THE OXFORD HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE T. C. W. BLANNING Editor OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS THE OXFORD HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE the editor T. C. W. Blanning is Professor of Modern European History at the University of Cambridge. THE OXFORD HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE edited by T. C. W. BLANNING 1 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogotá Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Paris São Paulo Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw with associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press 2000 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (makers) First published 1996 First issued as The Oxford History of the Modern Europe 2000 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organisation. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available ISBN 0–19–285371–6 2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1 Typeset by Cambrian Typesetters, Frimley, Surrey Printed in Great Britain by Cox & Wyman Ltd Reading, Berkshire CONTENTS list of plates vii list of maps ix list of contributors x Introduction t. c. w. blanning 1 1. Revolution from Above and Below: European Politics from the French Revolution to the First World War 15 john roberts 2. The Industrialization of Modern Europe, 1750–1914 46 clive trebilcock 3. Military Modernization, 1789–1918 76 hew strachan 4. From Orders to Classes: European Society in the Nineteenth Century 101 pamela pilbeam 5. The Commercialization and Sacralization of European Culture in the Nineteenth Century 126 t. c. w. blanning 6. The Great Civil War: European Politics, 1914–1945 153 paul preston 7. The Fall and Rise of the European Economy in the Twentieth Century 186 harold james 8. Warfare in Europe since 1918 214 richard overy 9. European Society in the Twentieth Century 234 richard bessel 10. From Modernism to Post-Modernism 260 martin jay 11. Europe Divided and Reunited, 1945–1995 282 david reynolds further reading 307 chronology 334 maps 355 index 369 vi Contents LIST OF PLATES 1. Parisian National Guard battalions Giraudon 2. St Petersburg, 1905 AKG Berlin 3. Le Creusot ironworks Mary Evans Picture Library 4. Zeppelin and fleet Hulton Picture Co. 5. Despatch Hall, Hamburg Harbour, 1900 AKG Berlin 6. Over London by Rail, Doré Mansell Collection 7. The Sleep of Reason Begets Monsters, Goya AKG London 8. At the Railway, Perov Novosti 9. Hitler and Mussolini Range/Bettman 10. Lodz station AKG London 11. Worker’s march, Jarrow, 1936 Popperfoto 12. Ruins of Dresden, Germany AKG London 13. Migrant workers, Stuttgart, 1970s Jean Mohr, Geneva 14. Le Corbusier, Villa Savoye, Poissy, 1927-31 Tim Benton 15. Berlin Wall, 1989 Photo: REX Features 16. Pope John Paul II Topham Picture Library viii List of Plates LIST OF MAPS Map 1. Europe in 1789 356 Map 2. Europe in 1815 358 Map 3. Europe in 1914 360 Map 4. Europe between the Wars 362 Map 5. Europe after 1945 364 Map 6. Europe in 1995 366 [...]... Professor of History at Royal Holloway and Bedford New College, University of London Paul Preston is Professor of International History at the London School of Economics and Political Science Harold James is Professor of History at Princeton University Rchard Overy is Professor of History, King’s College London Richard Bessel is Professor of History at the University of York Martin Jay is Professor of. ..LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS T C W Blanning is Professor of Modern European History at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Sidney Sussex College John Roberts was Warden of Merton College, Oxford, until his retirement in 1994 Clive Trebilcock is Reader in History at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Pembroke College Hew Strachan is Professor of Modern History at the University of Glasgow... associations The nineteenth century was the heyday of hidden explanations and plot theories, for there were overt grounds for alarm aplenty The conscious imitation, invocation, even re-enactment of the events of the 1790s provided the stock-in-trade of French politicians of the left throughout the century In the greatest urban rising of the age, the Paris Commune of 1871, memory fatally dogged the language... ‘Like the would-be reformers of the ancien régime, Gorbachev had sown the wind and reaped the whirlwind.’ Alas, the euphoria of the liberated peoples of eastern Europe was no longer lived than that of their ancestors of 1789 Few areas have escaped impoverishment, social collapse, and civil war Predicting whether these are the birth-pangs of a new, peaceful, and integrated Europe, or whether they herald... which of the rich variety of social changes charted and analysed by Bessel has been the most radical Has it been the separation of sex from reproduction and the plummeting size of families; or the ever-increasing proportion of retired people; or the final emergence of the self-contained ‘nuclear family’; or the equally final victory of urbanization; or the disappearance of domestic service and the rise of. .. 14 Introduction EEC The division of Europe was then completed in 1955 with West German rearmament and admission to NATO The intensity of the Cold War could only diminish when Europe recovered and the two superpowers experienced problems of their own So the Vietnamese war and the short-lived Czech rising of 1968 led to détente Yet the thaw of the 1970s did not melt the frontiers On the contrary, mutual... only made them more rigid It was the ending of détente in the wake of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the Polish crisis of 1980–1 that precipitated the final crisis of what the new American president, Ronald Reagan, dubbed the evil empire’ With their satraps now denied the western loans which had kept their archaic ‘heavy metal’ economies afloat, the Soviets had to pay the bill themselves... ways by the astonishing military success achieved by the Prussians between 1864 and 1871 On the 6 Introduction positive side, it was their use of the general staff which gave them a decisive edge over their opponents On the other hand, their complacent belief in the absolute superiority of their professional army paved the way for eventual disaster in 1918 This is not the only constant feature of European... It was they who combined quantity with quality to put their cultural stamp on the period If most people got richer during the course of the century, the gap between rich and poor widened In my own chapter, on the culture of Europe in the nineteenth century, I also examine the impact of modernity on the traditional world Already under way by the late eighteenth century, the transformation of the representational... interpreters of the national will? Was there really nothing that lay outside the scope of that will? For what were the claims of the individual to count? Were they to be those of possessors of historic rights (soon stigmatized as ‘privilege’) or those of morally autonomous beings? What of the claims of God—or at least of his Church, whose ‘eldest daughter’ was France? These questions (and others) were . THE OXFORD HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE T. C. W. BLANNING Editor OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS THE OXFORD HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE the editor T. C. W. Blanning is Professor of Modern European History. Press 2000 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (makers) First published 1996 First issued as The Oxford History of the Modern Europe 2000 All. Reader in History at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Pembroke College. Hew Strachan is Professor of Modern History at the University of Glasgow. Pamela Pilbeam is Professor of History