INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 18457 First edition 2016-09-15 Biomimetics — Biomimetic materials, structures and components Biomimétisme — Matériaux, structures et composants biomimétiques Reference number ISO 18457:2016(E) © ISO 2016 ISO 845 7: 01 6(E) COPYRIGHT PROTECTED DOCUMENT © ISO 2016, Published in Switzerland All rights reserved Unless otherwise specified, no part o f this publication may be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting on the internet or an intranet, without prior written permission Permission can be requested from either ISO at the address below or ISO’s member body in the country o f the requester ISO copyright o ffice Ch de Blandonnet • CP 401 CH-1214 Vernier, Geneva, Switzerland Tel +41 22 749 01 11 Fax +41 22 749 09 47 copyright@iso.org www.iso.org ii © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 18457:2016(E) Contents Page Foreword iv Introduction v Scope Normative references Terms and definitions Abbreviated terms Biological materials 5.1 5.2 Methodology of biomimetic material and component development 14 6.1 Analysis 14 6.2 6.3 Characteristics 5.1.1 General 5.1.2 Biological materials: multifunctional, fault-tolerant, modular, and adaptive 5.1.3 Technical components: mono functional, durable, with a limited ability to adapt Performances 6.4 Examination of analogies 15 Abstraction 16 6.3.1 General 16 6.3.2 Modeling and simulation 17 Material selection 18 Reasons and occasions for using biomimetic materials, structures, and components in companies 18 Annex A (informative) Examples of biomimetic materials, structures, and components 20 Annex B (informative) Analytical methods 31 Bibliography 36 © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved iii ISO 18457:2016(E) Foreword ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies (ISO member bodies) The work o f preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO technical committees Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters o f electrotechnical standardization The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part In particular the different approval criteria needed for the di fferent types o f ISO documents should be noted This document was dra fted in accordance with the editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part (see www.iso.org/directives) Attention is drawn to the possibility that some o f the elements o f this document may be the subject o f patent rights ISO shall not be held responsible for identi fying any or all such patent rights Details o f any patent rights identified during the development o f the document will be in the Introduction and/or on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www.iso.org/patents) Any trade name used in this document is in formation given for the convenience o f users and does not constitute an endorsement For an explanation on the meaning o f ISO specific terms and expressions related to formity assessment, as well as information about ISO’s adherence to the World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) see the following URL: www.iso.org/iso/foreword.html The committee responsible for this document is ISO/TC 266, Biomimetics iv © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 845 7: 01 6(E) Introduction T he i nc re a s i ng comple xity o f te ch n ic a l re s e a rch and development me tho d s s olution s and pro duc ts and i n novation appro ache s re qu i re s new appro ache s o ften re ach thei r l i m its , C las s ic e s p e ci a l ly i n the development a nd op ti m i z ation o f materi a l s , s truc tu re s , a nd comp onents T he identi fic ation o f suitable biological principles and their transfer to technical applications in the sense of biomimetics, there fore, c an ma ke an i mp or tant contribution to the development o f fu nc tiona l, adap ti ve, e fficient (i n term s o f re s ou rce s) , a nd s a fe (i n term s o f toxic ity to hu man s and the envi ron ment) structures, components and manufacturing techniques © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved materia l s , v INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 18457:2016(E) Biomimetics — Biomimetic materials, structures and components Scope This International Standard provides a framework of biomimetics for the development of materials, structures, surfaces, components, and manufacturing technologies This International Standard specifies the principles o f biological systems, and especially the per formance of biological materials, structures, surfaces, components, and manufacturing technologies that provide the motivation and reasons for biomimetic approaches It specifies the methodology based on analysis o f biological systems, which lead to analogies, and abstractions The trans fer process from biology to technology is described based on examples o f biomimetic materials, structures, sur faces, components, and manufacturing technologies This International Standard describes measurement methods and parameters for the characterization of properties of biomimetic materials This International Standard provides information on the relevance of biomimetic materials, structures, surfaces, components, and manu facturing technologies for industry This International Standard also links to other subareas in biomimetics because fundamental developments in materials, structures, surfaces, components, and manufacturing technologies often form the basis for a wide variety o f additional innovations It provides guidance and support for all those who develop, design, process, or use biomimetic materials, structures, surfaces, components, and manufacturing technologies This International Standard can also serve for those who want to learn about and investigate these topics Normative references The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively re ferenced in this document and are indispensable for its application For dated re ferences, only the edition cited applies For undated re ferences, the latest edition o f the re ferenced document (including any amendments) applies ISO 18458, Biomimetics — Terminology, concepts and methodology Terms and definitions For the purposes o f this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO 18458 and the following apply 3.1 adaptivity ability to adapt to variable environmental conditions 3.2 e fficiency relationship between the use ful outputs to all inputs o f a system 3.3 generative manufacturing process manu facturing process in which three-dimensional components are produced, for instance, by applying material layer-by-layer Note to entry: These technologies can be used in four di fferent levels o f manu facturing: — Concept model (additive manu facturing): A mechanical load cannot be applied to these models and they only serve to provide a three-dimensional view © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 845 7: 01 6(E) — Functional models (additive manufacturing): These models have properties similar to those available in the components manufactured later on in mass-production — Tools (rapid tooling): Tools are created that can be combined with other manufacturing processes — Low volume production (rapid manufacturing): The properties of the geometries manufactured correspond to those desired in actual use gradient transition gradual transition direction-dependent, continuous change o f a chemical, physical, or mechanical property Note to entry: Biological materials are o ften characterized by gradual transitions in terms o f their physical and mechanical properties, which are achieved through structural changes at various hierarchical levels, among other things 3.5 compatibility recyclability and adaptability o f a material flow or a technology in the environment modularity composition o f an overall system from individual modules multifunctionality structure and properties o f a material and component allowing several functions necessary for the organism or technically desired to be realized at a high level and in equilibrium 3.8 redundancy existence o f functionally comparable systems, whereby one system alone is su fficient to maintain the corresponding function (multiplicity in systems) resilience fault tolerance tolerance o f a system to mal functions or capacity to recover functionality a fter stress 10 Self-X property property and in formation existing in a material or on a sur face proceed processes autonomously without requiring special control Note to entry: Sel f-X properties are widespread in biological materials and sur faces and are o f great interest for trans fer to technical products Examples include sel f-organization, sel f-assembly, sel f-repair, sel f-healing, sel f- cleaning, and self-sharpening 11 stereoregularity tacticity certain geometric regularity in the molecular structure o f polymer chains Note to entry: Macromolecular materials with identical chemical compositions can have significantly di fferent mechanical properties due to differences in the spatial arrangement of their atoms and groups of atoms In chemical production techniques, the molecular geometry o f polymer chains is determined during polymerization by the reaction temperature selected and the catalyst used Note to entry: A classic example from nature is polyisoprene, which can be elastic (natural rubber), as well as hard (balata, gutta-percha) © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 18457:2016(E) Abbreviated terms AES AFM CT DSC DTA GC GC-MS/MS GPC HPLC IR LC-MS/MS MALDI-MS NMR OM SEM SEM-EDS SIM SIMS SPM TEM TOF-SIMS UVVIS Auger Electron Spectroscopy XPS X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy XRF X-ray Fluorescence Analysis Atomic Force Microscope Computed Tomography Di fferential Scanning Calorimetry Di fferential Thermal Analysis Gas Chromatography Gas Chromatography-tandem Mass Spectrometry Gel Permeation Chromatography High per formance liquid chromatography In frared Spectroscopy Liquid Chromatography-tandem Mass Spectrometry Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Mass Spectrometry Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Optical microscope Scanning Electron Microscope Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersion Spectroscopy Structured Illumination Microscopy Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry Scanning Probe Microscope Transmission Electron Microscope Time-o f-Flight Secondary Mass Spectrometry Ultra Violet Visible Biological materials 5.1 Characteristics 5.1.1 General The terms material and structure sometimes have di fferent meanings in biology and in technology Classic technical materials are often considered to be homogeneous, so that it is reasonable and permissible to assume in calculations and for manufacturing purposes that the model is isotropic © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 18457:2016(E) Technical materials rely mostly on chemistry for their properties whereas biological materials rely on structure and are almost invariably composite Owing to their hierarchical structure from the molecular to the macroscopic level, it is not possible to clearly distinguish between the terms “material” and “structure” in the field o f biology For this reason, the term “material” is used in the following as a general term for all biological materials with their respective structures Some characteristics of biological materials that are relevant to biomimetic implementations are listed in Table Table — Characteristics of biological materials Characteristics Properties Multi functionality Hierarchy Fault and failure tolerance (resilience and redundancy) Sel f-X Adaptivity Compatibility Biological Example Wood: integration of water Biological materials are often multicriteria-optimized Wood: at least five A special feature of the hierarchical design of biological materials is that structural or (bio) chemical changes in pipes, strength, damping, storage, among other things structural levels, from the molecular structure of the cell wall to the structure of the tree trunk Bones : ample breaking strength, tolerance to micro-cracks, crack stoppers Rubber tree: self-repair Teeth of rodents : self-sharpening Surface of leaves : self-cleaning Lifespan according to needs Gradual transitions and possess a high- function density, and they o ften combine supposedly conflicting functions one level lead to specific adaptations in the other hierarchy levels This level spanning adaptability permits a wide variety o f di fferent functions Biological materials can handle a high level of faults and damage be fore they fail as a whole Biological materials are able to generate and maintain without external control their complex functions autonomously, meaning, Biological materials can react to changes in environmental conditions by changing their form or example, nastic movements through growth and restructuring processes and tropism Walls of plant cells : Availability/biodegradability o f the biological build consist almost exclusively ing blocks Bones : load adaptivity Plant motion : for o f carbon, oxygen and hydrogen Modularity Explanations Organization of organs: composition of several different tissues Tree: dropping of leaves Many biological materials, for example, plant stems (e.g fibre/substrate tissue transitions), long bones (such as cortical/cancellous bone transitions), bone/ tendon/ muscle transitions The waste products produced are rarely pollutants The waste products are in fact biodegradable and recyclable Repetition of identical basic units at different hierarchical levels Important properties are maintained through renewal The lifespans of individual components match, and the components are renewed Prevention of sudden transitions between properties to increase the lifespan and tolerance to damage © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 845 7: 01 6(E) are separated by large hollow spaces due to wedge-shaped strengthening structures between these spaces These stabilizing elements are reminiscent of T-beams This sandwiched design is a lightweight construction with high specific flexural strength and buckling stability that uses the least amount o f material possible[24][25] a) Cross section of the stem of the winter horsetail b) Technical plant s tem Figure A — Cross section of the s tem of the winter horsetail and technical plant s tem A.7 Orthopaedic screw In addition to the material properties and the load, the macroscopic design is also a very important factor in the lifespan and failure of biological structures and technical components[26] Biological structures, there fore, can adapt their design through load-adaptive growth when subjected to a mechanical load according to the “axiom o f constant stress”[27] According to this axiom, an equal distribution of the stress on the component sur face is achieved through growth at highly loaded areas and optionally through shrinkage at underloaded areas The component as a whole is capable of bearing a higher load aided optimization) method To accomplish this, the load-adaptive growth like that of the natural model, the tree, is simulated on a computer with the help o f special so ftware for stress analysis o f components so that the mechanical stresses can be homogenized and reduced during the design phase Figure A.4 a) shows a treated spine Its damaged section is supported and relieved of load by placing a plate over it To fasten the implant in place, orthopaedic screws (pedicle screws) are inserted in the vertebral arch The load is trans ferred by the screws from the bone into the implant and vice-versa Figure A.4 b) shows fragments of pedicle screws This failure could not be avoided by using larger screws and its li fespan is increased as a result This has been implemented technically in the CAO (computer (due to anatomical conditions) or by using a better material (due to biocompatibility requirements) One cause o f the breakage was found in the design o f the thread root o f the screw Mechanically speaking, the thread o f a screw is a helically wound annular notch The non-optimized design was rounded o ff using arcs in the thread root, which cause high notch stresses to arise By optimizing the shape with the CAO method, the notch stress was eliminated a fter just a few growth phases The optimized shape o f the thread o f the pedicle screw is practically without notch stress; see Figure A.4 c) Experimental verification in flexural fatigue tests showed that the optimized screw did not exhibit any visible crack formation even though it had a li fespan o f 20 times more load cycles than the non- optimized screw; see Figure A.4 d) The danger of the implant breaking is reduced to a minimum through optimization based on principles of biological growth 24 © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 18457:2016(E) a) X-ray image of a human spine with implant c) Comparison of the d) Comparison of a stress analyses on CAO optimized pedicle the model of a CAO screw and a convenoptimized screw and tional pedicle screw a conventional screw Load cycles determined f in experiments using element method f b) Fragments of broken pedicle screws w i t h h e l p o t h e f i n i t e f l e x u r a l a t i g u e t e s t i n g Key a b o p timized s crew: no failure a fter 0 0 0 lo ad cycles co nventio nal s crew: failure a fter 2 0 0 lo ad cycles Low stress High stress Figure A.4 — Orthopaedic screw A.8 Biomimetic manufacturing techniques for materials and components I n many c a s e s , a biom i me tic materi a l or comp onent i s ma nu fac ture d u s i ng conventiona l manu fac tu ri ng te ch n ique s T he s e te ch n ique s i nclude c a s ti ng , e xtru s ion, and la m i nati ng te ch n ique s , a wide va rie ty mach i ni ng a nd j oi n i ng te ch n ique s , a s wel l a s s i nteri ng te ch n ique s I n the s e top - down te ch nolo gie s , the fi na l form prel i m i nar y o f the comp onent i s manu fac tu re d form from a l argely homo gene ou s materi a l or a flowab le i s p ou re d i nto a mou ld where it h arden s If materials and components are to be manufactured to have an internal structure and composition that h as b e en lo c a l ly op ti m i z e d to manu fac tu ri ng te ch n ique s applyi ng me e t the the re qu i rements b o ttom-up o f the pri nc iple are p ar tic u lar appl ic ation, ne ce s s a r y T he s e then new manu fac tu ri ng te ch n ique s s l l b e able to p a r ti a l ly or comple tely mo del as p e c ts o f biolo gic a l grow th, s uch as cel l division, growth, differentiation, and specialization, as well as the formation of functional units (organs) and complete organisms including their genetic controls The special challenge in this case is to ma nu fac ture acro s s a nge o f s c a le s , ide a l ly s ta r ti ng at the mole c u lar level, th at i ntegrate s s evera l h ierarchy level s a nd aggregate s to a comp lex overa l l s ys tem Important bottom-up methods that have become established methods for the most part include the generative manu fac tu ri ng pro ce s s ( previou sly re ferre d to a s rapid pro to typi ng or rapid ma nu fac turi ng) I n contra s t to mou ld i ng , c as ti ng , or s ub trac tive ma nu fac turi ng pro ce s s e s (c utti ng) , the e fficienc y o f generative manufacturing process is less affected as the piece count decreases, the individualization o f pro duc tion i ncre as e s , and the comple xity o f the comp onent ge ome tr y i ncre as e s D ue to the l ayer-b y- layer ma nu fac turi ng te ch n ique, it i s p o s s ible to s truc t obj e c ts b y s tar ti ng s ma l l and i nc re a s i ng the © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved 25 ISO 18457:2016(E) scale, just like in nature, which significantly raises the potential for the development o f new types o f materials and components with locally varying compositions and properties The refinement o f conventional methods can also lead to manu facturing techniques having an especially great potential for manu facturing biomimetic components Fibre composite materials, for which a wide variety o f biological systems can be found, especially in plants, are used in technology and especially in the transportation industry where high sti ffness and strength and low weight is required The pultrusion technique is especially suited for the manu facture o f endless fibre composite profiles in one step This technique can also be used to process duroplastic and thermoplastic matrices If a braiding machine is integrated, then the process is referred to as the braiding pultrusion technique (see Figure A.5 ) With the braiding technique, it is possible to introduce helical fibres into the structure so that the profiles are also very well suited to handle torsional forces This technique is used to manufacture technical plant stems[24] Figure A.5 — Braiding pultrusion technique A.9 Structural colour butterflies have wings coloured in vibrant cobalt-blue; see Figure A.6 a) These colours are known to be caused by structural coloration The Morpho’s wings have lamellate structure which shows Morpho optical interference effects; see Figure A.6 b) The lamellate structure of their wing scales has been studied as a model in the development of biomimetic fabrics Morphotex®2) is the world’s first optical colouring fibre, inspired by the structural coloration o f Morpho butterflies[29] From the abstraction of the mechanism o f structural colour, optical inter ference colours were created by stacking two polymers having di fferent re fractive indices This fibre comprises 61 polyester and nylon in alternating layers in which controlled thickness is from 70 nm to 100 nm, because the optical index difference between polyester and nylon is 0,5 Although no dyes or pigments are used, four types o f basic colours such as red, green, blue, and violet are created based on the precisely controlling thickness and structure o f fibres (see Figure A.7 ) The fibre has various applications in a wide range o f fields, not limited to fabric or knitting, but reaching those of painting, and cosmetics 2) Morphotex® is the trademark o f a product supplied by Teijin Fibers Limited This information is given for the convenience o f users o f this document and does not constitute an endorsement by ISO o f the product named Equivalent products may be used if they can be shown to lead to the same results 26 © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 845 7: 01 6(E) a ) F i g u r e M A o r p h — o M b o u r t p t e h r o f l b b) y u t t e r f l y a n d l a m e l l a t Lamellate structure of the wing scales e s t r u c t u r e o f [2 8] t h e w i n g s c a l e s Figure A.7 — Cross section of technical s tructural colour[3 0] A A n t i - r e f l e c t i o n s t r u c t u r e s T he anti-refle c tion s truc tu re s c u rrently i n u s e are pro duce d b y a combi nation o f layers with h igh and low i nd ice s o f re frac tion T he refi nement o f layere d s ys tem s le ad s to the development o f the mo s t ff Figure A.8 The effect of these structures is due to a f f f interesting in terms of cost reduction aspects, for example Instead of needing several coating steps, this f f f Figure A.8) Mould manufacturing is one of the most essential technologies in these approaches[33] In the ideal case, the structuring step can be combined with the manufacturing process of the component wel l-known exa mp le o f p erio d ic na no s truc ture s , the have p erio d ic nano s tr uc tu re s that s how low refle c tion conti nuou s cha nge o the i ndex o mo th- eye [32] e ect (s e e the mo th- eye s truc ture s © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved M o th- eye s re rac tion b e twe en a i r a nd s ub s trate s Such s tr uc tu re s a re te ch n ic a l ly layer ca n b e re a l i z e d i n a s i ngle mou ld i ng s tep Re cently, res e arch and development pro duc tion o ) or the i ndu s tri a l or a nti-refle c tion s b e en adva nce d (s e e 27 ISO 845 7: 01 6(E) a) Moth b) Moth- eye s tructures Figure A — Moth and moth- eye structures [3 1] A.1 Adhesive tape A biomimetic reversible adhesive tape is an example o f biomimetic development by biology push The excellent adhesion/detachment qualities o f the gecko foot have attracted particular attention recently It is possible for the gecko to stick per fectly to a sur face without the need for a secretory substance corresponding to an adhesive and to move in three dimensions, even on flat sur faces, such as window glass, where nails are ineffective (see Figure A.9) The adhesive force is thought to be controlled by an intermolecular force (Van der Waals force) that occurs between the gecko foot and the target surface[35] Since the adhesion energy when the Van der Waals force works between two flat surfaces in contact is inversely proportional to the square o f the separation, the way in which the sur faces are made to approach each other is important Many researchers have developed sur faces with synthetic setae based on the principles o f gecko footpads, allowing the design principles and mechanical/adhesion properties to be studied (see Figure A.10) However, most manu facturing methods are expensive, making it di fficult to produce a large surface area 28 © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 845 7: 01 6(E) a) c ) Gecko adhered on a plas tic plate H a i r y s t r u c t u r e o n t h e f i n g e r b) d) Gecko’s foot Spatular tips of a single gecko seta Figure A.9 — Adhesion and detachment qualities of the gecko foot[3 4] a) c) Column type Slant type b) d) Mushroom type H ierarchical s tructure Figure A.10 — Various technical hairy structures [3 4] A.1 Innovation process for the manufacture of self-cleaning plastic parts The innovation process for the manufacture of self-cleaning plastic parts is an example of an industrial application o f biomimetics To open up new markets, products that are both beneficial to customers and have acceptable manu facturing costs are needed, but especially that have “unique features”, i.e features that the competition does not offer A chemical corporation was searching for an innovative way to increase the value o f its technical plastics portfolio, and for this reason, a group o f developers approached biologists Their intention was to trans fer a property found in a biological material to products produced synthetically with methods used in the plastics processing industry Biologists have observed that the sur faces o f certain plants, notably the leaves o f the lotus plant, always appear to be clean To explain this phenomenon, it was suggested that the surfaces of lotus leaves are self- cleaning Particles o f dust and spores from harm ful organisms deposited accidentally, or deliberately, are absorbed by water droplets from rain Due to the strong water repellency o f the lotus leaves, these droplets roll o ff easily, carrying contaminants with them Analysis revealed that the sel f- © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved 29 ISO 845 7: 01 6(E) cleaning surfaces are rough in the nano-micrometre range The roughness consists of bumps of wax whose chemical composition and geometric dimensions, as well as the conditions under which they are created, were studied Measurement o f the wetting properties by determining the wetting angle and rolling angle, using various test liquids such as water, di-iodomethane, and hexadecane yielded a determination o f the sur face energy Scientists and engineers defined sur faces which are extremely water repellent, like the sur face o f a lotus lea f, as “superhydrophobic” sur faces The chemical company then obtained a license for commercial use from the owner of the patent The industrial researchers cooperated with biologists in the framework of the license agreement The goal of the industrial company was to manu facture synthetic mass market products from plastic by exploiting the sel fcleaning principle discovered in nature Application-oriented research in industry: a) Test series: Creation of various geometric structures on the surface of a selected technical plastic Despite the considerable time and resources expended, it was impossible to duplicate the per formance o f the biological system The knowledge gained was that superhydrophobic sur faces cannot be created using geometric structures alone b) Test series: Variations o f the sur face energy o f the structured sur faces through the selection o f suitable copolymers, or through modification o f the sur face using low-energy molecules The results were closer to the goal, and the first patents were applied for c) Test series: Anchoring irregularly structured hydrophobic particles in the nanometre range to plastic surfaces Success was achieved, and there are more than 20 patent applications relating to nanostructured metal oxides for the creation o f the superhydrophobic plastics d) Trans fer to mass production: Cooperation with an expert institution The plastic polymers and the particles needed to modi fy the sur face are fused together in an injection mould In summary, the organic/biological system was success fully reproduced at great expense in terms o f the research required, using materials manu factured chemically The industrially manu factured products modelled after the lotus leaf have several advantages over their biological counterparts in terms o f their technical parameters Recently, several products, such as toys, paints for communication wires, antennas, bridges, anti-adsorption of ice/snow, ships, and textiles (for rain coats and umbrellas) have been developed 30 © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 18457:2016(E) Annex B (informative) Analytical methods B.1 Overview of analytical methods Per formances o f biological systems are various There fore, it is necessary to per form analysis suitable for aim In Table B.1 and Table B.2,[4] purposes of analysis on the investigations of performance of biological systems and examples o f analysis methodologies are listed Eight purposes o f analysis are introduced in Table B.2 The mechanical property and the optical property are originally included in the physical property, here they are listed in Table B.1 independently There are numerous examples o f research and development in biomimetics inspired by a per formance o f biological systems Research and development are guided by progress o f the observation, analysis and manu facturing technologies (analysis technologies as listed in Table B.2) Figure B.1 shows typical analysis methods at various hierarchy levels at the example o f wood/fibres Table B.1 — Purpose of analysis on the investigations of performances of biological systems No Performances a) Materials Anti-reflection, structural colour, photonics Luminescence Lightweight structure Wettability Mechanical properties o f a bistable Dynamics system Adhesion and attachment Fluid dynamics Electrical properties/ isolator, electricity generation 10 Impact absorption 11 Bio-template 12 Tube structure 13 Surface tension 14 Unidirectional b) Process 15 Bio-mineral 16 Photosynthesis a b c Purpose of analysis d e f g x x h Morpholo- Mechani- Optical Other Chemi- Behav- Bio-log- Biogy/ cal prop- proper- physical cal/ iour ical logical structure erties ties proper- elemen- analysis charac- activity ties tal charterization acterization x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x NOTE This table is linked to Table Numbers from to 56 in this table correspond to numbers from to 56 in Table © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved 31 ISO 18457:2016(E) Table B.1 (continued) No 17 18 19 20 21 Performances Organic synthesis Processing Metabolism Micro-mist Abscission c) Self-X 22 23 24 25 26 27 a b x x x x x x x x x Scattering Self-organization Self-healing, self-repair Sel f-assembly Self-cleaning Self-sharpening Ocular vision/visible light, in frared, specific wavelength 29 Olfaction sense, 30 Tactile mechanoreceptor 31 Taste sensation sense/ultrasonic 32 Auditory waves, low frequency 33 Magnetic sensor 34 Force sensor 28 e) Hydrodynamics 35 Buoyancy x x x x x x 36 Lift 37 Driving force 38 Fluid resistance 39 Friction control 40 Temperature control 41 Moisture control x x x f) Saving energy, saving resources Circulatory 42 (sustainability)/ adaptability for recycling, degradability g) Adaptability to the environment x x x x x x x x x x Desiccation tolerance Cold-resistance Acid or alkali tolerant High-temperature tolerance Purpose of analysis d e f g h Morpholo- Mechani- Optical Other Chemi- Behav- Bio-log- Biogy/ cal prop- proper- physical cal/ iour ical logical structure erties ties proper- elemen- analysis charac- activity terization ties tal characterization x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x d) Sensor 43 44 45 46 c x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x NOTE This table is linked to Table Numbers from to 56 in this table correspond to numbers from to 56 in Table 32 © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 18457:2016(E) Table B.1 (continued) No Performances 47 High temperature use 48 Ultraviolet resistance h) Behaviour, ecology shape, 49 Mimicry/colour, chemical camouflage 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 a b c Purpose of analysis d e f g h Morpholo- Mechani- Optical Other Chemi- Behav- Bio-log- Biogy/ cal prop- proper- physical cal/ iour ical logical structure erties ties proper- elemen- analysis charac- activity terization ties tal characterization x x x x x x Manipulation Energy saving x x x x Clash avoidance Pollinator x x x x x x Sociality Natural enemy Defence x x x x x x x x NOTE This table is linked to Table Numbers from to 56 in this table correspond to numbers from to 56 in Table Table B.2 — Purpose of analysis on the investigations of performances of biological systems and examples of analysis methodologies No Purpose of analysis a Morphology/structure b Mechanical properties c Optical properties d Other physical properties e Chemical/elemental characterization f Behaviour analysis g Biological characterization h Biological activity Analysis methodologies OM, SEM, TEM, SPM, X-ray, CT, tomography, SIM, focal laser scanning microscope, multiphoton excitation fluorescence microscope Mechanical test, viscosity/viscoelasticity measuring instruments, nano, micro indentor, Vickers hardness test, pencil hardness, AFM friction force microscope, SPM Spectrophotometer, confocal laser scanning microscope, fluorometer, polarization measuring instruments, reflectome ter, UVVIS, ellipsometer Contact angle meter, thermal conductivity meter, impedance analyser, DTA, DSC, sound meter, frequency analyser, magnetism, air capacity, measurement o f moisture content NMR, IR, mass spectroscopy, X-ray, Raman, XPS, TOF-SIMS, XRF, SEM-EDS, SIMS, AES, neutron scattering, zeta-potential, GPC, GC High speed camera, computer simulation, wind-tunnel tests, special equipment, video analysis, behaviour analysis HPLC, LC-MS/MS, DNA sequencing, MALDI-MS, amino acid analyser HPLC, LC-MS/MS, GC-MS/MS NOTE This table is linked to Table B.1 Letters a to h in this table correspond to letters a to h in Table B.1 © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved 33 ISO 18457:2016(E) integral level — mechanical tests — analysis o f the geometry and sur face optimization macroscopic level — light microscopy — mechanical tests — sur face analysis (roughness) microscopic level — light microscopy — tomography — micromechanical tests submicroscopic level — scanning electron microscopy (SEM ESEM) — transmission electron microscopy (TEM) — micromechanical tests — nanoindentation — scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) — sur face analysis (boundary sur face, roughness, etc.) — multiphoton microscopy biochemical level — — — — — chemical analysis spectroscopic analysis (FT-IR, Raman, UV) atomic force microscopy (AFM) transmission electron microscopy (TEM) X-ray scattering methods — Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Key axial structure tissue structure cell structure cell wall macromolecules Figure B.1 — Typical analysis methods at various hierarchy levels shown in the example of Figure for scale) w o 34 o d / f i b r e s ( s e e © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved ISO 18457:2016(E) B.2 Measurement and characterization of biological and biomimetic surfaces B.2.1 General Since the lotus e ffect was identified, sur face engineering and research for the super-liquid-repelling surfaces became popular in biomimetics Afterwards, diverse surface engineering and treatment techniques have been widely developed to trans fer the newly discovered principles o f nature into technical application However, measurement and characterization of biological and biomimetic surfaces are broader and more complicated than those of engineering materials When the normal analytical methods apply to such measurements, there are many issues because the properties o f natural surfaces often depend on the context in nature where the surface is found B.2.2 Wettability Wings o f insects or sur face o f leaves are wavy and bent, and sur face is rough The normal contact angle measurement is not adopted to evaluate the water repellency, because the hidden contact line o f the solid phase-liquid phase-gas phase is di fficult to observe from the cross direction A numerical analysis would be that contact angles at the hidden contact line can be measured, and averaged contact angle along the irregular contact line can be provided There fore, a numerical analysis can be a tool for measurement and characterization of biological and biomimetic surfaces B.2.3 Morphology/structure The specimen is normally located in the vacuum chamber in order to observe the sur face using SEM Most organisms can only survive under atmospheric pressure The reduced pressure o f a high vacuum leads to rapid dehydration and death The morphological structure was also o ften broken under vacuum condition In the study o f biology, there is a “nano-suit” method as a technique to observe the living animal using SEM[32] This “nano-suit” method can be a power ful tool to observe biological sur face The “nano-suit” method is carried out by a simple sur face modification, which is covered by a thin polymerized extra layer on the sur face o f the animal, which can render organisms strongly tolerant to high vacuum The layer acts as a flexible “nano-suit” barrier to the passage o f gases and liquids and thus protects the organism B.2.4 Mechanical analysis The sur face o f an organism is not uni form; there are directions o f the sur face structure in many cases For example, when measuring the coe fficient o f friction, there is a need for measurement in accordance with the direction of the surface structure of the organism © ISO 2016 – All rights reserved 35 ISO 18457:2016(E) Bibliography [1] VDI 6224Part 2:2012-08, Bionic optimization; Application of biological growth laws for the structure-mechanical optimization of technical components Berlin: Beuth Verlag [2] M asselter T., B arthlott W., B auer G., B ertling J., C ich y F., D i tsche-Kuru P J nippers, J Lienhard, R Luchsinger, K Lunz, C Mattheck, M Milwich, N Mölders, C Neinhuis, A Nellesen, S Poppinga, M Rechberger, S Schleicher, C Schmitt, H Schwager, R Seidel, O Speck, T Stegmaier, I Tesari, M Thielen & T Speck: Biomimetic products - In: Y Bar-Cohen (ed.) , Biomimetics: nature-based innovation, 377-429 CRC Press / Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, London, New York, 2012 Vincen t J.F.V., B ogat yre va O.A., B ogat yre v N.R., B owyer A., Pahl A.-K Biomimetics : its practice and theory J R Soc Interface 2006, (9) pp 471–482 H osoda N., I su H., Uotzu Y., S ano N., Takanashi T., Tsubaki R The trend of the materialsbased biomimetics study and future development, 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