–8, 153 community, 107–9, 146, 153 community good See common good commutative justice, 127 compassion, 47–48, 108 competent patients, 84 computers, DNA and RNA, 10 Concepts of Health and Disease (Caplan et al.), 112, 113 The Conduct of Life (Mumford), 143 consciousness, 42–43, 170–71n35 conservation movement, 21, 22, 50 control of bodies, 87, 88–97, 107 of destiny, 151 genetic technologies and, 90 human dignity and, xi of nature, 87, 110, 151 03-23-07 13:34:18 PS PAGE 199 200 Index Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (Council of Europe), 59 Cooper, James Fenimore, 18 corporate worldview, 49–50 correspondence view of truth, 172n55 cosmetic procedures, 2, 8–9, 141–43 cosmology, 33 cost–benefit analysis, 156 See also economics Council of Europe, Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, 59 creation creator and, 51–52, 53 in God’s image, 69–74, 76, 146 re-creation and, 74–76, 81–82 stewardship of, 25–26 Creation and Fall (Bonhoeffer), 89 creator co-creation with, 28–29 God as, 24, 25, 51–52, 53, 145– 46, 191n16 human beings as, 89 Crick, Francis, 40 Crigler-Najjar syndrome, 179–80n11 criminal justice, 45–46 critical thinking, 156 CSN (Center for Soldier Nanotechnologies), culture See also socioeconomic factors abortion and, 179n9 aging and, 97–98 biotechnology and, 88–97 Christian freedom and, 90 disabled persons and, 94–97 of future-perfect bodies, 97 genetic technologies and, 90–94 influence of, 192n25 the natural and, 107 science and, 147 technological conceit of, 156 cures, 117 16334$ cybernetic organisms See cyborgs cybernetics, 3–7, 10–11, 13 cyborgs definition of, development of, vii–viii first, vii, 29 physicians as, 12–13 as soldiers, viii, ‘‘willing’’, 126 Daniels, Norman, 119 death, 55 death with dignity, 84 Death with Dignity Act (Oregon), 58 Decalogue, 54 decoding visual images, 5–6 deep, 48–49 deep ecology See environmental biocentrism dehumanization, 127 dementia, demut, 69–70 depression, 139 Descartes, Rene, 130 designer genes, 91 destiny, 151 determinism, 30, 46 dignity See human dignity disabled persons abortion and, 92, 96 choice and, 94–97, 99 culture and, 94–97 eugenics and, 92 future of, 94–97 greater good and, 107 human dignity for, 77 killing, 96 disease biotechnology for, 120–21 cure of, 117 definition of, 114–16 human dignity for, 77 treatment of, 117, 120–21, 132– 33, 135 diversity See biodiversity INDX 03-23-07 13:34:19 PS PAGE 200 201 Index DNA, 10–11, 40, 129 Dobelle Institute, 5–6 Dolly (cloned sheep), 99–100 dominion See human dominion donors, egg, 91 Down syndrome, 92, 94 Drexler, Eric, 7, 144 drug-delivery systems, Dyson, Freeman J., 156–57 ecological values, 50–51 ecology, deep See environmental biocentrism economics, 91, 123, 143–44, 154, 173–74n7 See also socioeconomic factors ecosystem, 138 ecoterrorism, 49 education, 156 efficiency, 28 egg donors, 91 Ehrenfeld, David, 51 Eisenhower, Dwight, 30 the elderly, 77, 97–98 electricity, 20 electromechanical devices, 4–5 electronic components, miniature, Ellul, Jacques, 127, 134 embodiment, xi, 97–103 embryonic stem cell research, 84, 97– 98, 156 embryos, 76–77, 84 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 19 emotional disorders, 115–16 Empiricus, Sextus, 113 end-of-life decisions, 84 ends enhancement technologies as, 121– 24, 135, 139 of ethics, 116 of medicine, 112, 116–18, 119– 20, 121, 129, 135 energy, 20 Engelhardt, Tristram Jr., 112, 113 Engines of Creation (Drexler), 144 16334$ INDX enhancement, constructive, 150–54 enhancement technologies for athletic performance, 123 benefits of, 127 brain, 130 Christian anthropology and, 131, 132 Christian physicians and, 131–35 definition of, 118–19 for disease treatment, 121, 135 as an end, 121–24, 135, 139 ethical reasons for restraint, 125–29 future of, 3–4, 11 germline genetic intervention for, 85 increasing use of, liabilities and limitations of, 150 medicine and, xi, 118, 119–20, 122–23 for melancholia, 134 nervous system, 43–44 for perfect bodies, 91, 92 for physical immortality, 149–50 physician–patient relationship and, 129–31 by physicians, 122, 123 repugnance factor and, 126 resource allocation and, 127–28, 141 side effects of, 122–23 social factors in, 11, 12, 122, 125–26 super enhancement, 133–35 vs therapy, 118, 119–20 ensoulment, 103 environment, 57, 138 See also nature environmental biocentrism, x, 48–52 biotechnology and, 48–49, 57 definition of, 34 description of, 48–49 human dominion and, 51–52 purpose of life and, 49–50 environmental conservation, 21, 22, 50 03-23-07 13:34:19 PS PAGE 201 202 Index environmental impact, 138, 144, 189n1 eotechnics, 20 epistemological reductionism, 37 eternal life, 81–82 ethics See also bioethics biotechnology and, 100, 125–29 ends of, 116 enhancement technologies and, 125–29 the good and, 116 law and, 100, 182–83n35 philosophical naturalism on, 37–38 Protestant, 104–6 of reengineering, 13 Ethics (Aristotle), 116 Ethics (Bonhoeffer), 104, 149 eugenics, 3, 92, 99, 101, 143–44 euthanasia, 84, 106, 184n53 event causation, 46 evolution, 37, 41–42, 47 evolutionary theology, 190n3 exhilaration, techno-, viii experimentation See human experimentation exploitation of nature, 21, 22, 138, 189n1 Fabricated Man (Ramsey), 87 faith commitments, 132, 168n7 the Fall, 74, 103, 104–6 Fanu, James le, 92 Ferguson, Eugene, 19 Feynman, Richard, flourishing, human, 143–44, 154, 155, 158 food, genetically modified, 49–50 foundation stories, 17–23 Fowler, H W., 119 freedom Christian, 89–90, 178n3 human dignity and, 61–62, 84 limits to, 89 relative, 105 reproductive, 100 16334$ free will, 45–47, 171n35 See also choice Freud, Sigmund, 62 Frost, Robert, 137 Fukuyama, Francis, 68–69 The Future of the Disabled in Liberal Society (Reinders), 95 future-perfect bodies, 97 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 23–24 Galen, 113, 114 Garden of Eden, 25, 26, 55, 151 Gattaca (film), 93–94 general revelation, 53–55 genes, designer, 91 Genesis on creation, 25, 26–27, 70, 71, 76 on the creator, 25, 53 on dominion, 138 on eternal life, 81–82 Garden of Eden in, 25, 26, 55, 151 John Paul II on, 104 genetically modified food, 49–50 genetic code See genome genetic engineering, 28–29, 144 See also reengineering genetic reductionism, 39–41 genetic reengineering See reengineering genetic screening, prenatal, 96–97, 99 genetic technologies See also enhancement technologies commercialization of, 182n33 cultural demands and, 90–94 debate over, 32–33 elimination of imperfect bodies by, 87 environmental biocentrism and, 48 germline, 85 justifiable, 179–80n11 perfection and, 91 philosophical naturalism and, 38–41 genocide, 106 INDX 03-23-07 13:34:20 PS PAGE 202 203 Index genome human dignity and, 68 Human Genome Project and, 3, 38–41, 91 as identity, 39 as instructions, 170n23 as personhood, 39, 45 German Constitution, 59, 61 germline genetic technologies, 85 Gewirth, Alan, 64, 66 Gilbert, Walter, 39, 91 globalization, 48 God co-creation with, 28–29 as creator, 24, 25, 51–52, 53, 145– 46, 191n16 image of, 55–56, 69–74, 76, 81, 146, 172–73n56 science as, 148 truth of, 54 the good See also common good in ethics, 116 greatest, 106–7 medical, 125, 129, 132–33 of the patient, 133 personal, 133 qualified, x, 15 spiritual, 133 technological change and, 156–58 Good Samaritan story, 75 grace, 105 Grady, Denise, 179–80n11 Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Kant), 63–64 Guo, Peixuan, 10 Habermas, Jurgen, 129 ă Hall, Stephen, 9798 Hamiltonian Path Problem, 10 Hannemann, Jeannie, 96–97 Hayles, Katharine, 42 Haynes, Robert H., 41, 169–70n22 Hayry, Matti, 131 healing, 117, 133, 139, 152–53 16334$ INDX health definition of, 112–13 goal of, 117 subjective vs objective, 114–15 Health Disease and Illness (Caplan et al.), 112 health maintenance organizations (HMOs), 96 Hefner, Philip, 139 Heller, Adam, 10 highways, interstate, 30 hippocampus, Hippocratic physicians, 113, 117 history of biotechnology, 1–2 Christian theism on, 57 environmental biocentrism and, 49 lessons of, 149 of limiting technology, 111 philosophical naturalism and, 38 twentieth century, 147 HMOs (health maintenance organizations), 96 Hoffman, W Michael, 52 holism, biocentric, 50 homoiosis, 69–70 honor, 60, 173n6 Houston, Graham R., 27 human beings See also posthuman beings Christian theism on, 44 as created beings, 69–74, 76, 144, 146 as creator, 89 economic value of, 91 embryos as, 76–77, 84 vs human tissues, 146 intrinsic value of, 55, 82 machine integration with, 20–21 as machines, 41–44 philosophical naturalism on, 37–38 redemption by, 133–35 rights of, 52, 55 human bodies See bodies; embodiment 03-23-07 13:34:20 PS PAGE 203 204 Index human characteristics, 63–68 human dignity for all human beings, 65–66, 77–78 anthropological creed for, 68 autonomy and, 62, 64, 66, 67, 79–80 for being human, 68–82 biblical writings on, 69–76, 79, 80–81, 86 bioethics and, 59, 64–65, 82–86, 131 biotechnology and, x–xi bodily integrity and, 61–62 challenges to, 61–63 Christian theism on, 55–56 cloning and, 82–83, 85–86 concept of, 58, 59–61 end-of-life decisions and, 84 freedom and, 61–62, 84 honor and, 60, 173n6 human characteristics and, 63–68 human experimentation and, 61– 62, 82 image of God and, 55–56, 69–74, 76, 172–73n56 philosophical naturalism on, 37, 47 reason and, 63–65, 67 re-creation and, 74–76, 81–82 respect for, 58–59, 60, 63 role of, 59 value scale for, 61, 173–74n7 virtues and, 60 human dominion biblical writings on, 25 of the environment, 57 environmental biocentrism and, 51–52 exploitation of nature and, 138, 189n1 general revelation and, 54–55 responsible stewardship and, 51–52 human experimentation, 61–62, 82 human flourishing, 143–44, 154, 155, 158 16334$ Human Genome Project, 3, 38–41, 91 humanists, secular, 131 humanity expanding choice and, 94–97 genetic reductionism on, 39–41 remaking, 28 survival of, 134 technology and, ix–x, 131–32 human tissues, 146 The Human Use of Human Beings (Weiner), 4–7 identity of cloned beings, 103 genome as, 39 moral responsibility and, 46–47 philosophical naturalism on, 43, 46 illness, defined, 116 image of God creation in, 69–74, 76, 146 human dignity and, 55–56, 69–74, 76, 172–73n56 re-creation in, 81–82 imagination, social, 97 immortality, 11, 149–50 imperfect bodies, 87, 97, 98–99, 101–3 implants, vii–viii, 6–7, 150 income, 28 individualism, 50, 65 industrialization, 138 Industrial Revolution, 20 Infineon Technologies, informed consent, 82, 90 injuring, 83–85 innocents, 74, 106, 177n47 instantiation, 43 International Bill of Rights, 59 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 59 Internet, 139, 142 interstate highways, 30 INDX 03-23-07 13:34:20 PS PAGE 204 205 Index intrinsic value of human beings, 55, 82 of human vs nonhuman life, 52 of nature, 48–49 of species, 50, 51 Introduction to Cybernetics (Ashby), intuitions, ix invention, four stages of, 20–21 involuntary sterilization, 92 irrigation, 19 Islam, 167n40, 191n16 Jesus, 78, 152–53 John Paul II, 104, 136 Jonas, Hans, 101, 127, 128 Joy, Bill, 30–31 Judeo-Christian worldview, x, 17, 29–30, 47, 189n1 See also Christian theism Juengst, Eric, 119 justice commutative, 127 criminal, 45–46 Kant, Immanuel, 63–64, 65, 67, 77, 80 Kass, Leon R., 67, 101–3, 113 Kaye, Howard L., 40–41 Kelly, Kevin, 41–42 killing, 74, 83–85, 96 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 182–83n35 Kline, Nathan S., knowledge, 23, 45, 134, 147 Kolata, Gina, 99–100 Krimsky, Sheldon, 50 Kristol, William, 32–33 Kuhse, Helga, 172n53 Kurzweil, Ray, 42, 43–44, 62, 170–71n35 Landweber, Laura, 10 Lapp culture, 16–17, 28 Lappe, Marc, 49–50 law enhancement technologies and, 127 16334$ INDX ethics and, 100, 182–83n35 natural, 55 of nature, 36 Lewis, C S., 1, 27, 33, 126 libertarians, pragmatic, 34 life commodification of, 139–40, 149 eternal, 81–82 extending, 110 purpose of, 49–50 shared, 108 unworthy of, 106, 184n53 wrongful, 96 Lindee, Susan M., 39 Locke, John, 18–19, 63 locked-in syndrome, longevity, 11 Lovin, Robin W., 89, 178n3 Luke, 77–78 Luther, Martin, 88, 89, 108 machines See also robotics biological, 128–29 communication with, evolution of, 21 human beings as, 41–44 integration with humans, 20–21 Mackie, J L., 47–48 Macklin, Ruth, 63, 131 made-to-order microbes, 129 Mano, Nicholas, 10 Mao, Fei, 10 materialism, scientific See philosophical naturalism materials science, 128 material world, 53–54 mathematics, 10 Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, McCartney, James J., 112, 113 media, on cloning, 98, 101 medical good, 125, 129, 132–33 medicine biotechnology and, 111–12 clinical, 117–18, 129 03-23-07 13:34:21 PS PAGE 205 206 Index medicine (continued ) ends of, 112, 116–18, 119–20, 121, 129, 135 enhancement technologies and, xi, 118, 119–20, 122–23 future of, 12–13 goals and purpose of, xi, 117–18 social, 116–17 melancholia, 134 memory augmentation, 2–3, 6–7 mental disabilities, 95–96, 115–16 metals, 10–11 metaphysical realism, 53–54 metaphysics, 45 microbes, 129, 144 mind–body connection, 42–43 miniaturization, Mirandola, Pico della, 63 Miss Digital World, 142 Modafinil, 120 molecular biology, 40–41, 170n23 molecular engineering, Monsma, Steven V., 23–24, 27, 148 Montemagno, Carlo, moral accountability, 127 morality Christian theism on, 44, 55 enhancement technologies and, 127 human dignity and, 63–64 limiting technology and, 111 philosophical naturalism and, 37– 38, 45–47 moral perfection, 133 Mosaic Law, 54 Mumford, Lewis, 20–21, 143, 157–58 Murphy, Edmond A., 115 nanotechnology bottom-up approach to, definition of, environmental impact of, 144–45 goals of, 128–29 overview of, 7–11 16334$ potential uses for, 8–9 for reengineering, 3–4 top-down approach to, Nanotechnology Research and Development Act (2003), nanowires, carbon, narcissism, 140 narcolepsy, 120 narratives axe, 18 cosmological, 33 recovery, 21–22, 23 second-creation, ix–x, 17–21, 22– 23, 28–29 wilderness tale, 22, 23 National Nanotechnology Initiative, the natural, 103–7 naturalism, philosophical See philosophical naturalism natural law, 55 natural resources, 23, 138 nature control of, 87, 110, 151 environmental biocentrism and, 48–49 exploitation of, 21, 22, 138, 189n1 grace and, 105 intrinsic value of, 48–49 laws of, 36 manipulation of, 20 perfection of, 23 Nazi Germany, 61–62, 92, 106, 184n53 neighbors, 75, 108 Nelkin, Dorothy, 39 neobiological civilization, 41–42 neotechnic era, 20 nervous system, 4–5, 43–44 Netherlands, 84 neurochips, 5, 150 neuroethics, 130 neuronal network, neurosciences, cognitive, 42–43 INDX 03-23-07 13:34:21 PS PAGE 206 207 Index The New Genesis (Cole-Turner), 28–29 nonhuman animals, 52, 62, 79 Nouwen, Henri J M., 157 Nye, David E., ix–x, 17–19, 21 objective health, 114–15 O’Brien, Jim, 22 off-label prescriptions, 120 ‘‘On Cloning Humans, Never Turns Swiftly into Why Not’’ (Kolata), 99–100 Oregon, physician-assisted suicide, 58 Osler, William, 111 Oxford English Dictionary, 119 paleotechnics, 20 Pannenberg, Wolfhart, 138, 189n1 paradise, 134 parent–child bond, 103 parenting, 140 Pascal, Blaise, 63 patients, 133 See also physician– patient relationship Paul (Apostle), 26 Pelto, Pertti J., 16, 17 perfection bodily, 91–92, 107, 133, 142, 153, 179–80n11 Christian, 151–52 of nature, 23 self, 143 spiritual and moral, 133 standard for, 13 personhood, 39, 45 Petroski, Henry, 26 Pfeiffer, Michelle, 141–42 philosophical anthropology, 132 philosophical naturalism, x, 36–48 on death, 55 description of, 34, 36–38, 168n8 genetic technologies and, 38–41 limitations of, 44–48, 57 physicalism, 34, 38, 46 16334$ INDX physician-assisted suicide, 58, 84, 183n38 physician–patient relationship, 129–31 physicians See also medicine Christian, 131–35 cyborg, 12–13 as enhancement therapists, 122, 123 Hippocratic, 113, 117 robotic, 12–13 Pontifical Academy for Life, 101 posthuman beings definition of, 42 ends of medicine and, 129 evolution of, 41 human dignity and, 62, 80 reengineering to, 11, 139 super enhancement and, 133–35 technology and, 139 postmodernism, 62, 67, 80, 85 pragmatic libertarians, 34 prenatal testing, 96–97, 99 prescriptions, off-label, 120 President’s Council on Bioethics, 111, 119, 130 productivity, 28 Project Cyborg 2.0, vii property, labor acquisition of, 18–19 proteins, 10–11 Protestant ethics, 104–6 prothesis, viii, Psalm 139, 77 psychosocial disorders, 115–16 quality of life, 28 railroads, 19 Ramsey, Paul, 87 rarity, 21 realism, metaphysical, 53–54 reality, 36, 44, 45 reason, 63–65, 67, 132 recovery narrative, 21–22, 23 re-creation, 74–76, 81–82 03-23-07 13:34:21 PS PAGE 207 208 Index ‘‘The Recycled Generation’’ (Hall), 97–98 redemption, 133–35 reductionism epistemological, 37 genetic, 39–41 mind–body connection and, 42–43 reengineering as co-creation, 28 cybernetics for, 3–4 debate over, 33 ethical issues in, 13 humans as machines and, 42 level of technology for, 128 medicine and, 124–25 nanotechnology for, 3–4 for physical immortality, 149–50 into posthuman beings, 11, 139 purpose of, 139 social factors in, 12 Rees, Martin, 134 reindeer, 16–17 Reinders, Hans S., 95, 96 relative freedom, 105 remaking humans See reengineering reproductive freedom, 100 reproductive technology, assisted, 140 repugnance, wisdom of, 101–3 resource allocation, 82, 127–28, 141, 144–45 respect, 58–59, 60, 63 responsibility, moral, 45–47 responsible stewardship of creation, 25–26 for the environment, 57 human dominion and, 51–52 Islam on, 167n40 for technology, 23–31, 138, 155 resurrection, 150, 153 retinas, artificial, ribonucleic acid (RNA), 10 Rifkin, Jeremy, 33 rights, 52, 55, 106–7 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 10 16334$ robotics, vii, viii, 12–13 Rorty, Richard, 62, 63 Ryder, Richard D., 172n53 Samson, 153 Schuurman, Egbert, 144, 148 science, 144, 147–48 scientific materialism See philosophical naturalism scientific method, 147–48 scientism, 37, 147–48 scientized anthropocentrism, 103 second-creation narrative, ix–x, 17– 21, 22–23, 28–29 secular humanists, 131 segregation, 182–83n35 self-esteem, 11 self-overcoming projects, 90–94 self-perfection, 143 sheep, cloned, 99–100 Shiva, Vandana, 50 Shu, Dan, 10 sickness, defined, 116 silicon chip implants, vii–viii, 6–7 silicon-neuronal junction, sin, 147, 153 Singer, Peter, 52, 172n53 The Singularity Is Near (Kurzweil), 44 Sinsheimer, Robert L., 99 Sirach, 135 Sisti, Dominic A., 112 Skinner, B F., 62 Skolt Lapps, 16–17, 28 slavery, 61–62 snowmobiles, 16–17, 28 social imagination, 97 social medicine, 116–17 socioeconomic factors choices and, 146 enhancement technologies and, 11, 12, 122, 125–26 in goals for medicine, 117–18 philosophical naturalism and, 45–47 INDX 03-23-07 13:34:22 PS PAGE 208 209 Index in reengineering, 12 of technological change, 16–17, 155 soldiers, cyborg, viii, special needs children, 94–97 species intrinsic value of, 50, 51 reengineering, 124–25 speciesism, 52, 79, 172n53 spirituality, 49, 133 Stanley, Garrett B., stem cell research, embryonic, 84, 97–98, 156 Stenmark, Mikael, 147 sterilization, involuntary, 92 stewardship See responsible stewardship Stock, Gregory, 33 subjective health, 114–15 suicide, physician-assisted, 58, 84, 183n38 surveys, 155, 192n25 syncretism, 155 synthetic biology, 129 Taylor, Charles, 91, 179–80n11 technicism, 148 Technics and Civilization (Mumford), 20–21 techno-exhilaration, viii technological imperative, 26–27, 143–44 technology See also biotechnology benefits of, 61, 149, 156 biblical anthropology of, 25–27 choices about, 24, 30 Christian communities and, 109 Christian theology and, 136 cost-benefit analysis for, 156 definition of, viii, 24 environmental impact of, 138, 144, 189n1 evaluating consequences of, 12–14 foundation stories for, 17–23 four stages of invention, 20–21 16334$ INDX framework for, 154–56 goals and purpose of, 15, 139–44 hidden costs of, 15–17 limitations of, 150 moral constraint for, 111 narratives for, ix–x, 17 as a qualified good, 15 questions for, 137–45 recovery narrative of, 21–22, 23 reproductive, 140 responsible stewardship for, 23–31, 138, 155 role of, as savior, 148 second-creation narrative for, ix–x, 17–21, 22–23, 28–29 socioeconomic factors and, 16–17, 155 teleological, 15, 24 values and, 15 wilderness tale of, 22, 23 Technology and Human Becoming (Hefner), 139 techno-vertigo, viii Teitel, Martin, 50–51 teleologies, 15, 24, 153 Tenner, Edward, 15 theology, 154–56, 190n3, 192n25 See also Christian theism therapy, 117, 118, 119–21 ‘‘The Theological Task and Theological Method’’ (Williams), 154 Thomson, Judith Jarvis, 89–90, 178–79n4 tissue reconstruction, tissues, human, 146 tool making, viii, 1, 26 towers of Babel, 27 transhumanism Christianity and, 134 definition of, 43 evolution to, 41 goals of, 11 liabilities and limitations of, 150 medicine and, 129 03-23-07 13:34:23 PS PAGE 209 210 Index transportation, 19, 30 Tribe, Laurence H., 100 truth beauty and, 183n41 Christian theism on, 54 correspondence view of, 172n55 objective, 54 tselem, 69–70, 71 twentieth century history, 147 United Nations, 58, 59, 68, 131 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations), 58, 59, 131 Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights (UNESCO), 68 the universe, 42 unnatural, vs natural, 105 uploading, 43 utilitarianism, 61, 80 utility, 24 utopia, 15, 110, 143 values See also intrinsic value ecological set of, 50–51 economic, 91 objective truth of, 54 philosophical naturalism and, 47–48 technology and, 15 vertigo, techno-, viii violinist analogy, 89–90, 178–79n4 viral RNA, 10 virtual reality, 5–6, 44 virtues, 60 vision, 5–6 Walker, Timothy, 18 Warwick, Irena, vii 16334$ Warwick, Kevin, vii–viii, 29 water power, and the eotechnic era, 19, 20 Watson, James, 40 Weaver, Richard, 32 Weiner, Norman, 4–7 White, Lynn Jr., 110, 111 wilderness tale, 22, 23 Williams, Stephen, 154 ‘‘willing’’ cyborgs, 126 Wilson, E O., 37, 62 Wilson, Kimberly A., 50–51 wind power, and the eotechnic era, 20 wisdom-formed communities, 108–9 wisdom of repugnance, 101–3 wood, and the eotechnic era, 20 World Health Organization, 113 worldviews biotechnology and, x, 33–35, 57 Christian theism, 34–35, 53–57 corporate, 49–50 definition of, 35–36 of ecological irresponsibility, 138 environmental biocentrism, 34, 48–52 as faith commitments, 168n7 Judeo-Christian, x, 17, 29–30, 47, 189n1 philosophical naturalism, x, 34, 36–48 types of, 34 Worrall, J., 114 wrongful life, 96 Wrubel, Roger, 50 Zallen, Doris T., 91–92 Zizioulas, John, 146 INDX 03-23-07 13:34:23 PS PAGE 210 ... to humankind— everything belongs to Him As the Psalmist says: ‘? ?The earth is the Lord’s and the fullness thereof, the world and those who dwell therein, for he has founded it upon the seas and. .. him in the Garden of Eden to work it and keep it And the Lord God commanded the man, saying, ‘‘You may surely eat of every tree of the Garden, but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil... upon the rivers’’ (Ps 24:1, New Revised Standard Version translation) Furthermore, from the beginning, humankind was commanded to ‘‘be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it and