The eu and european identity

THE EU AND EUROPEAN IDENTITY By BUI HAI DANG 1013623 Masters thesis written under the supervision of Prof dr hab Zdzisław Mach June 2006 Krakow, Poland Acknowledgement This MA thesis was accomplished during my last semester at Center for European Studies, Jagiellonian University, in Krakow First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof dr hab ZDZISŁAW MACH for his constant support, inspiration, guidance during the time I wrote my thesis Without his helpful advices and thorough instructions, I would have been lost and my MA would not have been completed Secondly, I would like to express my gratitude to all professors, administrators, programme’s coordinators and staffs of the Center for European Studies for their help, especially concerning my visa’s affair I am also grateful to my classmates for their honest advices, opinions as well as comments on my work Lastly and most importantly, I wish to express my special gratitude to my parents, BUI VAN NGO and PHAM THI NHUNG for all their support and love i TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………… INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………2 AIMS………………………………………………………………………… METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………3 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………….4 CHAPTER 1: IDENTITY AND ITS CONSTRUCTION…………………….12 1.1 SEARCHING FOR A DEFINITION OF IDENTITY………………12 1.2 EXPLORING AN IDENTITY’S CONSTRUCTION……………… 15 1.3 IS CULTURE A FOUNDATION OF IDENTITY? 18 CHAPTER 2: EUROPE AND EUROPEAN CULTURE…………………….22 2.1 EUROPE AS A GEOGRAPHICAL CONCEPT…………………….22 2.2 EUROPE AS A CULTURAL REALITY…………………………….27 2.3 EUROPEAN CULTURE: UNITY IN DIVERSITY…………………31 CHAPTER 3: EUROPEAN IDENTITY AND ITS CONSTRUCTION…… 40 3.1 THE EU AND A DEMAND FOR A SHARED IDENTITY……… 40 3.2 IS THERE A EUROPEAN IDENTITY? .44 3.3 WHAT IS EUROPEAN IDENTITY? 48 3.4 HEADING TO BUILD UP EUROPEAN IDENTITY………………56 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………… 63 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………… .66 ii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Map of Europe in 1914 (page 25) Figure Map of Europe after World War II (page 26) Figure Map of contemporary Europe (2000) (page 27) Figure West-East division (page 34) Figure European religous map (page 37) INTRODUCTION During the fifty years of co-operation and development, the EU first mentioned cultural factors in its project of integration in 1972 marked by the Paris Summit (October 1972) In 1973, the nine member states adopted a “Declaration on European Identity” for the first time at the Copenhagen Summit This document set out general principles for the internal development of the community thereby furnishing a framework for the formation of a political conception of European identity And the Paris Summit Conference in December 1974 certified the idea of the European identity and gave it more concrete substance by specifying policy objectives Thus, we can say that European identity has officially emerged on European policy agenda since 1973 because since the beginning of the1980s the EC/EU has changed itself to become more than a forum of transnational decision-making, a policy-generating mechanism or a “security community” However, a sense of shared identity has only become an increasingly burning issue over the past decade for both analysts and policy-makers, especially after the EU accepted Turkey as a candidate for membership in 1999 and the enlargement in 2004 Aims Many articles have been written on the concept of European identity, but the key relevant questions still remain: how important European identity is for future of the EU? Is European identity possible? What is European identity? What is the construction of European identity? How to strengthen European identity? The aim of this study is to Annex to Chapter II, 7th Gen Rp EC, 1973 Kostakopoulou 2001, 14 answer the above questions Besides the introduction and conclusion, this master thesis is divided into three chapters As at the very beginning of any study about European identity, there are two obstacles need to be overcome: the vague meaning of identity and the question of what exactly Europe is Questions of identity are recondite and recalcitrant in social sciences as identity is something untouchable and not even visible And the question of what is “Europe” has not got its acceptable answer even from geographical point of view We think that it is necessary to discuss these two obstacles and try to overcome them in the first and the second chapter of the thesis Therefore, to create a concrete base for further analyzing almost very aspect of European identity in chapter 3, chapter and chapter are used to clarify two controversial concepts: Identity and Europe We discuss intensively what identity and its construction are in chapter in order to theoretically form the foundation for the thesis’ arguments Chapter talks about the concept “Europe” from geographical and political-cultural points of view because defining Europe will contribute to discussions of European identity in the last chapter The cultural comparative approach is especially used in this chapter to explore cultural diversity in Europe Chapter discusses European identity and its elements; in this chapter, we try to answer several questions associated with the EU and European identity (as the title of this thesis) Methodology & Sources Studying European identity associated with the establishment and development of European integration process is surely an interesting topic, but difficult It is interesting because European identity is obviously a topic of inter-discipline study which requires knowledge from, at least, cultural studies, political sciences, history…and an appropriate inter-discipline approach Therefore, people who research on such this kind of topic probably have a great chance to understand Europe intensively Besides, cultural comparative approach is, our favorite method, also used to define European cultural differences in order to see its similarities Furthermore, cultural theories such as cultural acculturation, culture areas are used to explain European culture: unity in diversity However, this topic is difficult because the object of study is a moving target and still in the making as identity is a dynamic process The huge amount of sources written about the topic would also be a difficulty even though someone can say that this is an easy topic in term of references; but many books, articles, etc discussing the topic in different ways and from different backgrounds would perhaps make anyone confused Because of the scope of a master thesis and the limited ability, we would like to limit our observation in the amount of documents we have in hand: some are books, some are articles and some are in printed version and the others are in electronic version; almost of these are being reviewed below Literature Review The question of European identity and its construction is such a controversial topic that we can find many different, even conflicting opinions about it in existing founding documents This is understandable because it all depends on how people define European identity Therefore, there hasn’t been an agreement on the construction of European identity; scholars from different points of view with different approaches have different ideas However, there is an emergence of six models of European identity in documents we have: (1) Euro-nationalist mode of identity; (2) constitutional patriotism; (3) corrective European identity; (4) functional European identity; (5) contractual mode of European identity; (6) constructivism mode of European identity Let us start with Euro-nationalist mode of identity In this model, European identity is considered as one kind of national identities and the EU is modeled on the patterns set by the formation of national communities in the nineteenth century In short, these scholars tend to see European identity as the “mirror image” of national identity and apply concepts, models and practices associated the nation-state to the EU They think that what national identity building was mainly based on would go to explain the process of European identity building Two candidates that can be found to provide the overall framework of analysis for European identity are ethno-nationalism and civic nationalism Focusing on the past and the existence of naturalistic bonds among people, Ethnonationalism approach seems to be pessimistic about the possibility of European identity and its formation Scholars such as Philip Schlesinger (1993), Anthony Smith (1992), John Keane (1992) are suspicious because they could not find a common culture across the European continent, but they find that Europe lacks of a shared set of myths, experience and symbols; which, for them, are crucial to create a identity Some are skeptical because they think that Europe lacks of a shared historical and cultural content as it is one of positive differences dividing people In other words, Europe is too diverse and lacks emotional resistance and historical depth as what Smith points out The rest of pessimists find European linguistic diversity and its tripartite religious division as Kostakopoulou, op.cit., 27-37 Smith 1992, 72-73 obstacles to a shared European common identity Furthermore, According to Kostakopoulou, the absence of the known homogenizing elements such as a uniform system of education, mass media, a European public opinion and so on, are seen to create obstacles to European identity building Civic nationalism approach, on the other hand, views European identity in an optimistic way Scholars who support this approach consider the EU as a community with a shared destiny which built upon the combination of political structures and principles Michael Wintle starts in the same place as Smith does, with a similarity to nationbuilding processes, but then departs in a rather different direction, civic nationalism approach Wintle believes on the existence of European identity in the form of converging education standards, educational exchanges, and the organization of a European civil society Furthermore, European identity is, for Wintle, a list of core European commonalities including the Roman Empire, Christianity, the Enlightenment, industrialization, shared knowledge of language, and a common physical environment Salvador Giner also points out characteristics and experiences which have been converging for all Europeans ranging from changes in life expectancy to secularization of society, the development of welfare capitalism, and economic prosperity Also viewing European identity in the optimistic way, Soledad Garcia argues that European identity includes Hellenism, Roman law and institutions, Christianity, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, Romanticism, welfare society, and the cross-fertilization of Ibid., 15 Wintle 1996, 13-22 Giner 1994, 22-26 6 diversity And for Guibernau, incipient European identity is a construction of Christianity and the rise of a set of ideas, including freedom, humanism and material progress And Thomas Jansen argues that the factors (cultural, historical, economic, common security…) which nation-state building was mainly based on can also explain the process of European integration and the emergence of a supranational European Union 10 With the same approach, but focusing on a shared destiny, Brigid Laffan gives out three principles to build new European identity: shared destiny, tolerance of diversity, and emphasis on the civic dimension of nationality in place of dubious historical myths 11 Different from the above model, Constitutional patriotism emphasizes on constitution This means that European identity or European common culture bases on the rule of law, separation of powers, democracy, respect for human rights and so on which would guarantee the flourishing of equally legitimate cultural forms of life Therefore, European identity is shared by its citizens, regardless of their national identity and subcultures, and makes democratic citizenship the main integrative device in the EU We could find scholarly arguments with the same approach in the works of Habermas (1992, 1993), Edy Korthals Altes (1999), etc These scholars consider constitution based on law, principles of the EU as means to create a common European identity According to Altes, European identity can not be found in wonderful words about its common history and common sources of inspiration, so not in digging up long-forgotten treasure of the past, but in acting together Thus, European identity can only be found in the Garcia 1993, 7-9 Guibernau 2001, 10 Jansen 1999, 29 11 Laffan 1996, 99 as democracy, human rights and socio-economic solidarity For the number of people identify themselves as European, instrumental benefits related to standard of living or economic interests might also define what it means to be European And the idea of common history and heritage is especially prominent among interviewed European identifiers This theme does not show up in extant surveys that may in part be a function of Europhile bias of interviewees, or their tendency to have more advanced educational backgrounds About the theme of diversity, multiculturalism and tolerance, it could be safe to argue that this is the most important dimension of Europeaness for those who feel the identity’s call most powerful.79 In brief, the result of the above surveys suggests that European identity may be more the product of cognitive calculation than are other identities For the same respondents, the national identity stirs pride and other emotions which focus on cultural distinctiveness while regional identities are primarily characterized a sense of comfort and familiarity in the context of being “home” However, being European stirs considerably less emotion, but reflects instead more of a rational analysis of necessary or preferable political structures and identities.80 As mentioned above, we are optimistic about possibilities of European identity The achievements of national elites in constructing “high culture” over the previous centuries prove that the EU can the same in European integration context The problem is that any one of course can argue that European contemporary circumstance is different from the condition of nations in the previous centuries We agree, but what 79 80 Ibid., 209 Green, op.cit., 210 55 foregoing discussions show that European identity is possible and could be built in a different ways European identity would therefore appear to possess the same potential to develop as national identities have had All will take time; a state might be born overnight, but an identity grows more slowly Back to the question what are considered as elements of European identity? Identity is here perceived as a process which is not something static, given for all time but dynamic, so we are not able to point out its elements; and pointing out European identity’s elements seems to make the arguments much gloomier However, European identity can be generally understood as a combination of traditionally recognized values (as mentioned in the first part) and modern, contemporary values such as liberal humanism, civil rights, freedom of thought, belief, expression and association, with equality and the rule of law, with social responsibility and finally with pluralist and participatory democracy In this combination, European culture and its common features are background values which always need to be fostered to build up a European identity In our opinion, it is so difficult to have even a general list of European identity’s elements at this moment of the EU because it would be so early to determine the elements of a 49 year identity (from 1957) European identity is therefore not an established concept, but a process in which there are tasks need accomplishing The next part of this chapter is discussing the ways how European identity is being forged 3.4 HEADING TO BUILD UP EUROPEAN IDENTITY European identity can be also perceived as tasks to in order to make people in Europe feel much more European and much closer to each other In which ways this kind of 56 collective identity can be strengthened is not an easy task of the EU’s policy-makers Many people already talked about this; some prefer to top-down building’s procedures while others want bottom -up mechanism Here, we think that European identity can be built either from above or from below Let us investigate what the EU has done for European identity before theoretically giving out our suggestions What has the EU done for European identity? During its 50 years of existence, the EU started to think of cultural factor from 1972, marked by the Paris Summit (October 1972) Historical reasons explain why the process of European integration was initiated from an economic base, not from political or cultural base The Rome Treaty which established EEC had no mention of the word “culture” or its associated components such as education, art, etc because economic integration was considered as the starting point for more intensive integration in the future At the Paris Summit, EC officials realized that the popular identification would be achieved only if the European enterprise became less elitist and more “citizen-friendly” And at the Copenhagen Summit in 1973, the nine member states adopted a “Declaration on European Identity” The document set out, for the first time, principles for the internal development of the community thereby furnishing a framework for the formation of a political conception of European identity European identity was then defined on the basic principles of the rule of law, social justice, respect for human rights and democracy, and in relation to: the status and the responsibilities of the nine member states vis-à-vis the rest of the world; the dynamic nature of the process of European unification The document was analytically shallow and the 57 political definition of European identity was intertwined with the Euro-centric statements invoking a common European culture whose survival to be ensured (Annex to Chapter II, 7th Gen Rp EC, 1973) In December 1974, the Paris Summit Conference certified the idea of European identity and gave it more concrete substance by specifying policy objectives 81 The other notable efforts can be found in the Tindermans Report of 1974 on institutional reform, the increasing powers of the European Parliament, the work of the Adonnino Committee of 1984, the Single European Act, and a series of citizenship rights, especially as articulated in the Masstricht Treaty In which, “Citizen’s Europe” was quite important as it included simplification of border controls, mutual recognition of educational standards and diplomas, and the freedom of citizens to live and work in other member-states Symbolic issues like a European flag and anthem were also addressed.82 The most prominent success of the EU in fostering its identity is the increasing free movement of people across European borders, which has accelerated since the 1985 and in 1990 Schengen accords More and more people interact a day to day basic with their fellow Europeans from other member states could be expected that a sense of a shared community will become stronger A common currency, Euro is also a success which represents “unity in diversity” feature of Europe because Euro is being used everywhere in Europe but each member state has their own Euro with their national characteristics Furthermore, the EU also sponsored a program of university exchanges, the Erasmus programme, so European university students could spend their second semester abroad at universities of member states This would be valuable to help creating a feeling of belonging to the EU, their 81 82 Kostakopoulou, op.cit., 44-45 Commission of the European Communities 1985, 58 common house as well 83 The EU’s common policy is also considered as a progressive step to build up European identity Generally, the development of European identity will be the outcome of a long process in which bottom-up as well as top-down initiatives are likely to be employed.84 How to forge European identity? Forging an identity is not a new task In fact, it was faced before, when all the nations of Europe strove to develop their particular individuality, and at the same time to invent the nation All European nations were invented in the nineteenth century At that time, the European nations did not tire of each testifying to their common memories in order to create for the present the community of destiny and solidarity called nation Which experience from state-building and national identity building in the past can be applied to build European identity in the EU context? Or are there other ways of building a collective identity? In fact, there are two opposing forces that have been directly affecting European integration process: the logic of global socio-economic interdependence that spells integration and the logic of ethnicity and nationality that demands separation The centrifugal force of the claims of tribe, race, section, region and nation are pulling Europeans apart Thus, to build up a European identity, the EU has to foster European ancient cultural values and traditions on one hand; on the other hand, the centrifugal forces of the claims of tribe, race, section, region and nation need to be institutionalized There are several related fields on which the EU needs to keep an eye in order to solve 83 84 Fuangaromya, op.cit., 77 Llobera, op.cit., 183-184 59 the issues of cultural policy To promoting public awareness of common European cultural values and identity, the EU should encourage European universities and schools to teach an agreed curriculum on European history Developing the common European symbols-community of destiny would help to avoid wars, prevent environment, and so on Fostering common values of community such as tolerance, freedom, human rights, and solidarity would also help because cultural similarities are surely the glues to unite people and a foundation of any identity Europe is composed of many different languages, around 30 to 40 ethnic groups and a patchwork of established, diverse and compact populations all of which have been developed in the framework of distinct nationalities, if each sought for political reflection in statehood would be difficulties However, it is possible to overcome these obstacles by different ways and policies such as teaching foreign languages in schools from elementary schools to universities in which multi-language programs should be developed Although English dominates in a number of areas such as popular music, science, business, tourism…, multi-language competence is still required Increasing exchanges at all levels such as educational, cultural sand so on which allow students to study in partner schools they want for one or two semesters Encouraging cultural tourism, which can help to dismantle prejudices and contribute to the creation of a genuine respect and appreciation for the differences of culture and languages or positive stereotypes Some people state that sport, especially football, can help in the process of creating European identity as well because they believe that the increased Europeanization of sport will promote a certain amount of European consciousness 60 Besides, the EU’s policy-makers also need to take education and high culture into consideration because these two factors have an important effect on the creation of European identity Education is obviously one of the crucial dimensions in any attempt to develop the future identity of the EU or at least more understanding and convergence among Europeans That is why the Council of Minister of the European Community, in its meeting of 24th, May 1988, resolved to develop among children the awareness and knowledge of being European The objectives are to strengthen a sense of European identity in young people and make clear to them the value of European civilization and of the foundations on which Europeans tend to base their development today To prepare young people to take part in the economic and social development of the EU and in making concrete progress toward European integration To make them aware of the advantages which the Union represents, but also of the challenges it invokes, in opening up an enlarged economic and social area to them To improve their knowledge of the Union and its member states in their historical, cultural, economic and social aspects, and bring home to them the significance of the co-operation of the member states of the EU with other countries of Europe and the world 85 In addition to the answer for the question of how to build up European identity, which of six models discussed in the introduction part has been employed by the EU? Just look back at what the EU has done for building up European identity we can easily recognize that the EU has used corrective European identity’s building approach This mixed approach accepts the normative ideas of constitutional patriotism and at the same time affirms the particularistic ethno-cultural traditions of the Member states This can be 85 Llobera, op.cit., 185-186 61 found in the content of European identity which was mapped out in 1973 was intertwined with the Euro-centric statements invoking a common European culture whose survival to be ensure (Annex to Chapter II, 7th Gen Rp EC, 1973) These all would help to have a long term effect on strengthening the feeling of belonging to Europe However, after the enlargement in 2004, the EU has used various policies with the emphasis on democracy and human rights as central conditions that the EU membership can tell something about the European identity It seems that the Constitutional patriotism has been used much more than the other one In our opinion, all of those six models should be used, but each model is used in a suitable case and at an appropriate level In some specific cases and at some levels, a “mixed” model might be applied Besides, constructivist mode which should be mainly used is probably the most suitable model in the context of EU enlargement because it tends to build the EU as a community of diversity which does not seek to create a “truly European people”, but to convert subjects and citizens whose lives have been monopolized by national collectivism into critical citizens of the Union Furthermore, this model considers European identity as a task which emerges out of a complex web of institutionalized practices of co-operation and participation Thus, European identity is not a formed identity, but a process or a project to be achieved 62 CONCLUSION In our belief, in order to sustain the viability of European integration process a collective identity is necessary on the basic of some shared or presumed commonalities which would create trust and solidarity The development of European identity is a worthy and attainable goal because Europeans share not only common values, a common history, but also share a common future in the integration process However, European identity seems different from any existing kinds of identity Identity is here perceived as a process; and this new identity is also a task which needs to be accomplished Moreover, the European identity which is at the heart of European integration project should be considered as “unity in diversity” Unity in diversity is a belief in the common and a faith in the difference in order to act together Each country has its own national identity to share both externally and internally with others and add to European identity, then let European identity be a part of a member state’s identity That is the reason why the objectives of the EU’s cultural policy have to protect and promote cultural identities at regional, national and European levels and to realize an open and dynamic European cultural space which contributes to European identity To solve the problem of differences, language and culture must be taught, to encourage people to learn more languages so they can speak in a common tongue There should be many more school exchanges to make use of new technology: schools could use the internet to establish and work with partner schools in several countries Media also has a real responsibility for advancing knowledge of the new Europe As mentioned, education is another major factor in forming individual and collective the youth’s knowledge of 63 European culture, make it much easier to communicate and feel freely with people educated in the same tradition That is why the EU started sponsoring study in other member states, hoping for a positive impact on the sense of European identity Furthermore, in the process of strengthening the common identity, there are certain things that need to be thought of and done locally, traditions for example; for the other matters it would be more appropriate to think and act nationally like cultural policies; for economic, foreign and security policies, a European approach is much more suitable and a global approach is for environmental and trade policies In some fields such as human rights, social policy and financial policy, the EU has gone towards the notion of unity, union However, if people want to feel European, they should move towards a greatest degree of integration Although one might have various identities which can overlap without contradiction, they should try to abolish any elements of nationalism that prevent Europe from achieving the so much wanted union and try to reach the common cultural policy as well It is important to remind people that Europe is what its countries and people make If people make their country and society prosper, it also benefits Europe and the EU European security and prosperity means security and wealth for each of member states and secure conditions, open democracy at home strengthen the EU A stronger Europe bases on a common identity, socially and economically, is a safer Europe with a growing economy Then, European identity can be somehow defined as nothing less than a shared humanism based on democracy, justice and freedom with a belief in common and a faith in difference 64 In addition to the matter of how to strengthen European identity, we agree with Arvanitis’s argument that European identity must be based on the means such as common political and social institutions Therefore, where the traditional “identity forging tools” or bottom-up approaches not work, judicial, moral, civil, political, institutional techniques must be used 86 Some people who argue that identity can not be constructed top-down and European law, political institutions might eventually change the way people look at and feel about Europe, might not agree with this However, what the EU has done, with both top-down and bottom-up approaches, having positive impacts on its people change in favor of Europe For example, Europeans in the past would point anyone outside their nations as a foreigner, in the present day Europeans are more likely to associate foreigners to someone outside the EU Any kinds of identity take time to form and develop, so does European identity 86 Arvanitis 2005, 65 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Altes E.K (1999) What is it? 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