handbook of seafood quality, safety, and health applications

Handbook of Seafood Quality, Safety and Health ApplicationsEdited by Associate Professor Cesarettin Alasalvar T ¨ UB˙ITAK Marmara Research Centre Food Institute, Turkey Professor Fereido

Handbook of Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications

Handbook of Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications

Edited by

Associate Professor Cesarettin Alasalvar

T ¨ UB˙ITAK Marmara Research Centre Food Institute, Turkey

Professor Fereidoon Shahidi

Department of Biochemistry Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada

Professor Kazuo Miyashita

Faculty of Fisheries Sciences Hokkaido University, Japan

This edition firs published 2011
C 2011 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of seafood quality, safety, and health applications / edited by Cesarettin Alasalvar [et al.].

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4051-8070-2 (hardback : alk paper) 1 Seafood–Health aspects 2 Fish as food.

3 Seafood–Safety measures 4 Fishery processing I Alasalvar, Cesarettin.

QP144.F56H36 2010

363.19  26–dc22

2010007707

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF (9781444325553); Wiley Online Library (9781444325546)

Set in 10/12 pt Times by Aptara
R Inc., New Delhi, India

1 2011

1 Seafood quality, safety, and health applications: an overview 1

Cesarettin Alasalvar, Fereidoon Shahidi, Kazuo Miyashita, andUdaya Wanasundara

PART I SEAFOOD QUALITY

2 Practical evaluation of fis quality by objective, subjective,

Cesarettin Alasalvar, John M Grigor, and Zulfiqu Ali

3.3 Pre-harvest factors affecting freshness 343.4 Post-harvest factors affecting freshness 343.5 Environmental taints 353.6 Extending freshness and shelf-life in fis 37

4 Sensometric and chemometric approaches to seafood fl vour 39

Kae Morita and Tetsuo Aishima

4.2 Sensometric approach to seafood fl vour 404.3 Chemometric approach to seafood fl vour 414.3.1 Experimental designs and optimization 414.3.2 Pattern recognition 424.3.3 Multivariate regression analysis 43

4.3.3.3 Fried chicken 444.3.3.4 Cooked fish sweet, canned tuna, and roasted

4.3.4 Compound-sensory mapping 46

Hun Kim and Keith R Cadwallader

5.2 Isolation of volatile fl vour compounds 515.2.1 Headspace sampling 515.2.1.1 Static headspace sampling 515.2.1.2 Dynamic headspace sampling 545.2.1.3 Solid phase microextraction 545.2.1.4 Sorptive extraction 545.2.2 Solvent extraction and distillation extractions 555.2.2.1 Direct solvent extraction 555.2.2.2 Steam distillation extraction 555.2.2.3 High vacuum distillation extraction 565.3 Instrumental analysis of volatile fl vour compounds 565.3.1 Gas chromatography 565.3.1.1 Gas chromatography-olfactometry

(sensory-directed analytical techniques) 565.3.1.2 Multidimensional gas chromatography 595.3.2 Mass spectrometry 595.3.2.1 High resolution mass spectrometry 595.3.2.2 Selected ion monitoring mass spectrometry 605.3.2.3 Chemical ionization mass spectrometry 605.3.2.4 Negative chemical ionization mass spectrometry 60

6 Quality assessment of aquatic foods by machine vision, electronic nose,

Figen Korel and Murat ¨O Balaban

Jeong-Ho Sohn and Toshiaki Ohshima

8.2 Quantitative determination methodology of total lipidhydroperoxides by a fl w injection analysis system 97

8.3 Lipid oxidation in ordinary and dark muscle of fis 988.4 Effects of bleeding and perfusion of yellowtail on post-mortem lipid

oxidation of ordinary and dark muscles 102

9 Blackening of crustaceans during storage: mechanism and prevention 109

Kohsuke Adachi and Takashi Hirata

9.2 Phylogenetic position of prawns: the relation of PO and Hc 1109.3 Biosynthetic pathway of melanin 1119.4 Significanc of melanisation in arthropods: pre-harvest and

9.5 Biochemical characterisation of proPO and PO 1129.6 The relationship of PO and melanogenesis in prawns 1139.7 Hemocyanin and its enzymatic activation 1149.8 The relationship of frozen storage and blackening 1169.9 Prevention of melanosis in prawns 117

12 Quality and safety of packaging materials for aquatic products 139

T.K Srinivasa Gopal and C.N Ravi Shankar

12.2 Packaging materials 13912.2.1 Glass containers 139

12.2.9 Polyamides (nylon) 14312.2.10 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 143

12.2.13 Aluminium foil 14412.3 Packaging requirements for fis products 14412.3.1 Packaging of fresh fis 14412.3.2 For bulk packaging 14412.3.3 Modifie atmosphere packaging (MAP) 14512.3.4 Packaging of frozen fis 14512.3.5 Packaging of surimi 14612.3.6 Battered and breaded products 14712.3.7 Packaging of dried fisher products 14712.3.8 Packaging of canned fis 14712.3.9 Ready to serve fis products in retortable pouches 148

13.3 Manufacture of fis mince and cryostabilization 15813.3.1 Manufacture of fis mince 158

13.3.1.1 Manufacture of fis mince from ground

13.4.1 Ingredients and processing methods on texture 16513.4.2 Freeze-thaw stability of uncooked mince-based

13.4.3 Colour management 16713.4.4 Flavour enhancement 16713.4.5 Application of surimi-fis mince blend in fis cake and

15 An emerging powerful technique: NMR applications on quality

Somer Bekiro˘glu

15.2 Low-fiel (time-domain) NMR applications 18215.2.1 Water, lipids, and others 18215.2.2 On-line and off-line applications: quality

Contents xi

15.3 High-fiel NMR applications 18415.3.1 Quantitative NMR applications and chemical

15.3.2 Fingerprinting 18615.3.3 The future: fis metabon(l)omics 18715.3.4 NMR and authenticity 18715.4 Projections on MRI applications 188

PART II SEAFOOD SAFETY

16 Food-borne pathogens in seafood and their control 197

Dominic Kasujja Bagenda and Koji Yamazaki

16.2 Major food-borne pathogens related to seafood 19816.3 Current trends in control of seafood-borne pathogens 19916.3.1 Biological methods of controlling pathogens in seafood 19916.3.2 Physical and chemical methods of controlling pathogens

16.3.3 Hurdle technology for controlling pathogens in seafood 203

17 Novel approaches in seafood preservation techniques 206

Fatih ¨Ozogul, Yesim ¨Ozogul, and Esmeray Kuley Boga

17.2 Seafood preservation techniques 20617.2.1 Modifie atmosphere packaging (MAP) 20617.2.2 Irradiation technology 20717.2.3 Ozone (O3) preservation technique 20817.2.4 Physical preservation methods 209

17.2.4.1 Pulsed electric field (PEF) 20917.2.4.2 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation 20917.2.4.3 Oscillatory magnetic field (OMF) 21017.2.4.4 High pressure processing (HPP) 21017.2.5 Ultrasound as a preservation technology 21117.2.6 High intensity light 211

18 Essential oils: natural antimicrobials for fis preservation 217

Barakat S.M Mahmoud and Kazuo Miyashita

18.2 Essential oils 21718.2.1 Chemistry of essential oils 21718.2.2 Active components of essential oils 21818.2.3 Bacterial sensitivity to essential oils and their

18.2.4 Phenolic compounds 21818.3 Application of essential oils to fis preservation 21918.3.1 Effect of essential oils on fis spoilage bacteria 21918.3.2 Effect of essential oils on shelf-life of fis 22018.3.3 Antimicrobial effect of combined treatment of essential

oils with other antimicrobial agents 221

19 Rapid methods for the identificatio of seafood micro-organisms 226

Brian H Himelbloom, Alexandra C.M Oliveira, andThombathu S Shetty

19.2 Non-molecular (phenotyping) 22619.2.1 Analytab products (api
R) 226

19.2.3 Microbial Identificatio Inc (MIDI) 22719.2.4 Limitations for phenotypic identificatio of seafood and

aquaculture bacteria 22719.3 Molecular (genotyping) 22819.3.1 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real-time or

quantitative PCR (qPCR) 22819.3.2 Molecular subtyping techniques 22819.3.3 Commercially-available systems 23119.3.4 Polyphasic taxonomy 231

Ferruh Erdo˘gdu and Murat ¨O Balaban

21.3 Numerical solutions 25321.4 A numerical model for shrimp cooking 253

Jenn-Kan Lu, Jen-Leih Wu, and Meng-Tsan Chiang

22.2 Methodology of gene transfer in fis 26122.2.1 Microinjection 26222.2.2 Electroporation 26222.2.3 Viral-mediated gene transfer (VMGT) 26222.2.4 The fate of the transgene 26322.2.5 Why study gene transfer in aquatic animals? 26422.2.6 Applications of gene transfer technique in aquaculture 26522.3 Food safety of transgenic fis 26622.3.1 General concept 26622.3.2 The gene product 26722.4 Regulations of transgenic animals including aquatic animals 26922.4.1 Environmental issues 26922.4.2 Human health issues 270

Iddya Karunasagar and Indrani Karunasagar

23.2 Probe hybridisation methods 27523.3 Nucleic acid amplificatio methods 27823.3.1 Detection of bacterial pathogens 27823.3.2 Detection of viral pathogens 28223.3.3 Detection of parasites 28223.3.4 Real-time PCR assays 28323.3.5 DNA microarray assays 284

Rosalee S Rasmussen and Michael T Morrissey

Beraat ¨Ozc¸elik, ¨Umran Uygun, and Banu Bayram

25.3 Aquaculture practices as a source of persistent contaminants 30825.4 Factors affecting the occurrence of PEPs in seafood 31025.5 Risk assessment and regulations 31025.6 Policies to reduce exposure to PEPs 311

26 Oxidation and stability of food-grade fis oil: role of antioxidants 317

Weerasinghe M Indrasena and Colin J Barrow

Contents xv

26.2 Process of oxidation 317

26.2.1.1 Initiation 31826.2.1.2 Propagation 31826.2.1.3 Termination 31826.2.2 Photooxidation 31826.3 Factors affecting the rate of lipid oxidation 319

26.3.5.6 Non lipid components in food 32126.4 Food-grade fis oil 32126.5 Control of lipid oxidation and improvement of the stability

26.5.1 Careful handling and storage 32226.5.2 Inhibiting oxidation 322

26.5.2.1 Inhibiting photooxidation 32226.5.2.2 Inhibiting autoxidation 325

26.7 Selection of an antioxidant 331

Ioannis S Arvanitoyannis and Persefoni Tserkezou

27.2 Global legislation in fis and fisher products 33527.2.1 EU legislation 33527.2.2 US legislation 33827.2.3 Canadian legislation 341

27.2.4 Australian legislation 34327.2.5 Japanese legislation 344

PART III HEALTH APPLICATIONS OF SEAFOOD

29 Health benefit associated with seafood consumption 369

Maria Leonor Nunes, Narcisa Maria Bandarra, and Irineu Batista

of fis myofibrilla protein 385

Sachindra M Nakkarike, Bhaskar Narayan, Masashi Hosokawa, and KazuoMiyashita

31.2 Enzymes from seafood discards 39031.3 Protein hydrolysate and bioactive peptides from seafood discards 39231.4 Collagen and gelatin from fis discards 39331.5 Chitin and chitosan from crustacean discards 39431.6 Carotenoids from crustacean discards 395

32.2.2 Traditional marine products as a good source of

anti-obesity PUFA, EPA, and DHA 40432.3 Anti-obesity effect of histidine 405

33 Microencapsulation, nanoencapsulation, edible film and coating

Subramaniam Sathivel and Don Kramer

33.2 Application of microencapsulation technology in fis oil 41433.3 Nanoencapsulated fis oil 41633.4 Edible fil and coating applications in seafood 417

Bonnie Sun Pan

35.2 Chemical compositions 43335.2.1 Proximate composition 433

35.2.3 Extractive nitrogenous compounds 43435.2.4 Lipid and sterols 43435.3 Functional activities 43535.3.1 Antioxidative activity 43535.3.2 Hypolipidemia and hypocholesterolemia activity 43535.3.3 Immunity regulation activity 43635.3.4 Anti-cancer activity 43835.3.5 Hepatoprotective activity 43835.4 Functional clam products 439

35.4.2 Clam hydrolysates 439

35.4.2.1 Antioxidative activities 44035.4.2.2 ACE-inhibitory activities 440

Fereidoon Shahidi and Cesarettin Alasalvar

36.2 Specialty and nutraceutical lipids 44436.3 Bioactive peptides and proteins from marine resources 44736.4 Chitin, chitosan, chitosan oligomers, and glucosamine 448

36.7 Minerals and calcium 45036.8 Shark cartilage, chondroitin sulphate, and squalene 45136.9 Other nutraceuticals from marine resources 451

Contents xix

37 Nutraceuticals and bioactives from marine algae 455

S.P.J Namal Senanayake, Naseer Ahmed, and Jaouad Fichtali

38 Preparative and industrial-scale isolation and purificatio of omega-3

38.2.6.1 Lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis 47038.2.6.2 Lipase-catalyzed esterificatio 47138.2.7 Urea complexation method 472

40 Bioactive peptides from seafood and their health effects 485

Anusha G.P Samaranayaka and Eunice C.Y Li-Chan

40.2 Sources of bioactive peptides from seafood 48540.2.1 Enzymatic production of protein hydrolysates 48540.2.2 Formation of bioactive peptides by food processing and

gastrointestinal (GI) digestion 48740.2.3 Endogenous bioactive peptides from seafood 487

40.3 Potential health benefit of bioactive peptides derived from

40.3.1 Antihypertensive peptides 48740.3.2 Antioxidative peptides 48840.3.3 Immunomodulatory peptides 48840.3.4 Neuroactive peptides 48840.3.5 Hormonal and hormone-regulating peptides 48940.3.6 Antimicrobial peptides 48940.3.7 Other bioactive peptides from seafood 48940.4 Current and future applications 490

41 Antioxidative properties of fis protein hydrolysates 494

Sivakumar Raghavan, Hordur G Kristinsson, Gudjon Thorkelsson, andRagnar Johannsson

41.2 FPH as food antioxidants 49541.2.1 Effect of enzymes on antioxidative activity 49541.2.2 Size of peptides on antioxidative activity 49741.2.3 Composition of FPH 49741.2.4 Inhibition of primary and secondary lipid oxidation

41.2.5 Reducing power, radical scavenging, and metal chelating

41.3 Sensory attributes of FPH 50041.3.1 Effect of hydrolysis on fl vour 50041.3.2 Effect of enzymes on fl vour profil 50041.3.3 Processing techniques to reduce off-fl vours and odours

41.4 Physiological and bioactive properties of FPH 50241.4.1 Antiproliferative activity and reparative role of FPH 50241.4.2 Immunomodulatory role of FPH 502

42 Functional and nutraceutical ingredients from marine macroalgae 508

Tao Wang, Guðr´un ´Olafsd´ottir, R´osa J´onsd´ottir, Hordur G Kristinsson, andRagnar Johannsson

Contents xxi

42.2.2.2 Antioxidant mechanism and

structure-antioxidant activity relationship ofalgal polyphenols 51242.2.3 Other biological activities of algal polyphenols 512

42.2.3.1 Angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE)

inhibitory properties of algal polyphenols 51342.2.3.2 Human immunodeficien y virus (HIV)

inhibitory properties of algal polyphenols 51342.3 Functional and nutraceutical properties of sulphated

polysaccharides from marine algae 51342.3.1 Antioxidant activity of sulphated polysaccharides 51442.3.2 Other functional properties of sulphated

42.3.2.1 Anticoagulant activities of sulphated

polysaccharides 51442.3.2.2 Anti-tumour activities of sulphated

polysaccharides 51542.3.2.3 Antiviral activities of sulphated

polysaccharides 51542.4 Functional and nutraceutical properties of fucoxanthin from

42.4.1 Antioxidant activities of fucoxanthin 51642.4.2 Anti-obesity effects of fucoxanthin 51742.5 Functional and nutraceutical properties of sterols from marine algae 51742.5.1 Antioxidant activities of sterols from marine algae 51742.5.2 Anti-diabetic activities of sterols from marine algae 51742.6 Functional and nutraceutical properties of bioactive peptides from

43 Seafood enzymes and their potential industrial application 522

Swapna C Hathwar, Amit K Rai, Sachindra M Nakkarike, and BhaskarNarayan

43.2 Types of seafood enzymes and their applications 52343.2.1 Protein-degrading enzymes 523

43.2.1.1 Applications of proteases 52343.2.2 Lipid-degrading enzymes 527

43.2.2.2 Phospholipases (PL) 52843.2.2.3 Applications of lipases and their role in

seafood quality 52843.2.3 Carbohydrate-degrading enzymes 529

43.2.3.1 Alginate lyases 529

43.2.3.2 Chitinase 52943.2.3.3 Applications of carbohydrate-degrading

43.2.4 Miscellaneous enzymes 531

43.2.4.1 Lipoxygenase (LOX) 53143.2.4.2 Myosin ATPases 53143.2.4.3 Polyphenol oxidases (PPO) 53143.2.4.4 Transglutaminase (TG) 53143.2.4.5 Applications of miscellaneous enzymes 532

There has been a growing demand for seafoods due to their perceived health benefitsSeafoods are highly nutritious and provide a wide range of health-promoting compounds.Safety and quality are two main issues when considering seafoods, since they are highlyperishable products, hence special attention should be paid from the time of the catch tothe time they are prepared for food and consumed Safety and freshness/quality of seafoodscan be measured by sensory, non-sensory (chemical/biochemical, physico-chemical, andmicrobiological/biological), and statistical methods During the last decade, the situationhas changed dramatically in the seafood area and there has been a rapid development inthe fiel for all three mentioned techniques, some of which are rapid and non-destructive innature

The marine ecosystem is the richest source of life, accounting for more than 80% ofliving organisms Therefore, utilisation of marine resources (fish marine mammals, micro-and macroalgae, shellfish and invertebrates) for the development of nutraceuticals andfunctional foods is a daunting and challenging task Marine-based nutraceuticals are gainingrecognition due to their unique features, which are not found in terrestrial-based bioresources.For example, fish marine mammals, and algae are the richest sources of long-chain omega-3polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoicacid (DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which play an important role for healthpromotion and disease risk reduction There are over 8,000 published papers on the healthbenefit of EPA, DPA, and DHA The role of omega-3 PUFA, in a wide range of productsand in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and in the development and function of thebrain, has been well demonstrated

This book is divided into three sections preceded by an introductory chapter (Chapter 1)providing an overview of seafood quality, safety, and health applications The firs section(Chapters 2–15) describes different aspects of seafood quality; the second section (Chapters16–28) covers the safety of seafoods; and the fina section (Chapters 29–43) discusses thehealth applications of seafood products, particularly marine nutraceuticals and functionalfoods Contributing to this volume are internationally renowned researchers who haveprovided a diverse and global perspective of the issues of concern to seafood quality, safety,and health applications The book will serve as a resource for those interested in the potentialapplication of new developments in marine nutraceuticals and functional foods, as well asthe role of science and technology in ensuring safety and quality Biochemists, chemists,food scientists/technologists, nutritionists, health professionals, and marine technologists,from academia, government laboratories, and industry will benefi from this publication.Although this book is intended primarily as a reference book, it also summarises the currentstate of knowledge in key research areas and contains ideas for future work In addition, itprovides easy-to-read text suitable for teaching advanced undergraduate and post-graduatecourses

We are indebted to the participating authors for their state-of-the-art contributions and ication in providing authoritative views resulting from their latest investigations on differentaspects of seafood quality, safety, and health applications.

ded-Cesarettin Alasalvar, Fereidoon Shahidi, Kazuo Miyashita, and Udaya Wanasundara

Kohsuke Adachi

Natural Sciences Cluster, Research andEducation Faculty, Kochi University, Kochi,Japan

Dominic Kasujja Bagenda

Department of Media Architecture, FutureUniversity, Hakodate, Japan

Murat ¨O Balaban

Fishery Industrial Technology Center,University of Alaska Fairbanks, Kodiak,

AK, USA

Narcisa Maria Bandarra

National Institute of Biological Resources,Lisbon, Portugal

Esmeray Kuley Boga

Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty ofFisheries, University of C,ukurova, Adana,Turkey

Keith R Cadwallader

Department of Food Science and HumanNutrition, University of Illinois atUrbana-Champaign, IL, USA

Eunice C.Y Li-Chan

Food Nutrition and Health Program, Faculty

of Land and Food Systems, University ofBritish Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Ferruh Erdo˘gdu

Department of Food Engineering,

University of Mersin, Mersin, Turkey

Jaouad Fichtali

Martek Biosciences Corporation,

Winchester, KY, USA

Graham C Fletcher

The New Zealand Institute for Plant and

Food Research Limited, Auckland, New

Zealand

T.K Srinivasa Gopal

Fish Processing Division, Central Institute

of Fisheries Technology, Kerala, India

David P Green

Department of Food, Bioprocessing, and

Nutrition Sciences, Seafood Laboratory,

Center for Marine Sciences and Technology,

North Carolina State University, Raleigh,

NC, USA

John M Grigor

Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Human

Health, Massey University, Auckland, New

Zealand

Kriton Grigorakis

Hellenic Centre for Marine Research

(HCMR), Hellinikon, Athens, Greece

Swapna C Hathwar

Department of Meat, Fish and Poultry

Technology, Central Food Technological

Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysore, India

Brian H Himelbloom

Fishery Industrial Technology Center,

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences,

University of Alaska Fairbanks, Kodiak,

AK, USA

Takashi Hirata

Division of Applied Biosciences, Graduate

School of Agriculture, Kyoto University,

Iddya Karunasagar

Department of Fishery Microbiology,KVAFSU, College of Fisheries, Mangalore,India

Indrani Karunasagar

Department of Fishery Microbiology,KVAFSU, College of Fisheries, Mangalore,India

Hun Kim

Department of Food Science and HumanNutrition, University of Illinois atUrbana-Champaign, IL, USA

Figen Korel

Department of Food Engineering, I·

zmirInstitute of Technology, Urla-I·

Contributors xxvii

Chong M Lee

Food Science and Nutrition ResearchCenter, Department of Nutrition and FoodSciences, University of Rhode Island, RI,USA

Sachindra M Nakkarike

Department of Meat, Fish, and PoultryTechnology, Central Food TechnologicalResearch Institute (CFTRI), Mysore,India

Bhaskar Narayan

Department of Meat, Fish, and PoultryTechnology, Central Food TechnologicalResearch Institute (CFTRI), Mysore, India

Maria Leonor Nunes

National Institute of Biological Resources,Lisbon, Portugal

Toshiaki Ohshima

Department of Food Science andTechnology, Tokyo University of MarineScience and Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Guðr´un ´Olafsd´ottir

Department of Food Science and Nutrition,Faculty of Science, University of Iceland,Reykjavik, Iceland

Alexandra C.M Oliveira

Fishery Industrial Technology Center,School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences,University of Alaska Fairbanks, Kodiak,

Yesim ¨Ozogul

Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty ofFisheries, University of C¸ukurova, Adana,Turkey

Bonnie Sun Pan

Department of Food Science, NationalTaiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan

Rosalee S Rasmussen

Seafood Laboratory, Department of FoodScience and Technology, Oregon StateUniversity, Astoria, OR, USA

C.N Ravi Shankar

Fish Processing Division, Central Institute

of Fisheries Technology, Kerala, India

Hartmut Rehbein

Federal Research Centre for Nutrition and

Food, Department of Fish Quality,

Hamburg, Germany

Hiroki Saeki

Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido

University, Hakodate, Japan

Anusha G.P Samaranayaka

Food Nutrition & Health Program, Faculty

of Land and Food Systems, University of

British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Subramaniam Sathivel

Department of Food Science, Louisiana

State University Agricultural Center, Baton

Rouge, LA, USA

S.P.J Namal Senanayake

Martek Biosciences Corporation,

Winchester, KY, USA

Fereidoon Shahidi

Department of Biochemistry, Memorial

University of Newfoundland, St John’s,

NL, Canada

Thombathu S Shetty

Fishery Industrial Technology Center,

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences,

University of Alaska Fairbanks, Kodiak,

AK, USA

Jeong-Ho Sohn

Department of Food Science andTechnology, Tokyo University of MarineScience and Technology,

1 Seafood quality, safety, and health applications: an overview

Cesarettin Alasalvar, Fereidoon Shahidi, Kazuo Miyashita, and Udaya Wanasundara

In 2007, the world’s fis production was around 145 million tonnes, valued at approximatelyUS$92 billion Of the total amount of production, approximately 75% was used for humanconsumption and the remaining portion used to produce fis meal and fis oil or discarded[1,2] With more than 30,000 known species, fis form the largest group in the animalkingdom used to produce animal-based foods Only about 700 of these species are com-mercially fishe and used for food production [3] Moreover, several species of crustaceans,molluscans, and seaweeds, as well as microalgae, are used as food for humans Devisingstrategies for full utilization of seafoods and their by-products to produce value-added novelproducts (e.g long chain omega-3 (n-3 or ␻-3) fatty acids, specialty enzymes, protein hy-drolysates, peptides, chitin/chitosan, glucosamine, squalene, collagen, carotenoids, etc.) is

of great interest

Some important aspects such as quality, safety, and health effects of seafoods are sidered in this book These factors contribute to optimal utilization of the marine resourcestogether with the consequent maximization of health benefits This overview chapter high-lights these important aspects of seafoods

The odour of freshly caught fis is mild and described as typical of the “sea” and “seaweed”

If fis is held in ice from the time of catch, it retains its high quality for about one week orlonger During this period, no objectionable “fis y” odour develops [5] However, long-term

Handbook of Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications, First Edition, edited by Cesarettin Alasalvar,

Fereidoon Shahidi, Kazuo Miyashita and Udaya Wanasundara
C 2011 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

r2 values of linear regressions are 0.98 (between FTRU and K-value) and 0.99 (between Hardness and K-value) Maximum demerit points for TFRU sensory score: 38

Unaccaptable limit: TFRU sensory score (20–25), K-value (35–40%), and Hardness (5.0–5.5 N)

and K-value and between the hardness and K-value over the storage period Adapted from Alasalvar

et al [12] With kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

storage may lead to the development of an undesirable “fis y” odour due to the formation

of trimethylamine (TMA), dimethylamine (DMA), total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN),ammonia, volatile sulphur compounds, and other undesirable compounds characteristic ofmicrobial spoilage [6–11] Several other chemical methods are currently in use for the qualityassessment of seafoods [11,12] Of these, biogenic amines [13,14], adenosine 5-triphosphate

(ATP)-breakdown compounds, and K-related values (Ki, G, Fr, H, and P-values) [15,16] are

the most common and provide accurate quality indices Figure 1.1 shows the correlation

between K-value, sensory scores, and hardness [12] In addition to the above mentioned

oxidation products, unsaturated fatty acids present in seafoods can lead to a wide range oflipid oxidation products such as peroxides, carbonyls, aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones, andtheir interaction compounds that contribute to the odour of the stored seafoods [17] Table1.1 shows the various carbonyl compounds derived via lipid oxidation in fis tissues.Fatty fis such as mackerel, herring, salmon, and sardines have more fl vour than lean fissuch as cod, haddock, and hake The fl vour of fatty fis is pleasant as well as unique, butonly while the quality is good However, due to high fat content, these fis can undergo rapid

2,4-Heptadienal n-3 PUFA Rancid hazelnut [58]

2,4,7-Decatrienal n-3 PUFA Oxidized fish oil [60] 1-Octen-3-ol n-6 PUFA Mushroom, melon-like [59] 1,5-Octadien-3-ol n-3 PUFA Mushroom, seaweed [59] 2,5-Octadien-1-ol n-3 PUFA Mushroom, seaweed [59] 1,5-Octadien-3-one n-3 PUFA Mushroom [59]

2,6-Nonadienal n-3 PUFA Cucumber-like [59] Abbreviation: PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids.

An overview 3

oxidation and develop rancid/oxidized fl vours that are objectionable to most people Theoff-fl vours that develop in the different species have different effects on the organolepticacceptability of the products [4]

The fina criterion used in the organoleptic evaluation of seafood is texture, which isrelated to the physical properties that are experienced during biting and chewing Althoughthis criterion is more relevant when applied to cooked fish texture tests are made routinely

by inspectors on raw fish because that is a good indicator of the texture of cooked seafood.Crude marine oil is a by-product of the fis meal industry and is considered a goodsource of nutritionally important long-chain n-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) However, crude oil should be further processed

to improve its quality characteristics as well as its shelf-life [18] The basic processingsteps of crude marine oil are degumming, alkali-refining bleaching, and deodorization [19].During processing, impurities such as free fatty acids (FFA), mono- and diacylglycerols(MAG and DAG), phospholipids, sterols, vitamins, hydrocarbons, pigments, proteins andtheir degradation products, suspended mucilaginous compounds, and oxidation products offatty acids are removed from the crude oil Processing of marine oils is similar to that ofvegetable oils; however, the quality of crude marine oils is less uniform than crude vegetableoils High quality crude oils may be obtained by proper handling of raw material, such asminimizing damage to fis and proper chilling after landing [20] The degree of unsaturation

of the fatty acids makes them extremely vulnerable to oxidative degradation [21,22] Volatilecompounds generated upon oxidation of such fatty acids contribute to the unpleasant fl voursand odours of the oil and the food products containing such oil Oxidation of the doublebonds in unsaturated fatty acids in the oil can occur in the basic processes of autoxidation,photo-oxidation, and thermal oxidation [23] A basic knowledge of these oxidation processes

is required to understand the mechanism of the deterioration of the quality of food grade fisoil The nature of oxidation, as well as to what extent this occurs, depends upon the chemicalstructures of the fatty acids involved, and other constituents, even if in minor quantities inthe product, as well as the conditions of handling, processing, and storage Physical factorssuch as the surface area exposed to oxygen, oxygen pressure in the surrounding environment,temperature, and irradiation can contribute to the oxidation of fatty acids [24] The origin

of the off-fl vours is in the breakdown products of hydroperoxides of the highly unsaturatedlipids in fis and/or fis oil

In this book, several approaches are described to protect unsaturated fatty acids from dation Extreme care must be practised, especially during handling, processing, transferringand transporting, packaging, and storage of oil, to minimize oxidation through exposure tounfavourable conditions High temperatures should be avoided in processing and the fis orfis oil should never be exposed to oxygen and light Processed oil containing unsaturatedfatty acids should be stored in the dark, at or below −20◦C, under an inert gas such asnitrogen or argon Besides preventive measures, antioxidants and related compounds alsocan be used to retard the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in fis oil These compoundsmay have different inhibitory activities in the protection of oils against the oxidation pro-cess Microencapsulation of fis oil into a stable fl wable powder extends the shelf-life andprevents the oxidative deterioration of unsaturated fatty acids [25]

Quality and safety are important parameters for perishable foods such as fis and fisproducts About one-third of the world’s food production is lost annually as a result of

microbial spoilage [26] Food safety cannot be assured by inspection alone and knowledge

of factors that influenc growth, survival, and inactivation of pathogenic micro-organisms

is an essential element in the design of processing, storage, and distribution systems thatprovide safe seafoods [27]

The fles of healthy and live fis is generally thought to be sterile, as their immunesystem prevents the growth of bacteria [28,29] When the fis dies, the immune systemstops functioning and bacteria can proliferate freely Bacteria can be either of the spoilagetype or the pathogenic type Spoilage is define as the sensory changes resulting in a fisproduct being unacceptable for human consumption It is caused by autolytic and chemicalchanges or off-odours and off-fl vours due to bacterial metabolism [28,30] Some of the major

spoilage bacteria in seafood are Pseudomonas spp., H2S-producing bacteria, Shewanella spp.,

Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, Photobacterium phosphoreum, and Brochothrix thermospacta among others [30–37] Pathogenic bacteria associated with seafood can be

categorized into three general groups:

1) bacteria (indigenous bacteria) that belong to the natural microflor of fis (Clostridium

botulinum, pathogenic Vibrio spp., Aeromonas hydrophila);

2) enteric bacteria (non-indigenous bacteria) that are present due to faecal contamination

(Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., pathogenic Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus);

and

3) bacterial contamination during processing, storage, or preparation for consumption

(Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium

perfrin-gens, Salmonella spp.) [30,38–40].

Standard (traditional) methods for recovering micro-organisms from seafood include richment culture, streaking out onto selective or differentiating media or direct plating ontothese, and identificatio of colonies by morphological, biochemical, or immunological tests[41] These methods require a lot of human labour, are costly, and usually take between twoand fi e days In contrast to standard methods, molecular methods allow the rapid detectionand identificatio of specifi bacterial strains and/or virulence genes without the need forpure cultures They are mainly based on oligonucleotide probes, polymerase chain reac-tions (PCR), or antibody techniques [30,41–43] The use of probes and PCR in seafoodshas increased dramatically in recent years Gene probes and PCR primers for detecting andidentifying almost every food-borne pathogenic bacterial species have been developed

en-As mentioned above, when harvested in a clean environment and handled hygienically untilconsumption, fis is very safe Unfortunately, unhygienic practices, including insufficienrefrigeration and sub-standard manufacturing practices, can be at the origin of many outbreaks

of fish-born illnesses Fish-borne illnesses can be broadly divided into fish-born infectionsand fish-born intoxications (Table 1.2) In the firs case, the causative agent (bacteria,viruses, or parasites) is ingested alive and invades the intestinal mucous membrane or otherorgans (infection) or produces enterotoxins (toxi-infection) Protection from the environment,personal hygiene, education of fis handlers, and water treatment (e.g chlorination) aretherefore essential in the control of fish-born diseases In the case of intoxications (microbial,biotoxin, and chemical), the causative agent is a toxic compound that contaminates the fis or

is produced by a biological agent in the fish If the agent is biological, intoxication can occureven if the agent is dead, as long as it has previously produced enough toxins to precipitatethe illness symptoms [2]

An overview 5

Types of

Infections Bacterial infections Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Vibrio

vulnificus, Shigella spp.

Viral infections Hepatitis A virus, Norovirus, Hepatitis E.

Parasitic infections Nematodes (round worms), Cestodes (tape worms), Trematodes

(flukes) Toxi-infections Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, E coli, Salmonella spp.

Intoxications Microbial Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum

Biotoxins Ciguatera, Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), Diarrheic (DSP),

Amnesic (ASP), Neurotoxic (NSP), Histamine Chemical Heavy metals: Hg, Cd, Pb Dioxines and polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCBs) Additives: nitrites, sulphites

The unique and phenomenal biodiversity of the marine environment contributes to the ence of a large pool of novel and bioactive molecules Epidemiological studies have estab-lished a positive correlation between marine food consumption and a reduced risk of commonchronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancers [44–48] The health ben-eficia effects of some marine bioactives have been made clear on the basis of nutritional andnutrigenomic studies [49–53] Thus, dietary marine products are expected to prevent severaldiseases Although perception of the term “marine nutraceuticals” to the health care profes-sionals and consumers is still largely limited to popular fis oils rich in highly unsaturatedn-3 fatty acids, research has also been shifted to other marine bioactives such as collagen,peptides, chitin, chitosan, chitosan oligomers, glucosamine, carotenoids, and polyphenols,etc Exciting developments in nutrigenomics and the human genome project, combined withformulation of food products containing specifi marine bioactives, will create new indus-trial opportunities for food and pharmaceutical companies Advances in biotechnologicalprocesses and their application to the food industry have resulted in commercial success, asseen in the case of glucosamine [54] and collagen [55] Therefore, we have strong expecta-tions for the further growth of both research and commercialization of marine nutraceuticalsand marine functional foods

pres-In earlier days, fis sources appeared to be inexhaustible and by-products arising fromfis processing were considered worthless and routinely discarded The discovery and devel-opment of marine nutraceuticals has changed the commercial value of fisherie processingby-products Various fis and shellfis source materials such as skin, scales, frame bones,fins visceral mass, head, and shell are now utilized to isolate a number of bioactive com-modities Marine algae, including micro- and macroalgae, are also good resources for othermarine bioactive materials (Table 1.3)

Marine lipids generally contain a wider range of fatty acids than terrestrial plants andanimals [56] Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), such as EPA and DHA, aretypical of marine lipids, whereas n-6 PUFA, mainly linoleic acid (LA), is predominant incommon vegetable oils The importance of EPA and DHA in human health promotion hasbeen confirme through research Although many papers have been published on the healthbeneficia effects of EPA and DHA, there is still an increased level of interest in nutritional

Table 1.3 Main marine functional materials, sources, and health effects

Anticancerous Improvement of brain functions, ocular health, and bone health Reduces risk of diabetes Improves blood pressure related risks

Antihypertensive Anticancerous Antioxidative Reduce anxiety related problems Immune system stimulation Improves blood circulation Hypochlesterolemic

[61,62]

Chitin/chitosan/glucosamine Crustacean shellfish and

discards

Antiarthritic (prevents osteoarthritis) Antitumour Antibacterial Biopolymers for drug delivery

[65]

Chondroitin sulphate Marine fin fish and their

discards

Antiarthritic (prevents osteoarthritis), Antihypertensive

Marine foods and their processing discards/by-products, micro- and macroalgae, and rine microbes are major potential sources of EPA and DHA They are also important sources

ma-of other functional biomaterials such as proteins, enzymes, vitamins, essential minerals,antioxidants, and pigments Although the edible portion of these marine resources should

be used for food, under- and less-utilized fisher resources and processing by-products offin-shel fis species have tremendous potential for the recovery of marine nutraceuticals.Thus, there is strong incentive to utilize effectively and economically discard materials for

Enzymatic processes are also used for the production of glucosamine from chitin found

in shellfis discards Solid wastes from processing of crustaceans provide an importantsource for industrial production of chitin Glucosamine is produced from chitin on the basis

of chemical processing, but more attention has been paid to their enzymatic production.Recently, the production of chitin oligomers has been the focus of research Glucosamine,which is one of the most thoroughly studied marine nutraceuticals with a big market share,

is a precursor for glycosaminoglycans that are a major component of joint cartilage

Traditional methods for assessing seafood quality have a limited place in current practices

of quality assurance of seafood products The measurement of the K and other related values

based on ATP breakdown is considered to be one of the best techniques for evaluatingfreshness of fis stored at temperatures above freezing These values correlate well withthe sensory scores In addition, rapid analytical techniques using sophisticated instruments,including visible and near infrared (VIS/NIR), electronic nose, machine vision, differentialscanning calorimetry (DSC), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), texture analyzer, real-time PCR, and DNA- and protein based methods, among others, are increasingly used forsafety and quality assessments (Chapter 2) DNA-based techniques are used for identificatio

of fis species Marine resources provide rich sources of nutraceuticals and functional foodingredients These ingredients belong to a wide range of chemical compounds with beneficiahealth effects Use of marine oils in pharmaceuticals and some of the other marine-basedproducts for health promotion and disease risk reduction is now common place and furtherprogress in these areas is expected

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